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THE     AETIZAN 


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Jjtoitijflg  ftfturnal 


OF 


THE     OPERATIVE     ARTS. 


VOL.     X. 


LONDON: 
OEPICE  OF  "THE  ARTIZAN"  JOURNAL,  69,  CORNHILL 

1852. 


LONDON : 

WATERLOW  AND  SONS,  PEINTEE! 

LONDON  "WALL. 


INDEX     TO     VOL 


THE  ARTIZAN  JOURNAL,  1852. 


A. 

Acids,  their  estimation  in  the  juices  of  fruits,  1/9 

African  mail  contract,  41 

Agricultural  Operations  and  Engineering:  Ewart 
on  constructing  cattle  lairs,  16;  Sorby's  scythes, 
18 ;  seed-planting  barrow,  58 ;  drill  tooth,  planting- 
cylinder,  seed-distributing  apparatus,  cart  for 
spreading  manure,  harvesters,  machine  to  harvest 
cotton  stalks,  grain  and  grass  harvesters,  corn- 
stalk harvester,  grain  binder,  machine  to  harvest 
hemp,  machine  for  harvesting  maize  or  grain, 
grass  harvester,  horse  rakes,  machine  for  binding 
grain,  59 ;  thrashing  machines  and  grain  separa- 
tors, 60;  grain-hulling  machine,  garlic  machine, 
straw-cutter,  84;  Usher's  steam  plough,  105; 
report  of  the  distribution  of  liquid  manure  by 
steam  power  at  Liscard  Farm,  106  ;  report  on 
the  application  of  liquid  manure  by  steam  at 
Edinburgh,  150;  report  of  the  Lewes  Exhibition: 
duty  of  portable  engines,  Batley's  portable  engine, 
Kansomes  and  Sims'  spherical  locking  plate, 
Batley's  horizontal  fixed  engine,  Tasker  and 
Eowle's  water  lift,  Urwin's  double-acting  pump, 
hints  for  improvements  in  reaping  machines, 
Mason's  new  reaping  machine,  Hill  and  Co.'s 
wire-joint  fence,  Hill  and  Co.'s  sheep  hurdle, 
Hill  and  Co.'s  rising-hinged  gate,  wrought-iron 
crane,  164 — 168;  fixed  versus  portable  engines, 
a  visit  to  Lord  Willoughby's  and  Mr.  Mechi's 
farms,  189 — 190  ;  cart  for  distributing  manure, 
208  ;  portable  steam-engine,  M.  Bennes',  219  ; 
application  of  liquid  manure,  237;  portable  en- 
gines, Clayton's,  238  ;  corn  mill  by  do.,  288 ; 
Boyd's  adjustable  scythe,  Lomax's  chaff-cutter, 
Mechi  on  the  effects  of  liquid  manure,  Fogden's 
manure  distributor,  H.  Clayton's  brick  machine, 
266-7 

Air-pump  bucket,  improved  valve  for,  51 

Air-vessels,  experiments  on  the  effect  of  their'em- 
ployment  on  the  suction  pipes  of  pumps  by^ 
Kirchweger  and  Prusman,  215 

Alarm,  fire  and  burglary,  Giles's,  67 

Alloy  for  plates  used  in  calico  printing  used  at 
Ghent,  199 

Alluvial  formations,  Redman  on,  14,  38 

Alum,  its  manufacture  from  the  green-sand  forma- 
tion, 85 

Alumina,  preparation  of  sulphate^of,  247 

Amazon,  loss  of  the,  41 

American  invention,  progress  of,  33,  57,  84 

American  patents,  abstract  of,  37,  113,  137,  185 

Arctic,  remarks  on  the  performance  of,  by  Mr. 
Isherwood,  273 

Arrogant,  remarks  on  the,  203 

Arsenic,  antimony,  and  tin,  their'separation,  Anscll's 
process,  199 

Arsenic,  its  presence  in  vegetable  matter,  9 

Arsenical  and  antimonial  spots,  distinguishing  re- 
actions of,  199 

Arsenious  acid,  its  combination  with  albumen,  9 


Art,  a  lost,  printing  from  copper-plates  with  altered 

dimensions,  200 
Axes  in  Canada,  139 

B. 

Baths  and  washhouses  at  Hawick,  15 

Bath,  Culvcrwell's  portable  vapour,  254 

Bath,  Adams'  Victoria  rogia,  19 

Barnes,  memoir  of  Mr.,  269 

Beer  valve,  Glyde's,  138 

Beet-root  beer,  136 

Beet  sugar,  its  adaptation  to  the  soil  and  climate  of 
Ireland,  46,  79 ;  history  of  the  rise  and  progress 
of  the  manufacture  of,  in  Erance,  with  plans  of  the 
most  approved  machinery  employed,  general  plans 
of  factories,  &c,  by  M.  Dewilde,  C.E.,  translated 
from  the  Erench  of  Armengaud  Aine,  125,  146, 
188,  212,  253 

Bellows,  Wright's  circular,  67 

Benzoic  acid,  its  preparation  by  sublimation,  151 

Birkenhead,  the  loss  of,  110 

Birkenhead,  iron  versus  wood,  111 

Bleaching,  improvements  in,  193 

Bleu  de  Erance,  its  production  on  wool,  268 

Blow  off,  Copeland's,  for  Marine  boilers,  74 

Boats,  safety  plug  for,  203 

Boats,  improvements  in  lowering  ships'  boats, 
Lacon's,  71,  Russell's,  262 

Boilers  :  On  measuring  the  evaporation  of,  8  ; 
Ashworth's  patent  for  preventing  incrustation 
of,  8  ;  Slate's  improvements  in,  8  ;  Lamb  and 
Summers'  sheet  flue,  50,  207  ;  Erench  water- 
tube  boilers,  56  ;  Bartol  on  marine,  64  ;  com- 
parison of  English  and  American,  marine,  in 
Franklin  and  Hydra,  69;  Moulfarine's  revolving 
grate  for,  70 ;  Copeland's  blow-off  for  marine, 
74  ;  J.  Scott  Russell  and  Lord  Dundonald  on 
marine,  87  ;  Boutigny  on  a  new  boiler,  87  ; 
Water-space  angle  iron  for  fire-box  boilers,  114  ; 
Delandre's  process  for  preventing  incrustation, 
126  ;  Galloway's,  217  ;  use  of  coal  tar  in,  39  ; 
boilers  in  Lancashire,  43  ;  Dangerfield's  safety- 
valve  and  water  indicator,  241  ;  water  gauges, 
123,  195,  254  ;  causes  of  explosion  in  America, 
70 ;  Fairbairn's  claims  to  be  considered  the 
inventor  of  the  boilers  made  by  him,  224  ; 
Mills'  patent,  234  ;  use  of  charcoal  to  prevent 
incrustation,  276;  efficiency  of  heating  surface; 
comparative  value  of  fire  tubes  and  water  tubes  ; 
results  of  American  experience  with  ditto,  258  ; 
of  the  Arctic,  273 

Boiler  tubes,  Prosser's  improved,  208 

Boring  machinery  for  mines,  Cave's  steam,  214 

Boot  and  shoe  cleaner,  Young's,  19 

Boot-jack,  improved  American,  208 

Bran,  acids  found  in,  268 

Bricks,  Austin's,  for  British  bond,  115;  Moon's 
patent,  for  chimneys,  127;  Roberts's  hollow,  160 

Brick-making  machine,  li.  Clayton's  patent,  267 

Brick-die,  Fowler's,  160 


Brickwork,  Paris's  hollow,  44 

Bridge,  the  Freiburg  suspension,  27 

Bridge,  suspension,  over  the  Niagara,  details  of,  275 

Briet's  gazogene  apparatus,  254 

Brushes,  improved  convertible,  208 

Building  societies,  their  defects,  with  suggestions 
for  their  improvement,  245,  270 

Building  arts  :  Agricultural  buildings,  7  ;  Forbes' 
drain  pavement,  5  ;  construction  of  cattle  lairs, 
16;  suspension  bridges:  Freiburg,  27;  Niagara, 
275  ;  Paris's  hollow  brickwork,  44  ;  ventilation 
by  the  parlour  fire,  87,  108  ;  bursting  of  the 
Holmfirth  reservoir,  81  ;  preservation  of  the 
Crystal  Palace,  111  ;  Austin's  British  bond 
bricks,  115  ;  Doulton's  invert  for  sewers,  115; 
Moon's  hollow  chimney  bricks,  127  ;  construc- 
tion of  sewers  in  Norway,  160;  Roberts's  hollow 
bricks,  160  ;  Fowler's  brick  die,  160  ;  Savage's 
door  spring,  209;  Symon's  convertible  plane, 
18;  Switzer's  screw  driver,  274;  manufacturing 
progress  in  England,  "the  Atlas  Works,  Shef- 
field," 250  ;  Clayton's  patent  pipe  joint,  254; 
composition  of  ancient  mortar,  275  ;  Clayton's 
brick-making  machine,  267 

Bullet  mould,  Beckwith's,  76 

Bullets  and  bullet  moulds,  improvements  in,  124 

Burning  fluids,  danger  of  using,  from  their  explosive 
character,  153 

C. 

Caloric  engine,  notes  on  Ericsson's,  207,  255 
Canals,  steam  haulage  on,  75,  108,  139 
Candles,  the  manufacture  of  stearic,  197,  225 
Caoutchouc  and  gutta  percha,  Moulton's  patent  for 

vulcanising  caoutchouc,  66 ;  Payen's  examination 

of  its  properties,  126 
Caoutchouc,  use  of  zinc  for  vulcanising,  85 
Carding  engine  for  wool,   Mason's,   171,  236 ;  a 

new,  192 
Carrett's  steam  pump,  185 
Cart  for  distributing  manure,  &c,  208 
Chaff-cutters,  American,  84 
Chaff-cutter,  Lomax's  patent,  266 
Chairs,  Reed's  cast-iron  railway,  170 
Chairs,  convertible,  85 
Channels  for  investment;   list  of  new  companies; 

amount  of  shares  and  capital,  159,  185,  255,  275 
Charcoal,  its  deodorising  powers,  110 
China  stone  and  china  clays  of  Cornwall,  247 
Chloride  of  manganese ;  its  reconversion  into  the 

peroxide,  9 
Chloroform,  new  source  of,  80 
Chrome  ores,  Calvert's  analysis  of,  199 
Clyde  trust,  engineer  to  the,  139 
Coal,  its  use  in  locomotives  in  Austria;  precautions 

required;  evaporative  power  of,  193 
Coal,  American  cars  for,  37 
Cock,  Crcssall's  steam,  138 
Cocks,  Chrimes'  high-pressure,  91 
C.^.liver  oil,  67,  247 


IV 


Index. 


Coke,  how  to  use  it  for  house  fires,  139 

Condenser,  Mason's  for  wool  carding,  236 

Condenser,  American  surface,  58 

Corn  mill,  by  M.  Delnest,  5 

Copper,  its  extraction  from  the  ore  by  ammonia,  a 
convenient  method  of  assaying,  227 

Copper,  Warrington's  test  for  minute  traces  of,  179 

Cotton  Manufactures  of  the  United  States:  Statis- 
tics of  the  Lowell  factories;  names,  capital,  mo- 
tive power,  consumption  of  coal,  cotton,  oil, 
starch,  dye  woods,  &c;  number  of  spindles, 
looms,  &c;  wages  of  operatives,  their  sex  and 
condition;  produce  per  annum,  &c.,  &c,  128 

Cotton  and  its  manufacturing  mechanism,  24,  48, 
101,  119,  144,  171,  213,  236,  260 

Cotton  Mechanism  and  its  Inventors: — 
Flax  wool,  192 

Improvements  in  bleaching,  193 
New  carding  engine,  192 

Crane,  Hill's  wrought  iron  warehouse,  168 

Crystal  Palace,  preservation  of,  111 

Cyanogen,  its  production  from  nitrogen,  9 

D. 

Dams,  notes  on  the  construction  of,  by  Capt. 
Moody,  82 ;  by  Wiggins,  129 

Defecation  of  beet-juice,  148 

Denmark,  railways  in,  139 

Dishes,  machine  to  wash,  85 

Distilling  salt  water,  Normandy  and  Fell's  patent, 
65 

Docks,  construction  of  floating,  in  U.S.,  201 

Docks,  Miller's  patent  slip,  45,  253 

Docks,  Great  Grimsby,  89;  Bristol,  269 

Door-spring,  Savage's,  209 

Dragons'  blood,  test  for,  227 

Drain  pavement,  Forbes',  5 

Drawing  and  modelling,  school  for,  9 1 

Drawing-frame,  details  of  Mr.  Mason's,  172  ; 
history  of  the  early  machines,  213 

Dredgers,  construction  of,  on  the  Clyde,  230 

Duty  of  portable  engines,  by  Hornsby,  Barrett, 
Clayton,  Garrett,  Ransomes,  Tuxford,  Batley, 
and  Cambridge,  as  tested  at  Lewes  Boyal  Agri- 
cultural Show,  164 

Dynamical  stability  of  floating  bodies,  Eawson  on, 
11 

E. 

Eccentric,  Holm's  variable,  233;  Illingworth's  ad- 
justable, 239 

Electro-plating,  Dellisse  on  the  necessary  conditions 
in  employing,  268 

Emery  paper  machine,  Fremy's,  70 

Engine-power,  on  the  calculation  of,  96 

Engineers'  strike,  6,  42 

English  patents,  abstract  of,  8,  37,  65,  112 

Ergot,  the  active  ingredient  of,  61 

Events  of  the  Month  . — Patent  law  amendment, 
gold  importation,  new  railways  and  mines,  ex- 
tension of  steam  navigation,  141 ;  liability  of 
railway  companies  to  take  every  precaution  to 
prevent  accidents,  the  Eastern  Steam  Navigation 
Company,  its  plans  and  prospects,  causes  of  boiler 
explosions  in  U.S.,  163;  railway  amalgamation, 
increase  of  dividends  by  town  lines,  commission 
suggested  to  inquire  into  the  causes  of  accidents, 
boiler  explosion  in  London,  187  ;  railways  in 
India,  their  prospects,  211  ;  prosperous  state  of 
ship  and  steam-vessel  building  trade,  engineering 
in  France,  235 ;  effect  of  new  patent  law,  Samuel's 
railway  on  the  Thames,  city  improvements,  Mr. 
Pearson's  city  railway  terminus,  257 

Exhibition,  lessons  to  be  learnt  from  the,  4 

Expansion,  Bosseha's  tables  for  calculating  effect 
of,  96 

Expansion  in  locomotives,  Samuel  on,  53,  241  ; 
Clark  on,  242 

Expansion  slide-gear.  Dudgeon's,  90 

Explosions  in  the  United  States,  134 

F. 
Filter  tap,  Rodd's,  139 
Filter,  Ransomes'  silicious  stone,  272 


Fire  arms,  modern  improvements  in :  Beckwith's 
bullet  mould  for  the  Delvigne  rifle,  76;  the 
Prussian  needle  gun,  77;  Sears'  gun;  Lancaster's 
rifle,  78;  Colt's  repeating  pistols  and  carbines, 
93 ;  effect  of  gunpowder  compared  with  that  of 
fulminating  powders,  123;  Lancaster's  oval  bore 
rifle,  124;  Hale's  stickless  rockets,  124;  Adams' 
patent  repeating  pistol,  expansive  bullet  and 
bullet  mould,  and  improved  gun  lock,  169; 
Parker  and  Field's  revolver  pistol,  with  spring 
ramrod,  203 

Fire  bars,  of  fire  clay,  208 

Fire  engine  for  ships,  73 

Fire  insurance  versus  water  supply,  96 

Fire  on  board  steam  vessels,  Dudgeon  on  the  ex- 
tinction of,  89 

Flavouring  matters  of  fruits,  their  artificial  pre- 
paration, 80 

Flax  hackles,  the  manufacture  of,  39 

Flax,  its  suitability  to  the  climate  of  Ireland,  2,  22; 
hackles  for,  39 

Flax  wool,  a  new  discovery,  192 

Floating  bodies,  dynamical  stability,  Rawson,  1 1 

Flour  mill,  Westrup's  conical,  28 

Flour  packing  machines,  208 

Fluorine,  its  detection  in  presence  of  silica,  179 

Foods,  Professor  Lindley  on  preserved,  199 

Fly  trap,  American,  85 

Forging  or  swaging  machine,  American,  137 

Freehold  Land  Society's  question,  by  Mr.  Scratch- 
ley,  245,  270 

Freshwater  apparatus  for  ships,  Copeland's  patent, 
73 

Furnace — Chanter's  moveable  fire  bar;  Juckes'; 
Hall's;  Boulton  and  Watt's  revolving,  1,  2,  31-2 

Furniture,  American  household,  85 

G. 

Gas  works,  details  of;  Great  Central  Gas  Works, 
report  on  the  quality,  130;  manufacture  of  gas 
from  wood,  126  ;  Clifton  fire  brick  retorts,  221 ; 
gas,  its  purification  in  the  retort,  85;  Goddard's 
asbestos  stove,  208;  cooking  stoves,  their  clean- 
liness and  economy  I  18 

Gates,  Hill's  self-closing,  168;  for  railways,  185 

Gauges,  water,  123,  195,  254 

Gazogene  apparatus,  Briet's,  254 

Glass,  ornamenting  with  metallic  foil,  185 

Glass  furnaces,  Deeley's,  65 

Gold  refining  in  America,  84 

Governor,  Pitcher's  hydraulic,  for  steam  engines, 
151 

Grain  elevator  and  measurer,  274 

Grape  sugar,  its  manufacture  in  America,  84 

Gums,  tests  for,  32 

Gun,  the  Prussian  needle,  77 

Gun-cotton,  its  spontaneous  decomposition,  32 

Gun-powder,  manufacture  of,  95 

Gunpowder,  steamer  for  conveying;  precautions 
adopted,  231 

Gutta  percha,  on  making  hollow  ware  of,  37 

Gutta  percha,  Payen's  examination  of  its  pro- 
perties, 126 

H. 

Hardacre's  patent  cotton  opener,  101 

Heat,  thoughts  on,  64 

Holmfirth  reservoir,  report  of  Captain  Moody,  81 

Hurdles,  wrought  iron,  for  sheep,  168 

Hvdraeids, their  direct  production  by  porous  bodies, 

"127 
Hydraulic  power,  its  economical  application,  by  a 

vertical  turbine,  to  saw  mills,  259 
Hydraulic  purchase  machinery,  Miller's,  45,  253 

I. 

Incrustation  of  boilers,  to  prevent,  8,  39 
Indicator,  continuous,  for  steam-engines,  185 
Indicator,  Grimes's  steam  and  water,  195 
Indicator  diagram,  from  the  Empire  State,  158; 

from  the  Arrogant,  205  ;  from  engines,  with  W. 

and  J.  Galloway's  patent,  217 
India-rubber,  experience  of  its  use  for  buffers,  221 


Indigo  blues,  process  for  imparting  greater  bright- 
ness to,  in  stuffs,  267 

Ink,  formula;  for  marking,  32 

Ink,  Weishaupt's  formula  for  lithographic,  268 

Insects,  their  colouring  powers,  127 

Iodine,  tests  for,  32 ;  report  on  various  methods  of 
detecting,  268 

Iodoform,  its  preparation,  227 

Ireland,  cultivation  of  beet  sugar  in  48,  79 

Irish  difficulty,  the,  2,  22,  46,  79 

Iron:  the  Cleveland  iron  district,  18;  estimation  of 
by  means  of  a  colorimeter,  Herapath's  process, 
127;  water-space  angle,  114;  Waters's  method 
of  making  sheet,  15 


Jasper,  artificial,  137 


J. 


K. 


Kamptulicon,  Bunn's,  66 
Kettle,  Hodges',  67 
Knife-and-fork-cleaning  machine,  185 

L. 

Lairs  for  cattle,  Ewart  on  construction  of,  1 6 

Lamp,  Beichenbach's  shop-front,  233 ;  Cutts's  atlas, 
252 

Lap  machine,  details  of,  144 

Lath  fastening,  Fletcher's,  138 

Leather  paper,  American,  274 

Leg,  Howells'  improved  artificial,  15 

Lithographic  ink,  M.  Weishaupt's  formula,  268 

Locomotive  making  in  France,  235  ;  effects  of 
working  with  the  link  motion,  value  of  proper 
proportions  of  parts,  as  exemplified  in  the  Great 
Western  engines,  effects  of  condensation  in  the 
cylinders,  superheated  steam,  its  economy,  by 
D.  K.  Clark,  C.E.,  242 

Locomotives,  details  of,  in  use  in  France,  265$  for 
the  North  Western,  by  M'Connell,  266 

Locomotive  engines,  on  the  use  of  coal  in,  193 

Locomotive  engineering  in  America :  use  of  wood 
fuel,  method  of  setting  tubes,  fire  grates,  steam 
domes,  their  advantages  and  disadvantages, 
spark-arresters,  glass  water  gauges  not  used, 
proportions  of  heating  surface  allowed,  arrange- 
ments for  burning  bituminous  coal,  depreciation 
of  the  link  motion,  varieties  of  valve  gear, 
pumps,  method  of  preventing  oxidation  in  the 
joints,  use  of  Babbitt's  metal  for  bearings,  rules 
for  the  management  of  engines,  general  dimen- 
sions of  engines  by  various  makers,  101 — 105; 
comparative  economy  and  efficiency  of  coal  and 
wood,  use  of  anthracite  as  fuel,  cost  of  details 
of  locomotives  and  weights,  expediency  of 
widening  existing  gauge,  cost  of  tools  for  a 
railway  repairing  shop,  117 — 119. 

Log  of  the  Glasgow,  134 

Lowell  manufactures,  statistics  of,  128 

Lubricator,  Coquatrix's,  138 

Lubricators,  Decoster's  improved,  for  shafting,  235 

M. 
Machinery,  notes  on  designing,  49 
Magnesia,  an  antidote  to  copper,  110 
Manufacturing  progress  in  England,  250 
Manure,  application  of  liquid,  by  steam  power,  106 
Manure  distributor,  Fogden's,  267 
Masts  and  spars,    American    telescopic,    37,    of 

Agamemnon,  271 
Mattrass,  the  American  anti-bug,  208 
Meat  biscuit,  Borden's,  112 
Meat,  Wedderstedt's  process  for  preserving,  113 
Mechanics'  institutes,  plan  for  promoting  the  effi- 
ciency of,  75  ;  report  of  Yorkshire  union  of,  179 
Mechi,  on  the  effect  of  liquid  manure,  267 
Memoir  of  the  late  Mr.Birnes,  269 
Mercantile  customs  an  impediment  to  progression, 

232 
Mercury,  the  detection  of,  in  fatty  substances,  227 
Mercury,  iodide  of  potassium  a  test  for,  SO 
Metal,  discovery  of  a  new,  by  Dr.  Owen,  246 
Metal,  Skinner's  patent  for  producing  ornamental 
surfaces  on,  66 


Index. 


Metals,  their  redaction  by  phosphorus  and  sulphur, 

247 
Metallic  packing,  74,  110,  185 
Mill,  Delnest's  corn,  5 ;  Westrup's  conical  flour,  28 ; 

American,  36 
Mine  boring  machine,  Cav6's,  214 
Mortar,  composition  of,  as  used  by  the  ancients, 

275 
Mortising  machine,  Kimberley's,  100 
Mushet  and  the  Artizan  Journal,  49 

N. 

Naphthaline  and  naphtha,  Whitesmith  on  the  pre- 
paration of,  268 

Noses  and  ears,  artificial,  139 

Notes  by  a  practical  chemist,  9,  32,  61,  80,  110, 
126,  151,  179,  199,  227,  246,  267 

*  O. 

Oil,  cod-liver,  adulteration  of,  67  ;  analysis  of,  247 
Oil  for  lubricating  machinery,  67 
Oils,  Professor  Solly  on,  137 
Opening  boxes,  instrument  for,  208 
Orinoco,  trial  of  the,  41 


Packing,  Copeland's  metallic,  74, 185 
Paintings,  colours  in  ancient  mural,  33 
Paper  making  in  the  United  States,  history  of,  228 
Paper  cutting  machine,  Day's,  4  ;  Bottier's  214 
Patent  law  amendment  bill,  154,  234 
Patents: — 

English,  19,  44,  67,  91,  115,  139,  161,  185,  234, 
255   276 

Scotch,  20,  68,  92,  116,  140,  162,  186,  210,  234, 
276 

Irish,  20,  68,  92,  116,  140,  162,  210,  225,  234, 
277 

Provisional,  under  the  new  law,  255,  277 

With  complete  specifications  deposited,  255,^77 
Pavement,  Porbes's  drain,  5 
Peat  charcoal  in  the  United  States,  19  ;.' 

Pen,  Fife's  curved  point,  233  i ' 

Pens,  fountain,  66 
Peninsular  and  Oriental  Steam  Company,  itfe  posi- 

sition  and  prospects  under  its  new  contract,  by 

John  Bourne,  C.E.,  172 
Percussion  water-gauge,  Worthington  and  Baker's, 

123 
Permanent  Ways  ;   W.  B.  Adams  on  railway,  55; 

Beed's  cast-iron  chair,  170  ;  Willson's  compound 

rails,  193 
Phosphoresence  of  animals,  32 
Phosphorus,  reduction  of  metals  by,  247 
Photographs  on  glass,  Pucher's  process,  199 
Photography,  how  to  obtain  positive  proofs  on 

paper  by  the  collodion  process,  228 
Pianofortes,  improvements  in  stringing,  137 
Pianoforte  strings,  to  prevent  the  rusting  of,  113 
Picric  acid,  as  a  colouring  matter,  80 
Piles,  rules  for  strength  of,  90 
Pipe  joint,  Clayton's  patent,  for  drain  pipes,  254 
Pistols,  repeating,  Colt's,  93;  Adam's,  169;  Parker 

and  Field's,  203 
Plane,  Symon's  convertible,  18 
Planing  machine,  Paul's,  in  which  the  tool  moves, 

96 
Platinize,  to,  brass  and  copper,  247 
Plough,  steam,  Usher's  105  ;  Whytehead's  report 

on  Lord  Willoughby's,  190 
Potassa,  to  prepare  it  pure,  151 
Power  of  engines,  tables  to  facilitate  the  calculation 

of,  with  various  rates  of  expansion  and  pressures, 

by  H.  C.  Bosscha,  96 
Press,  Guillaume's  stamping,  26 
Presses,  Jarrett's  improved,  91 
Printing  labels  by  machine,  37 
Prize  list  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  for 

implements,  168 
Propellers,  English  and  American,  114 
Pump,  Urwin's  patent  double  acting,  167 
Pump,  Worthington  and  Baker's  steam,  120,  161 
Pumping  engine,  Worthington  and  Baker's  direct 

acting,  expedients  for  combining   the  uniform 


motion  obtained  by  the  absence  of  a  crank,  with 
perfect  smoothness  of  working,  by  W.  Keld 
Whytehead,  C.E.,  220 

Pumps,  effect  of  air-vessels  on  the  duty  of ;  duty 
dependent  on  the  size  of  the  valves  ;  fire  engine 
in  the  Great  Exhibition,  215 

Pyracoust,  Giles's,  67 

E. 

Rails,  Willson's  patent  compound,  as  used  on  the 
American  railways,  193 

Railways  : 

American  locomotive  engineering,  101 
Anthracite  coal,  use  of,  118 
Coal  versus  wood,  as  fuel,  117 
Cost  of  locomotives,  118 
Economy  of  railway  repairing  shops,  119 
Gauge  question,  119 
An  account  of  the  works  on  the  Birmingham 

and  Oxford  Junction,  14 
Chairs,  Reed's  cast-iron,  170 
Coal  waggons,  37 
Coals  in  locomotives,  193 
In  Denmark,  139 
In  India,  211 

Locomotive  engine,  Samuel's,  53,  241 
Permanent  ways,  W.  B.  Adams  on,  55 
Rail,  Willson's  compound,  193 
Self-acting  signal,  15 
Self-opening  and  shutting  gates  for,  185 
Signal,  Torrop's,  114 
Sound-gatherer,  to  give  warning  to  engine  drivers, 

185 
Springs,  Baillie's  volute,  100 
Turn-table,  Dunn's,  142 

Rasping  machinery  for  beet-sugar  manufacture,  147 

Rat  trap,  self-setting,  139 

Razor-strop,  improved,  208 

Reaping  machines,  Garrett's,  Mason's,  suggestions 
for  improvement  of,  167 

Refractors,  prismatic  gas,  Boggett's,  68 

Refrigerator,  Wright's,  19 

Registrations,  19,  44,  68,  92,  116,  140,  162,  186, 
210,  234,  256,  278 

Retorts,  Clift  on  the  advantages  of  fire-clay,  with 
cost,  as  compared  with  iron,  221 

Reviews  : — 

Bartol — Marine  Boilers  of  the  United  States,  64 
Bodmer — On  the  Propulsion  of  Vessels  by  the 

Screw,  272 
Booth — Encylopsdia  of  Chemistry,  52 
Burn — Illustrated  London  Drawing  Book,  202 
Colonial  and  Asiatic  Review,  202 
Contractors'  and  Engineer's  Pocket  Book,  202 
Dempsey — Machinery  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury, 64 
Eckstein — Practical  Treatise  on  Chimneys,  272 
Elements  of  Practical  Geometry,  157 
Elliott— Slide  Rule,  64 

Engineers'  and  Contractors'  Pocket  Book,  202 
Ewart — A  Treatise  on  Agricultural  Buildings,  7 
Exhibition — Report  of  the  Juries,  202 
Exhibition  Lectures  at  the  Society  of  Arts,  65 
Fincham — Outline  of  Shipbuilding,  272 
Galloway — First  Step  in  Chemistry,  42 
Geometry,  Elements  of  Practical,  157 
Guy — Illustrated  London  Geography,  202 
Henderson — Tables  for  Cuttings  and  Embank- 
ments, 130 
Lieber — The  Assayer's  Guide,  252 
Malpas— Builders'  Pocket  Book,  202 
Mason — Practical  Lithographer,  252 
Minifie — Geometrical  Drawing,  42 
Murray — Marine  Engines,  42 
Sang— The  Teeth  of  Wheels,  252 
Stuart — Naval  Dry  Docks  of  the  United  States, 

201 
Templeton — Practical  Examinator,  202 
Thomson — Dictionary  of  DomesticMedicine,  157 
Thomas — Suggestions  for  a  Crystal  College,  42 
Tomlinson— Cyclopaedia  of  the  Useful  Arts,  42 
Warr — Dynamics,  42 
Wiggins — Reclamation  of  Land  from  the  Sea, 

129,  142 
Woodhead — Atmosphere,  184 


Rigging  of  H.  M.  S.  Agamemnon,  details  of,  271 

Road-sweeping  machine,  Blundell's,  67 

Rope,  Easum  and  Brown's,  33 

Rotary  engine,  Barrows',  274 

Rotary  engines,  the  principal  causes  of  their  failure, 

176 
Rudder,  new  American,  67 
Rule  for  weights  to  be  carried  on  piles,  90 


Safety  valve  and  water  indicator,  Dangerfield's,  241 

Saffron,  Quadrat's  preparation  of  the  colouring 
matter  of,  179 

Sails,  Bain's  wooden,  39 

Sails  of  vessels,  8 

Sandalwood,  Wimmer's  process  for  dyeing  with,  179 

Sand-paper  holder,  185 

San  Jacinto,  performance  of,  62 

Saw  frames,  hollow,  208 ;  indicated  power  required 
for,  274 

Saw  gin,  American,  Indian,  British,  25 

Sawing  machinery  for  timber,  Worssam's  improved, 
217  ;  ditto  for  deals,  236 

Schenck's  flax-steeping  process,  23 

Screw  driver,  Switzer's,  274 

Screw  and  paddles  combined,  Bourne  on  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  use  of,  172;  S.  Overend  on,  209 

Screw  propeller,  Griffiths'  patent,  Bovill  on  the  ad- 
vantages of,  over  the  ordinary  screw;  greater 
duty;  less  vibration  of  ship;  smaller  diameter; 
power  of  varying  pitch ;  greater  strength ;  power 
of  going  astern;  table  of  experiments  with  Ran- 
ger, Eagle,  and  Weaver,  176  ;  discussion  on 
ditto  at  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers, 
219 

Scythe  making,  7 

Scythe,  Sorby's,  18;  Boyd's  self-adjusting,  266 

Sewere,  Doulton's  invert  block  for,  115. 

Sewers,  how  constructed  in  Norway,  1 60 

Shafting,  use  of  high  speeds  for,  by  M.  Decoster, 
235 

Ship  Building: — 
Arman's,  system  of,  190 
Dimensions    of   steam   ships   for  the   Turkish 

government,  156 
History  of  the  "  Sandwich  system,"   by  J.  P. 

Drake,  133 
Improvements  in,  T.  and  J.White's,  112;  Drake's, 

133,  110;  Arman's,  190 
In  New  York,  for  1851,  137 

Iron  as  a  material  for,  Drake  on,  110 

Libel  of  The  Builder  on  American  engineers  and 

shipbuilders,  158 
Miller's  patent  slip,  45,  253 
Progress  at  various  ports;  dimensions  of  steamers 

and  sailing  vessels  building,  17,  61,  62,  90, 

134,  156,  182,  206,  230,  251,  271 

Rise  and  progress  of,   on  the   Clyde;   cost  of 
vessels,  engines,  &c,  by  Dr.  Strang,  229 

Ships'  boats,  patent  methods  of  raising  and  lower- 
ing, Lacon's,  71;  Russell's,  262 
Shop  front  lamp,  Reichenbach's,  233 
Shot-making  machine,  centrifugal,  274 
Silver,  on  a  brittle  form  of,  246 
Signal,  Torrop's,  for  railways,  &c,  114 
Slide  gear,  the  expansive,  90 

Slip,Miller's  patent  hydraulic  apparatus  for,  45,253 
Smoke  question,  1,  30,  60,  64,  70 
Smoothing  iron,  improved  American,  208 
Societies,  Proceedings  of:— 

Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers  12,  50,  219, 
241 

British  Association,  229 

Yorkshire  Union  of  Mechanics'  Institutes,  179 

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  14,  38,  55,  87,  135 

Royal  Institution,  85 

Royal  Scottish  Society  of  Arts,  15 

Geological  Society,  16 

Society  of  Arts,  19 

Freehold  Land  Societies'  question,  245,  270 
Specification  for  paddle-wheel  vessels,  Admiralty 

form  of,  39  ;  of  Carron  and  Cl>de  screw  steam- 
ers, 61 
Speed  of  vessels  influenced  by  their  size,  208,  263 


VI 


Index. 


Springs,  Baillie's  volute,  100 
Spring,  Savage's  door,  209 
Spring,  wooden,  for  carriages,  65 
Stammering,  instrument  for  cure  of,  66 
Stamps,  Euggles'  hand,  66 
Steam  and  water  indicator,  Grimes',  195 
Steam  Engines: — 
Carlson's  for  the  screw,  6 ;  Slate  on,  8 ;  Murray 
on  marine,  42;  engine  packings,  38;  of  the 
Great  Britain,  40;  American  steeple  engines, 
49;  Samuel's  locomotive,  53,  241 ;  Copeland's 
metallic  packing,  74,  185;    on  the  calculation 
of  engine   power,   96;    metallic  packing  for 
stuffing  boxes,  110;  hydraulic  governor,  151; 
fixed  versus  portable   engines,    189;    cost  of 
steam    power    and   water,    196;    Ericsson's 
caloric,   207,  255;  Galloway's  improvements 
in,  217;    portable,  by  Ecnnes,  219;  Holm's 
eccentric  for,  233 ;  rotary  engines,  defect  of, 
139,  176;    Illingworth's  adjustable  eccentric, 
for,  239 ;    on  the  economy  of  condensing  and 
non-condensing,  239,  260;  duty  of  portable 
engines,  164;  Batley's  portable  and  horizontal, 
165;  Clayton's  portable  and  horizontal,  238 ; 
constructing  at  the  Morgan  Works,  U.  S.,  274 
Steam  marine  of  the  United  States,  113 
Steam  Navigation: — 
Dimensions  of  hulls  and  machinery  of: 
Alps,  iron  screw,  Tnlloch  and  Denny,  271 
Andes,  iron  sc,  Tnlloch  and  Denny,  271 
Arabia,  wood  paddle,  Steele  and  Co.,  206 
■  Arrogant,  wood  sc,  Penn  and  Son,  203 
Atrato,  iron  pd.,  Caird  and  Co.,  183 
Australian,  iron  sc,  Tulloch  and  Denny,  271 
Bentinck,  wood  pd.,  Eawcett  and  Preston,  207 
Bombay,  iron  sc,  Tod  and  M'Gregor,  183 
Carron,  iron  sc,  Smith  and  Rodger,  61 
Castor,  iron  pd.,  Nillus,  252 
Ceres,  iron  sc,  Smith  and  Rodger,  231 
Chamois,  iron  pd.,  Nillus,  252 
Cleopatra,  iron  sc,  Tulloch  and  Denny,  271 
Clyde,  iron  sc,  Smith  and  Rodger,  61 
Cosmopolitan,  iron  sc,  Napier,  183 
Duke  of  Argyle,  wood  pd.,  John  Scott  and  Sons, 

206 
Dunoon,  iron  pd.,  Lawrence,  Hill  and  Co.,  232 
Eagle,  iron  pd.,  Denny  and  Brother,  184 
Paid  Effendcs,  iron  pd.,  Tod  and  M'Gregor,  183 
Glasgow  Citizen,  iron  pd.,  Barr,  182 
Great  Britain,  iron  sc,  Penn  and  Son,  40 
Greyhound,  wood  pd.,  Maudslays  and  Field,  156 
Guy  Pawkes,  iron  sc,  Napier  and  Crichton,  231 
Helensburgh,  iron  pd.,  Lawrence,  Hill  and  Co., 

232 
Holyrood,  iron  sc,  Smith  and  Rodger,  232 
Jackal,  iron  pd.,  James  and  George  Thomson, 
182 


Dimensions  (continued) 

Koh-i-noor,  iron  pd.,  Wingate  and  Co.,  184 
Lady  Lo  Marchant,  wood  sc,  Steele  and  Co., 

207 
Larriston,  sc,  Steele  and  Co.,  183 
Lima,  iron  pd.,  Napier,  157 
Magnet,  iron  pd.,  John  Scott  and  Sons,  206 
Madras,  iron  sc,  Tod  and  M'Gregor,  90,  207 
Mathilde,  iron  pd.,  Nillus,  251 
Metropolitan,  iron  sc,  Napier,  183 
Mountaineer,  iron  pd.,  J.  and  G.  Thomson,  182 
Nubaish  Tidjaret,   wood    pd.,   Maudslays   and 

Field,  156 
Osprey,  iron  pd.,  Barclay  and  Curie,  184 
Plata,  wood  pd.,  Steele  and  Co.,  183 
Quito',  iron  pd.,  Napier,  157 
Santiago,  iron  pd.,  Napier,  134 
Shahpere,  wood  pd.,  Maudslays  and  Field,  156 
Sydney,  iron  sc,  Tulloch  and  Denny,  271 
Times,  iron  sc,  Smith  and  Rodger,  157 
Vassitci  Tidjaret,  wood    pd.,   Maudslays  and 

Field,  156 
Venus,  iron  pd.,  J.  and  G.  Thomson,  182 

Steamers  American: — 

Arctic,  wood  pd.,  Stillman,  Allen  and  Co.,  273 

Belvedere,  wood  pd.,  Cooper  and  Butler,  18 

City  of  Pittsburgh,  wood  sc,  62 

Franklin,  wood  pd.,  Stillman,  Allen  and  Co.,  69 

General  M'Donald,  wood  pd.,  J.  S.  Brown,  17 

Palmetto,  wood  sc,  J.  A.  Robb,  17 

Pioneer,  wood  sc,  62 

San  Jacinto,  wood  sc,  U.  S.  Government,  62 

Steam  Navigation  Company,  the  Eastern,  41,  181 

Steam  power,  comparative  cost  of  with  water,  in 
the  United  States,  196 

Steam  to  Australia:  evidence  of  Captain  Watts, 
Captain  Hyde,  Captain  Lane,  A.  Anderson,  Esq., 
and  Captain  Matthews,  9' 

Steam  Company,  Eastern,  report  of,  with  report  of 
Mr.  Scott  Russell  for  large  steamers  propelled  by 
paddle  and  screw  combined,  on  Mr.  Bourne's 
plan,  181 

Steamers,  English  and  American,  158;  on  the  per- 
formance of  the  Arctic,  by  Mr.  Isherwood,  273 

Stearic  candle  manufacture,  history  of  the,  re- 
searches of  Chevreul,  lime  and  saponification, 
sulphuric  saponification,  Gwynne's  patent,  197, 
225 

Steering  apparatus,  Robinson  and  Green's  patent, 
264 

Stoves,  Goddard's  gas,  209,  218 

Strike  of  the  engineers,  6,  42 

Stuffing  boxes,  Crickmer's  patent,  38 

Sulphur,  to  prevent  its  presence  in  cast-iron,  by 
M.  Janoyer,  179 

Superheated  steam,  its  economy,  by  W.  C.  Hare, 
242 


Suspension  bridge  at  Freiburg,  details  of,  27 ;  over 
the  Niagara,  details  of,  275 

T. 
Tanning,  Towle's  improvements  in,  66 
Telekouphonon,  Whishaw's,  44 
Timber,  Clift  on  its  preservation  by  creosote,  12 
Tin,  on  the  use  of  the  oxide  of,  in  dyeing,  227 
Tools,  modern  engineering,  96 
Traverser,  Dunn's  patent,  for  railways,  142 
Tubes,  American  method  of  setting,  in  locomotives, 

101 
Tubes,  Kenrick's  method  of  manufacturing  wrought 

iron,  112 
Turbine,  American  vertical,  for  saw  mill,  259 
Turn-table,  Dunn's  patent,  142 
Turpentine,   its   distillation  combined  with   soap 

manufacture,  85 

U. 

Ultramarine,  new  test  for,  12G 
Urea,  test  for,  61 

V. 

Valves  and  cocks,  on  designing,  21 
Valves,  shield  to  prevent  concussion  in,  66 
Vegetable  substances,  Professor  Solly  on,  137 
Ventilation  by  the  parlour  fire,  87, 108 
Ventilation  of  carriages,  Hepburn's,  37 
Vessels,  their  speed  influenced  by  their  size,  Bourne 

on,  208,  263 
Vice,  Long's  patent,  160 

W. 

Warming  and  ventilating,  St.  John's  patent  for,  66 
Warming  two  rooms  with  one  stove,  276 
Washing  powders,  objections  to  their  use,  80 
Water   companies,   their  liability   to  make  good 
damage  occasioned  by  insufficiency  of  water  at 
fires,  208 
Water   gauge,  Worthington  and  Baker's  percus- 
sion, 123 
Water  indicator  and  safety  valve,  Dangerfield's  241 
Water  lift,  Tasker  and  Fowlc's,  166 
Water-space  angle  iron,  Sutton  and  Ash's,  114 
Water  waste,  Pilbrow's  prevention  of,  for  constant 

supply,  99 
Waters,  their  fitness  for  drinking,  110 
Wave-line  theory,  J.  S.  Russell  on,  85 
Wheat,  preparing  for  grinding,  85 
Whippletrees,  wrought-iron,  209 
Winches,  Boone's,  for  ships,  113 
Wool  machinery,  Mason's,  236 


Zinc,  Grecnstreet's  ornamented,  209 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


Plate. 

1.  Steam  Corn  Mill  

2.  Engines  and  Boilers  of  the  Great  Br  [lain     ... 

3.  Westrup's  Conical  Flour  Mill 

3.  Guillaume's  Stamping  Press 

4.  Hydraulic  Purchase  Machinery  

5.  Revolving  Grate  

5.  Ship  with  Water  Bulkheads 

5.  Emery  Paper  Machine  

5.  American  and  English  Tubular  Boilers 

6.  Freshwater  Apparatus  and  Fire  Engine  for  Ships 
6.  Continuous  Blow-off  Valve  for  Marine  Boilers 

6.  Metallic  Packing  

7.  Heavy  Planing  Machine  

8.  Colt's  Repeating  Pistol 

9.  Moon's  Hollow  Bricks 


5 
40 
28 
26 
45 
70 
89 
70 
69 
73 
74 
74 
96 
93 
127 


Hate. 

10.  Dunn's  Turntable  

11.  Beet  Sugar  Factory      

12.  Beet  Sugar  Factory      

13.  Lap  Machine  and  Carding  Engine    ... 

14.  Adams' Repeating  Pistol 

15.  Mason's  Cotton  Drawing  Frame 

17.  Worssam's  Timber  Sawing  Frame      

18.  Deal  Saw  Frame,  by  Messrs.  Worssam  and  Co. 

19.  Mason's  Condenser,  or  Endless  Carding  Engine 

20.  The  Atlas  Works,  Sheffield 

21.  Mason's  Patent  Rovin s  Frame  


Tagc 
.  142 
.  140 
.  1SS 
.  171 
.  169 
.  213 
.  217 
.  230 
.  236 
.  250 
.  260 


DIRECTIONS  TO  THE  BINDER. 
Plate  12  to  form  the  Frontispiece.   The  remaining  Plates  to  be  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  Volurne, 


LIST  OP  235  ILLUSTRATIONS  ON  WOOD,  IN  THE  PRESENT  VOLUME. 


Day's  paper  cutting  machine,  4 

Forbcs's  drain  pavement  (3),  5 

Dynamical  stability  of  floating  bodies  (2),  11 

Sorby's  scythes  (4),  IS 

Symon's  convertible  piano  (4),  18 

Wright's  refrigerating  apparatus,  19 

Air-pump  bucket,  21 

Freiburg  suspension  bridge,  27 

Mooring  chains  for  ditto,  28 

Suspension  chains  for  ditto,  28 

Paris's  hollow  brickwork,  44 

Whishaw's  telekouphonon,  44 

Lamb  and  Summers'  sheet-flue  boilers  (3),  52 

Samuel's  continuous  expansive  locomotive  engine,  53 

Indicator  diagrams  from  ditto  compared  with  ordinary  and 

Woolf  engines  (3),  53 
French  water-tube  boilers  (2),  57 
Coupland's  smoke-consuming  furnace  (2),  60 
Wright's  circular  bellows,  C7 
Lacon's  apparatus  for  lowering  boats  (3),  72 
Delvigne  (or  Minie)  bullet,  76 
Beckwith's  bullet  mould  (2),  76 
The  Prussian  needle  gun  (4),  77 
Bullet  for  needle  gun,  77 
Lancaster's  rifle,  7$ 
Chrimes'  high-pressure  cocks  (2),  91 
Jarrett's  copying  press,  91 
Jarrett's  embossing  press,  91 
Colt's  repeating  carbine,  94 
Pilbrow's  water-waste  preventer  (2),  99 
Baillie's  patent  volute  springs  (5),  100 
Kimberley's  mortising  machine,  100 
Core  driver  for  ditto,  100 
Tenanting  chisel  for  ditto,  100 
Mortising  chisel  for  ditto,  100 
Cage  spring  for  mines,  100 
TJsher's  steam  plough  (2),  105 
Sandwich  system  of  ship-building,  112 
White's  patent  system  of  ship-building,  112 
Torrop's  patent  railway  signal,  114 
Water-space  angle  iron,  114 
Austin's  British-bond  brickwork  (4),  115 
Doulton's  invert  for  sewers  (2),  115 
Worthington  and  Baker's  pumping  engine,  121 
End  view  of  ditto,  121 
Patent  percussion  water-gauge,  123 
Captain  Manor's  "  Mars"  bullet  (2),  124 

Do.        do.        Bullet  mould.  (2),  125 
Clyde's  beer-valve,  138 


Coquatrix's  patent  lubricator,  138 

Cressall's  steam  cock,  138 

Fletcher's  lath  fastening.  138 

Rodd's  filter  tap  (2),  139 

Dunn's  railway  traverser,  142 

Muir's  inverted  engine,  152 

Pitcher's  hydraulic  steam-engine  governor  (3),  152 

Pitcher's  throttle  valve,  153 

Indicator  diagram  from  the  Empire  State,  158 

Long's  patent  vice,  (2),  160 

Long's  patent  blind  pulleys  (2),  160 

Construction  of  sewers  in  Norway,  160 

Fowler's  briek-die,  160 

Roberts's  hollow  bricks  (3),  161 

Ransomes'  spherical  locking  carnage,  165 

Batley's  portable  engine,  165 

Batley's  horizontal  fixed  engine,  166 

Tasker  and  Fowle's  water  lift,  166 

Urwin's  double-acting  pump,  166 

Mason's  reaping  machine  (2),  167 

Hill's  wire-fence  joint,  167 

Do.  portable  sheep-hurdle,  168 

Do.   self-closing  wrought  iron  gate,  168 

Do.  wrought  iron  warehouse-crane,  168 
Reed's  cast  iron  block-chairs,  170 
Griffiths'  screw  propeller,  176 
Annan's  patent  system  of  ship-building  (2),  191 
Willson's  compound  railway  rail  (4),  194 
Grimes'  steam  and  water  indicator  (4),  195 
Safety-plug  for  boats  (2),  203 
Parker  and  Field's  revolving  pistol,  203 
Spring  ramrod  for  revolver  pistols,  203 
Indicator  diagrams  from  II.  M.  S.  Arrogant  (2),  205 
Goddard's  asbestos  gas  stove  (3),  209 
Ransomes'  wrought-iron  whippletrees  (2),  209 
Savage's  door  spring  (2),  209 
Washing  machine  for  beet-roots,  212 
Bottier's  paper-cutting  machine,  214 
Cave's  mine-boriug  machinery  (4),  214 
Chisels  for  ditto  (2),  215 
Experiments  on  air  vessels  (2),  215 
Indicator  diagrams  from  engines  by  Messrs.  W.  &  J.  Galloway 

(2),  217 
Goddard's  small  gas  cooking-stove,  218 
Do.       medium       do.        do.     218 
Do.       large  do.        do.     218 

Rennes'  portable  engine,  21 9 
Section  of  do.,  219 
Cliffs  fire-brick  retorts,  222 


Plans  and  sections  of  do.  (6),  223 

Holm's  variable  eccentric  (2),  233 

Reichenbach's  shop-front  lamp  (2),  233 

Fife's  curved-point  pen,  233 

Portable  engine,  by  Clayton  and  Co.,  238 

Horizontal  fixed  engine,  by  do.,  238 

Portable  corn-mill,  by  do.,  238 

Hlingworth's  adjustable  eccentric,  239 

Dangerfield's  safety  valve,  &c.  (2),  241 

Cutt's  Atlas  oil  lamps,  253 

Miller's  slip  for  vessels  (3),  253 

Hydraulic  apparatus  for  do.,  253 

Briefs  gazogene  apparatus  (4),  254 

Culverwell's  vapour  bath  (2),  254 

Clayton's  pipe  joint,  254 

Vertical  turbine  for  saw-mills  (2),  260 

Russell's  method  of  lowering  ships'  boats  (5),  262 

Robinson  and  Green's  steering  apparatus,  264 

Boyd's  adjustable  scythe,  266 

Details  of  do.  (2),  266 

Lomax's  patent  chaff  cutter,  266 

Fogden's  manure  distributor  (2),  267 

Ransomes'  silicious  stone  filter  (3),  272 

Switzer's  improved  screw  driver  (2),  274 

Stove  to  warm  two  rooms,  276 

THE  FOLLOWING  ENGRAVINGS  ACCOMPANY  THE 
PLATES  BELONGING  TO  THE  SERIES  OF  ARTI- 
CLES ON  COTTON  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURING 
MECHANISM. 

American  saw-gin.  25 

India  cottage  saw-gin,  25 

Calvert's  cotton-gin,  48 

Conical  willow,  49 

Hardacre's  patent  cotton-opener,  101 

Mason  and  Collier's  lap-roller,  119 

Mason  and  Collier's  cotton-cleaning  machine,  120 

Scutching  machine,  120 

Details  of  lap  machine,  144 

Fairbairn  &  Hetherington's  improvements  in  blowing  machines 

(2),  144 
Tatham  &  Cheetham's  improvements  in  blowing  machines,  144 
Carding  combs,  145 
Details  of  carding-engine  (3),  145 
Mason's  feeder  for  carding-engines,  171 
Plunger  for  carding-engine,  171 
Hill's  movement  for  do.  (3),  171 
Lakin  &  Rhodes'  sliver  compressor  (2),  172 


STEAM  €<0>M   MILL 
as    Construct,-.!  by  M.Dc    •• 


•  L852 


THE 


No.  I.— Vol.  X.— JANUARY  1st,  1852. 


THE  SMOKE  QUESTION. 

(Continued  from  Vol.  IX,  page  266.) 

PLANS    DEPENDING    ON    THE    ADMISSION    OP    AIR   TO    THE 
FDRNACE. 

We  have  already  shown,  that  a  supply  of  air,  proportionate  to  the 
quantity  of  coal  consumed,  is  absolutely  necessary  to  allow  perfect  com- 
bustion to  take  place. 

This  truth  is  so  obvious,  that  it  has  been  seized  upon  by  a  numerous 
host  of  inventors,  who,  acting  upon  the  principle  that  one  cannot  have 
too  much  of  a  good  thing,  have  expended  a  vast  amount  of  ingenuity 
in  devising  schemes  for  the  admission  of  air  in  every  possible  way.  A 
mere  list  of  these  plans  would  occupy  more  space  than  we  could  spare; 
they  may,  however,  be  summed  up  very  briefly,  by  describing  one 
particular  method  which  has  met  with  more  patronage  than  the  rest. 
The  plan  alluded  to  is  that  known  as  Mr.  Charles  Wye  .Williams' 
"Argand"  furnace.  An  "Argand"  lamp,  as  all  our  readers  know,  is 
one  in  which  air  is  admitted  through  the  flame,  and,  inasmuch  as  all 
close  furnaces  are  supplied  with  air  through  the  bars,  they  are  as  much 
entitled  to  he  called  Argand  furnaces  as  Mr.  Williams',  in  which  an 
additional  supply  of  air  is  admitted  through  a  row  of  perforated  pipes, 
at  the  back  of  the  fire.  The  quantity  of  air  admitted  through  these 
pipes  is  governed  by  a  valve,  which  can  be  adjusted  at  pleasure  by  the 
fireman. 

There  are  two  radical  evils  attending  this  plan,  when  hand-firing  is 
employed. 

First, — the  supply  of  air  is  regular,  whilst  the  demand  for  it  is 
irregular. 

Hence,  if  the  supply  be  so  adjusted  as  to  give  sufficient  air  when  the 
charge  of  coal  is  first  thrown  on,  it  will  be  in  excess  when  the  charge  is 
partially  worked  off,  and  the  air  will  then  only  have  the  effect  of  cooling 
the  boiler  and  flues. 

Secondly, — the  alternate  heating  and  cooling  of  the  boiler  bottom, 
just  above  the  air-pipes,  expands  and  contracts  the  plates  of  iron  of 
which  it  is  composed,  and  makes  the  boiler  leaky ;  the  cost  of  a  single 
repair,  in  this  case,  probably  swallowing  up  the  whole  sum  saved  in 
fuel  in  a  twelvemonth. 

All  the  plans  that  we  have  ever  heard  of,  in  which  these  difficulties 
were  sought  to  be  overcome  by  an  adjustment  of  the  supply  of  air  by 
the  fireman  at  every  charge,  have  failed,  simply  for  the  reason  that  it 
is  too  much  trouble,  and  requires  a  degree  of  constant  watchfulness 
and  attention  which  may  be  expected  by  inventors,  but  which  we  have 
never  been  able  to  find  in  any  man  who  would  accept  fireman's  wages. 

Of  the  numerous  plans  which  have  been  tried,  depending  on  the  ad- 
mission of  heated  air  in  various  ways,  we  need  say  little.  Their 
increased  complexity  and  first  cost,  without  affording  any  superiority 
over  the  plan  just  described,  are  alone  sufficient  to  prevent  their 
adoption. 


Still,  an  additional  supply  of  air  has  such  a  beneficial  effect  in  miti- 
gating the  production  of  opaque  smoke,  that  we  anticipate  that  this 
plan  will  be  resorted  to  by  many,  who  will  be  blinded  to  its  defects  by 
the  simplicity  of  its  application. 

Another  plan  may  be  mentioned  here,  as  it  occupies  a  position 
midway  between  the  plans  mentioned  in  this  chapter,  and  in  the  next 
—That  is 

Chanter's  Patent  Moveable  Fire-bar  Furnace. — In  this  arrangement, 
the  alternate  bars  are  simultaneously  lifted  by  a  lever,  in  order  to  free 
the  bars  from  clinkers ;  and  so  far  we  believe  it  to  be  effectual,  and  for 
the  same  reason  it  will  diminish  the  production  of  smoke  by  allowing  a 
freer  passage  for  the  air,  and  possibly  effect  a  small  saving  of  fuel. 
But  the  bars  being  only  moved  a  few  times,  just  before  firing,  this  plan 
is  quite  inadequate  to  entirely  prevent  the  production  of  smoke,  and 
the  labour  of  the  fireman  is  not  in  any  way  diminished. 

ON    FIRING    BY   MACHINE. 

It  is  by  machine-firing  alone  that  we  can  obtain  perfect  regularity 
of  combustion,  which  we  have  shown  to  be  the  most  effectual  means  of 
preventing  the  production  of  smoke. 

The  systems  of  firing  by  machine  may  be  divided  into  two  classes ; 
one  consisting  of  those  in  which  the  coal  is  thrown  on  to  an  ordinary 
furnace  by  the  machine  ;  and  the  other  of  those  in  which  the  fire-bars 
themselves  move,  and  draw  on  the  coal. 

An  economy  attends  the  use  of  firing  machines,  not  only  because 
less  coal  is  consumed,  but  because  the  small  coal,  at  a  much  less  price 
per  ton,  is  equally  available  with  the  large  coal.  Machines  of  the  first 
class,  it  is  true,  are  not  perfect  smoke-consumers,  as  ordinarily  con- 
structed; but  an  improvement  has  lately  been  introduced  which 
promises  to  overcome  the  difficulty,  and  render  them  equal  to  the 
second  class. 

These  machines  were  some  time  since  in  rather  extensive  use  in  the 
manufacturing  districts,  but  are  now  out  of  fashion,  not,  as  we  believe, 
from  any  special  defect,  but  simply  because  their  repair  gave  some 
slight  trouble. 

Their  construction  may  be  briefly  described.  In  front  of  the  furnace, 
and  at  a  slight  elevation  above  the  bars,  is  a  metal  disc,  having  a 
vertical  spindle,  set  in  rapid  motion  by  a  strap  driven  from  the  engine. 
The  disc  is  enclosed  in  a  ease,  and  is  supplied  with  coal  from  a  hopper 
above,  by  means  of  two  pairs  of  rollers,  placed  one  pair  above  the  other, 
and  driven  from  the  upright  spindle.  The  coal  is  thrown  into  the 
hopper,  and  is  crushed  by  the  rollers  to  an  uniform  size.  It  then  falls 
on  the  revolving  disc,  an  arm  upon  which  strikes  it,  and  throws  it  on 
the  fire.  The  supply  of  coal  is  thus  uniform,  and  can  be  adjusted  to 
the  exact  quantity  required.  The  defect  to  which  we  have  before 
alluded  lies  in  the  tendency  of  the  machine  to  throw  the  coal  on  one 
side  of  the  fire,  where  it  accumulates,  whilst  on  the  other  side  the  fire 
burns  thin.  When  the  fire  is  stoked  to  level  it  over  the  bars,  the  dis- 
turbance of  the  body  of  coal  never  fails  to  produce  a  volume  of  smoke. 


The  Irish  Difficulty,  and  its  Solution. 


[January, 


This  is  ingeniously  obviated  in  a  vecent  patent,  in  the  following  manner. 
By  a  self-acting  arrangement,  the  disc  is  made  to  reverse  its  motion 
(or  it  may  be  done  by  hand),  so  as  to  supply  each  side  of  the  furnace 
alternately  ;  and  thus  the  accumulation  of  coal  has  time  to  burn  away. 

Moveable  Furnace  Bars  have  been  applied^  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
That  known  as  Juckes'  patent  is  ingenious  and  effective.  Candor 
compels  us  to  add,  that  it  is  expensive,  complicated,  and  very  liable  to 
derangement.  In  this  plan  the  furnace  bars  are  entirely  detached 
from  the  boiler,  or  the  brick-work  in  which  it  is  fixed.  They  are  short 
in  length,  and  are  linked  together,  forming  an  endless  chain,  which  is  sup- 
ported by  a  roller  at  each  end  of  the  fire.  The  coal  is  thrown  into  a 
hopper  in  front  of  the  fire,  and  a  slow  motion  having  been  given  to  the 
bars  by  the  engine,  the  coal  is  gradually  drawn  through  an  adjustable 
orifice,  and  consumed  during  its  passage  to  the  back  of  the  furnace, 
where  the  clinkers  are  received  in  a  space  left  for  the  purpose. 

The  disadvantages  of  this  plan  are  its  heavy  first  cost — its  bulk, 
which  renders  it  difficult  of  application  to  boilers  with  internal  furnaces 
— and  its  liability  to  derangement,  and  the  consequent  cost  of  repairs. 
Cases  have  occurred  where  the  points  of  the  bars  have  caught  in  the 
brick-lining  of  the  furnace,  and  have  both  disturbed  the  brick-work  and 
broken  the  machinery.  When  the  number  of  pins  and  joints,  on  which 
the  bars  move,  are  considered,  and  how  rapidly  the  presence  of  heat 
and  grit  tends  to  hasten  the  wear  on  them,  it  is  no  wonder  that  they 
should  require  constant  renewal. 

A  plan,  preserving  the  principal  merits  of  Juckes',  with  less  compli- 
cation, is — 

Hall's  Patent  Moveable  Fire-bar  Furnace,  which  has  been  found  a 
very  effectual  smoke  burner.  In  this  arrangement,  each  fire-bar  has 
an  independent  reciprocating  longitudinal  motion  imparted  to  it  by  an 
eccentric,  of  which  there  are  a  series  on  a  revolving  shaft  fixed  in  front 
of  the  furnace,  and  moved  by  the  engine.  At  the  front  end  of  each 
bar  are  three  or  more  toothed  projections,  which,  when  the  bar  moves 
towards  the  boiler,  push  forward  a  small  quantity  of  coal,  which  has 
fallen  on  them  during  the  backward  movement,  from  a  hopper  over  the 
bars.  The  coal  is  coked  in  front  of  the  furnace,  and  then  gradually 
carried,  as  described,  to  the  back  of  the  furnace,  where  the  clinkers,  if 
any  are  formed,  fall  into  a  recess  left  for  the  purpose,  whence  they  are 
periodically  removed.  Air  is  admitted  through  orifices  between  the 
hopper  and  the  front  of  the  boiler,  and  the  bars  are  kept  perfectly  free 
from  clinker  by  the  motion  in  opposite  directions  of  those  adjacent  to 
each  other.  These  circumstances,  coupled  with  the  fact  that  the  fire- 
doors  never  require  to  be  opened,  seem  to  fulfil  all  the  conditions  which 
the  economy  of  combustion  demands,  yet,  strange  to  say,  we  have  been 
informed  that  they  have  been  found  slightly  less  economical  than  hand- 
firing,  in  cases  where  existing  boilers  have  had  their  furnaces  altered. 
Better  skill  in  proportioning  them,  and  adapting  them  to  varying 
circumstances,  would  most  probably  convert  this  loss  into  a  gain.  We 
could  more  readily  understand  that  the  wear  of  the  eccentrics  and  bars 
would  be  objected  to,  although  repairs  would  be  executed  with  greater 
facility  and  economy  than  in  the  case  of  Juckes'  endless  chain  of  fire- 
bars.    Another  still  simpler  plan  is — 

Godson's  Patent  Furnace. — This  acts  upon  the  principle  of  feeding 
the  fire  at  intervals,  from  below — the  smoke  arising  from  the  irregu- 
larity of  the  supply  of  fuel  being  consumed  in  passing  upwards  through 
the  red  hot  coal.  In  the  centre  of  the  fire-grate  a  vacancy  is  left,  which 
can  be  closed  at  pleasure  by  sliding  shutters,  beneath  which  is  a  cast- 
iron  box,  which  is  provided  with  a  piston,  moved  through  the  intervention 
of  racks,  pinions,  and  levers,  by  the  fire-man.  The  fire  is  fed  in  the 
following  way: — suppose  the  shutters  closed — the  piston  is  depressed 
to  the  bottom  of  the  box,  a  door  in  front  of  which  is  opened,  and  admits 
the  coal,  with  which  the  box  is  then  filled.  The  door  being  closed,  the 
shutters  are  opened,  and  the  piston  is  then  raised  at  intervals,  until 


the  box  is  emptied,  when  the  operation  of  filling  is  again  repeated. 
Although  this  plan  is  not  such  a  perfect  smoke-consumer  as  Hall's  or 
Juckes',  its  lower  cost,  and  the  probability  of  its  working  for  some 
years  without  repairs,  seem  to  render  it  worthy  of  favourable  consider- 
ation. It  gives  more  trouble  to  the  fireman  than  either  of  the  other 
two  plans ;  but  it  is  fair  to  add,  that  all  these  plans  of  machine-firing 
would  offer  a  still  greater  economy  in  wages,  as  compared  with  hand- 
firing,  in  those  cases  where  a  number  of  furnaces  are  employed,  and  on 
the  former  systems,  all  attended  by  one  fireman,  whose  duty  is  merely 
to  fill  the  coal  hoppers. 

Boulton  and  Watt's  revolving  Grate,  as  used  at  the  Bank  of  England, 
is  ingenious  and  effective.  The  fire-grate  is  of  a  circular  form,  placed 
in  front  of  the  ordinary  boiler,  and  covered  by  a  small  supplementary 
boiler  of  a  peculiar  shape,  on  the  bottom  of  which  the  flame  first  acts, 
and  thence  passes  through  the  ordinary  flues.  The  grate  is  made  to 
revolve  slowly  by  being  connected  with  the  engine,  and  is  supplied 
with  coal  from  a  hopper  placed  above  the  supplementary  boiler  before 
mentioned.  This  arrangement  is  as  efficient,  and  less  complicated  than 
Juckes';  and  would  be  more  economical  in  first  cost,  could  the  supple- 
mentary boiler  be  dispensed  with,  which  it  does  not  appear  there  would 
be  any  great  difficulty  in  doing. 

(To  be  continued). 

THE  IRISH  DIFFICULTY,  AND  ITS  SOLUTION.* 

Ireland  has  so  long  been  an  enigma  to  legislators  and  economists, 
that  we  can  easily  understand  why  the  last  phase  in  her  history,  the 
"  Celtic  Exodus,"  has  been  received  in  England  with  so  much  apathy. 
It  is  impossible  to  realize  to  oneself  the  feeling  with  which  such  a  move- 
ment, were  it  to  take  place  in  this  country,  would  be  received.  To  be 
told  that  a  stream  of  1,000  souls  per  day  is  pouring  forth  from  the 
sister  country,  conveys  to  us  but  a  very  inadequate  idea  of  the  effect  in 
every-day  life  of  such  a  system  of  depopulation.  Let  the  reader  who 
dwells  in  a  village  of  some  one  or  two  thousand  inhabitants,  and  whose 
business  is  confined  to  that  village,  picture  to  himself  the  effect  which 
would  be  produced  by  the  loss  every  week  of  but  half  a  dozen  indivi- 
duals out  of  that  limited  society.  The  very  thought  would  make  the 
landlord  as  well  as  the  tradesman  turn  pale  ;  and  yet  we  cannot  doubt 
that  this  change  is  daily  taking  place  in  Ireland,  either  for  weal  or  for 
woe,  according  as  we  embrace,  or  throw  away,  the  opportunity  which 
Providence  has  now  afforded  us,  of  planting  the  Saxon  race  where  the 
Celt  has  faded  away.  A  concurrence  of  events  seems  to  point  out  that 
the  time  for  accomplishing  this  change  has  now  arrived.  The  depopu- 
lation of  whole  districts  in  Ireland — the  amount  of  land  of  good  quality 
to  be  obtained  at  a  moderate  price  and  with  unassailable  titles — the 
difficulty  under  which  tenant  farmers  in  England  will  labour,  until  rents 
have  found  their  own  level — and  the  increase  of  population  on  this  side 
of  the  channel,  all  unite  in  rendering  such  an  equalization  of  popula- 
tion, not  only  desirable,  but  absolutely  necessary. 

The  difficulty  consists  in  providing  adequate  inducements  to  emigrate, 
for  the  English  or  Scotch  farmer  who  has  capital  at  his  command. 
If  his  capital  be  disengaged,  he  is  more  likely  to  lay  it  out  in  establish- 
ing manufacturing  operations  of  some  kind,  which  promise  him  a  larger 
return  than  purely  agricultural  pursuits,  and  in  his  own  locality,  where 
his  connexion  and  reputation  may  best  serve  him.  The  agriculturist 
wants  not  only  cheap  land,  but  he  wants  a  good  market;  a  truism 
which  has  proved  fatal  to  numerous  schemes  which,  on  paper,  appeared 
perfectly  unimpeachable.  This  market  then  has  to  be  made,  or,  in 
other  words,  consumers  have  to  be  provided  to  remove  the  risk  of  loss  : 
and  this  requires,  first,  a  sufficient  population,  and  some  remunerative 

*  How  to  Employ  Capital  in  Western  Ireland,  by  W.  D.  Seymour.  London,  Hearne. 
The  Flax  Movement,  by  the  Chevalier  Claussen.    London,  Effingham  Wilson. 


1852.] 


The  Irish  Difficulty,  and  its  Solution. 


manufacturing  pursuit  on  which  to  employ  that  population.  It  is 
obvious  that,  in  the  sense  here  meant,  a  slate  quarry  or  a  copper  mine 
manufacturing  pursuit.  The  food- producer  and  the  food-consumer 
stand  in  mutual  need  of  each  other,  and  the  problem  is,  to  bring  them 
together  on  a  scale  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  render  the  experiment 
successful.  We  say  a  scale  of  sufficient  magnitude,  for  we  have  in  our 
mind's  eye  a  number  of  cases,  in  which  individual  patriotic  exertion, 
in  establishing  manufactories,  has  but  brought  ruin  on  the  projector; 
and  the  only  consolation  of  the  self-sacrificed  landowner  has  been,  that 
success  was  deserved,  though  it  could  not  be  commanded.  Had  that 
great  statesman,  Sir  Robert  Peel,  been  spared  to  the  nation,  we  should, 
doubtless,  ere  this,  have  had  the  opportunity  of  illustrating  our  theory 
with  the  results  of  practical  experience.  The  plan  which  the  master- 
mind originated,  we  trust  to  see  carried  out  by  those  who  will  make  up 
in  number  what  may  be  wanting  in  individual  influence.  It  is  only  by 
united  and  systematic  action  that  success  can  be  insured.  Our  aim 
must  be  to  transplant  a  whole  English  county,  entire,  into  the  West  of 
Ireland,  there  to  leaven  the  whole  mass.  If  we  cannot  move  an  entire 
county,  let  us  begin  with  a  parish.  "  Very  good,"  the  reader  may  say, 
"  but  who  is  to  find  the  money  ?  "  Show  a  reasonable  prospect  of  a 
5  per  cent,  dividend  and  good  security,  and  you  could  raise  capital  to 
convert  the  Great  Wall  of  China  into  a  railway,  much  less  to  move  a  few 
thousand  persons  across  the  Irish  Channel.  "  But  can  this  dividend  be 
shown  ?  "  We  thiiik  it  can,  and  we  will  state  a  few  facts  to  support 
our  belief.  Land  of  first-rate  quality,  well  situated  for  water  or  land 
carriage,  can  be  purchased  in  the  West  of  Ireland,  at  about  one-half  the 
cost  of  similar  land  in  England.  This  land,  purchased  in  the  gross, 
could  be  divided,  and  let  on  lease,  so  as  to  produce  5  per  cent.,  after 
paying  all  expenses  of  management.  There  is  only  one  thing  wanting. 
It  is  easy  to  get  tenants,  but  it  is  not  so  easy  to  get  tenants  with  capital. 
How  can  they  be  attracted  and  secured  ?  By  giving  them  the  option  of 
purchase  whenever  they  are  in  a  position  to  lay  down  the  money.  By 
this  arrangement  a  given  amount  of  capital  would  go  much  further,  and 
a  tenant  would  not  impoverish  himself  by  becoming  at  once  the  owner 
of  the  soil,  but  would  employ  his  capital  in  draining,  manuring,  and 
machinery.  A  lease  under  fair  covenants,  and  a  certain  prospect  of 
becoming  in  a  few  years  his  own  landlord,  would  attract  a  superior 
class  of  tenants,  and  afford  them  the  strongest  possible  incentives  to 
industry  and  love  of  order. 

We  have  in  previous  articles  pointed  out  what  may  be  done  to  save 
capital  by  concentrating  farm  buildings  and  machinery.  Concentration 
of  machinery  is  the  soul  of  cheap  production.  Witness  our  cotton  mills 
aud  machine  shops. 

Having  provided  our  farmers,  our  next  care  must  be  to  supply  them 
with  occupation  and  a  market.  The  climate  of  the  West  of  Ireland, 
described  by  her  national  poet  as  "  half  sunshine,  half  tears,"  is  too 
uniformly  moist  to  grow  wheat  crops  in  perfection ;  but  for  the  same 
reason  it  is  better  suited  for  green  or  bulbous  crops.  Of  these  we  shall 
consider  but  two,  for  our  present  purpose — Flax  and  Beet. 

First,  as  to  Flax.  We  confess  that  on  this  subject  we  have  read  a 
great  deal,  and  have  been  convinced  of  very  little.  Flax  is  pronounced 
by  every  body  with  a  most  wonderful  unanimity,  to  be  the  most  profit- 
able crop  a  farm  is  capable  of  producing,  but — some-how  nobody  culti- 
vates it — they  are  afraid  of  getting  rich  too  fast,  that  seems  the  only 
solution  of  the  difficulty.  We  will  state  the  reasons  they  give  us,  and 
leave  our  readers  to  decide  the  question.  First,  it  is  said  "  Flax  is  a 
very  exhausting  crop." — What  says  Chevalier  Claussen : — 

The  opinion  is  one  which  has  been  handed  down  almost  from  time  imme- 
morial, and  the  clauses  which  in  many  cases  are  introduced  into  the  agree- 
ments and  leases  for  agricultural  tenancies,  forbidding  the  culture  of  flax, 
hemp,  and  woad,  have  no  doubt  tended  to  strengthen  this  conviction  in  the 


minds  of  those  who  have  not  possessed  the  opportunity  of  practically  testing 
the  truth  of  this  very  current  opinion.  It  is  most  undoubtedly  true  that  flax 
in  itself,  like  all  other  crops,  whether  cereal  or  others,  is  certainly  an  ex- 
haustive one  :  few  crops  are,  however,  more  exhausting  than  wheat;  but  the 
farmer  does  not  refuse  to  grow  it  on  that  account,  as  he  knows  that  a  great 
proportion  of  the  crop  is  usually  returned  to  the  soil.  Now,  there  are  two 
modes  of  testing  the  accuracy  of  the  opinion  with  respect  to  the  injurious 
effects  of  the  flax  crop,  viz.,  by  chemical  analysis  of  the  constituents  of  the 
plant,  and  by  that  still  more  satisfactory  and  ;  convincing  test — the  result  of 
practical  experience.  Tried  by  either  or  both  of  these,  it  will  be  found,  under 
a  judicious  mode  of  treatment,  analogous  to  that  pursued  by  the  grower 
with  respect  to  his  other  crops,  that  flax,  so  far  from  being  an  injurious,  will 
be  found,  independently  of  its  other  advantages,  to  be  of  greater  value  than 
any  other  crop  in  keeping  the  land  in  a  profitable  state  of  productiveness, 
and  preventing  the  possibility  of  its  deterioration. 

If  the  construction  of  the  plant  be  closely  examined,  it  will  be  found  that 
those  portions  of  it  which  absorb  the  alkalies,  and  the  nutritive  properties  of 
the  soil,  are  those  which  are  not  required  for  the  purpose  of  manufacture, 
viz.,  the  woody  part  of  the  plant,  the  resinous  matter,  and  the  seed.  The 
capsules  of  the  seeds,  the  husks  of  the  capsules,  and  the  seeds,  contain  a  very 
large  proportion  of  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  may  consequently  be 
advantageously  employed  for  the  purposes  of  manure  or  for  the  feeding  of 
cattle.  The  fibre  of  the  plant,  which  is  that  portion  required  for  manufac- 
ture, consists  of  about  47  parts  of  carbon  in  100,  united  to  the  elements  of 
water — in  fact,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon  are  its  principal  constituent 
parts,  and  they  are  derived  not  from  the  soil  but  from  the  atmosphere. 
100  lbs.  of  flax  fibre  has  been  found  by  recent  experiments  to  contain  not 
more  upon  an  average  than  2  lbs.  of  mineral  matters,  including  lime,  mag- 
nesia, oxide  of  iron,  carbonic,  phosphoric,  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  silica. 

In  cases  where,  in  the  course  of  preparation  of  ,the  flax,  the  seed  and  the 
whole  of  those  portions  of  the  plant  which  have  absorbed  the  nutritive  matters 
from  the  soil,  are  destroyed  by  steeping,  and  where  nothing  is  left  to  be  re- 
turned to  the  soil,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  crop  is  an  exceedingly 
exhaustive  one;  and  in  the  present  advanced  state  of  agriculture,  it  would 
be  a  vain  and  absurd  attempt  to  endeavour  to  induce  the  farmer  to  grow 
flax  upon  such  conditions.  The  last  report  of  the  Royal  Irish  Flax  Society 
gives  some  particulars  of  the  flax  crop  of  fifty-one  farmers  in  the  county  of 
Down,  not  one  of  whom  saved  the  seed;  and,  although  the  average  gain  was 
£7  Is.  4£d.  per  acre,  their  example  is  one  which  is  not  likely  to  be  very 
generally  followed  by  enlightened  agriculturists. 

But  apart  from  the  deductions  of  chemical  science,  or  theories  founded 
upon  the  structure  of  the  plant,  the  recent  proceedings  of  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural Society  have  completely  set  the  question  at  rest.  Mr,  Beale  Brown, 
who  has  devoted  the  last  seven  years  to  the  culture  and  preparation  of  flax 
in  the  county  of  Gloucester,  stated,  at  the  meeting  of  the  society  on  the  26th 
of  February,  that  flax,  deriving,  as  it  did,  a  large  amount  of  its  nutriment 
from  the  atmosphere,  was  the  least  exhausting  crop  that  could  be  put  into 
the  ground,  provided  the  manure  from  the  seed  and  refuse  were  retained  on 
the  land,  and  only  the  flax  fibre  itself  carried  off ;  and  he  had  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  this  opinion  was  now  entertained  by  all  parties  connected  practi- 
cally with  the  cultivation  of  the  flax  crop. 

Mr.  Druce,  of  Ensham  in  Oxfordshire,  also  stated  that  flax  was  not  an 
exhaustive  crop ;  that  he  grew  turnips  in  the  same  year  ou  his  flax  land  with- 
out manure,  and  that  his  son  had  found  that  some  wheat  sown  after  flax 
was  one  of  the  best  crops  he  had  ever  grown.  In  Somersetshire  it  is  a  stand- 
ing proverb  that  "  good  wheat  crops  always  follow  flax."  Lord  Monteagle 
also  gave  the  result  of  his  own  experience,  in  connection  with  the  growth  of 
flax  upon  his  land  in  Ireland,  and  said  that  some  of  the  laud  which  he  had 
sown  with  it  had  been  previously  rather  exhausted,  but,  by  cultivating  the 
crop  well,  that  land  had  become  better  than  any  other  on  his  estate;  no 
meadow,  indeed,  yielded  such  capital  grass  as  that  on  which  the  flax  had 
been  grown. 

But  it  might  be  imagined  that  the  demand  was  limited,  and  perhaps 
fluctuating.     What  says  the  Morning  Chronicle  ? — 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  feature  connected  with  the  cultivation  of 


Day's  Patent  Cutting  Machine. — The  Great  Exhibition. 


[January, 


flax  in  this  country  is,  that  almost  in  the  same  proportion  in  which  the 
demand  for  flax  has  increased,  the  supply  has  diminished,  In  1757,  before 
the  first  machinery  for  spinning  flax  was  erected  in  Great  Britain,  Ireland 
consumed  all  the  flax  which  she  produced,  and  imported  from  foreign  coun- 
tries to  the  value  of  ,£140,000.  In  1816,  during  the  existence  of  the  Linen 
Board,  Ireland,  instead  of  being  a  flax-importing  country,  actually  became 
an  exporting  country  to  the  extent  of  £72,500.  In  the  year  1841  there 
were  in  Ireland,  employed  in  the  linen  trade,  41  mills,  with  260,000  spindles. 
There  are,  in  the  present  year,  73  mills,  with  339,000  spindles  ;  and  adding 


the  new  mills  now  being  built,  and  the  additions  of  machinery  now  makiDg 
to  existing  concerns,  thsre  will  be,  by  the  end  of  this  year,  about  400,000 
spindles  in  operation.  Comparing  the  relative  proportion  of  acres  of  flax 
grown  with  the  number  of  spindles  at  work,  it  would  appear  that  in  1841 
the  number  of  spindles  was  3.1  times  greater  than  the  number  of  acres  of 
flax,  whereas  in  1849  they  were  about  5.6  times  greater.  The  cultivation 
of  flax  has  fallen  off  in  Ireland  since  1841  nearly  25,000  acres,  while  the 
quantity  grown  in  1849  did  not  amount  to  one-half  ofthat  grown  in  1844. 
(To  be  continued.) 


DAY'S  PATENT  PAPER  AND  MILLBOARD  CUTTING  MACHINE, 


The  spectator,  who  for  the  first  time  sees  one  of 
these  paper  cutting  machines  at  work,  cannot  fail 
to  be  struck  with  the  ease  and  celerity  with  which 
such  a  simple  combination  of  moving  parts  performs 
the  work  of  several  men.  It  is  to  the  printer,  the 
bookbinder,  the  paper  maker,  and  various  kindred 
tracres,  what  the  planing  machine  is  to  the  engineer, 
and  that  is  saying  a  great  deal.  Besides  these 
trades,  it  is  employed  for  cutting  flannel,  leather, 
silk,  cotton,  &c,  and  similar  fabrics,  as  well  as 
for  making  the  innumerable  paper  and  pasteboard 
boxes  consumed  in  the  various  businesses  in  which 
they  are  found  so  useful.  The  removal  of  the  paper 
duty  would  give  an  immense  impetus  to  the  use 
of  paper  for  these  purposes.  In  Paris,  the  pur- 
chaser of  any  fancy  article,  not  of  the  very  lowest 
value,  instead  of  having  a  brown  paper  parcel 
handed  to  him,  which  probably  comes  to  pieces 
before  his  journey's  end,  is  presented  with  a  neat 
paper  box  to  hold  the  purchased  article.  We  shall, 
perhaps,  have  the  same  in  good  time. 

The  knife,  it  will  be  observed,  has  a  loose  steel 
edge,  which  facilitates  the  sharpening.  One  end 
turns  upon  a  pin  fixed  in  the  framing,  and  the  other 
is  moved  by  a  connecting  rod  and  crank  below. 
Motion  is  given  to  the  crank  by  a  hand  wheel,  or  by 
steam  power,  through  the  wheels  and  pinions, 
which  admit  of  two  speeds  being  given  to  the  knife  ; 
a  slow  one  for  engine-sized  papers  and  millboards, 
and  a  faster  one  for  the  more  easily  cut  tub-sized 
papers.  The  paper  is  placed  on  the  table,  and 
squeezed  in  a  solid  mass  by  the  plate  and  screw, 
which  is  worked  by  hand  to  any  desired  height. 


EWILOi  STRAND 


LESSONS  TO  BE  LEARNT  FROM  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION. 

(Continued  from  Vol.  IX.,  page  241.) 

We  have  already  pointed  out  what  we  conceive  should  be  the  objects 
and  aim  of  an  Industrial  Exhibition.  As  a  means  of  education  it  should 
hold  the  first  rank,  and  this  place  it  would  inevitably  take,  if  it  depended 
solely  upon  public  support.  The  British  Museum  we  consider  an  ex- 
pensive example  of  what  ought  not  to  be  done.  With  the  exception  of 
thelibrary,  that  vast  collection  is  literally  a  show,  andnothingmore.  When 
compared  with  the  western  half  of  the  Great  Exhibition,  it  is  like  nothing 
so  much  as  one  of  its  own  mummy-cases — curious,  certainly,  but  not  of 
much  use.  As  far  as  the  public  individually  are  concerned,  it  would  be  an 
excellent  speculation  to  let  it,  with  all  its  contents  (save  the  library),  to 
the  proprietors  of  the  Polytechnic  Institution,  who  would  inspire  it 
with  some  life,  and  make  it  at  least  represent  the  progress  of  the  age 
in  the  arts  and  sciences.      The  chilling  hand  of  a  Government  Com- 


mission would  only  fetter  the  energy  of  those  to  whom  its  details  of 
operation  would  be  entrusted ;  and  we  should  infinitely  prefer  to  see 
such  an  Exhibition  as  we  hope  to  obtain,  under  the  management  of  the 
Society  of  Arts,  than  to  have  it  reduced  to  a  state  of  lifeless  formalism 
under  the  influence  of  Government  management.  We  shall  be  met,  we 
have  no  doubt,  with  the  ready  argument  that  the  Great  Exhibition  of 
1851,  the  close  of  which  we  so  much  deplore,  was  managed  by  a  Govern- 
ment Commission.  This  is  true  to  a  certain  extent  only.  Had  it  rested 
with  the  Government  to  originate  the  Exhibition,  we  should  have  had  a 
building  after  the  Houses  of  Parliament  fashion,  and  a  collection  a  la 
British  Museum.  It  was  not  until  they  saw  that  the  movement  would 
go  on  without  them,  that  they  undertook  its  management;  and  in  all 
those  matters,  on  which  public  opinion  was  not  forcibly  expressed,  they 
betrayed  a  narrowness  of  mind,  ill  according  with  the  world-wide  cha- 
racter of  the  project.  It  will  only  be  fair  to  descend  to  particulars. 
The  announcement  of  money  prizes,  after  the  fashion  of  a  local  A^-i- 


1852.  J 


DelnesCs  Steam  Corn  Mill. — Forbes' 's  Drain  Pavement. 


cultural  Society,  proved,  as  was  foreseen  and  foretold,  an  apple  of 
discord.  Indeed,  it  was  so  evidently  absurd,  in  an  Exhibition  of  all 
Nations,  that  it  was  speedily  abandoned,  to  the  great  disappointment 
of  a  large  number  of  competitors,  who  had  commenced  preparations 
on  the  strength  of  the  promises  first  held  out.  Money  was  esteemed 
too  vulgar  a  reward,  and,  moreover,  rather  expensive ;  it  was  therefore 
determined  to  make  it  a  question  of  honour.  A  bit  of  bronze,  value 
one  shilling,  stamped  with  the  approbation  of  an  infallible  jury,  was  to 
represent  a  ,=£10,000  prize.  It  is  almost  laughable  now,  to  contemplate 
the  stupendous  self-sufficiency  of  a  body  of  men,  who  thought  them- 
selves competent  to  adjudicate  between  the  conflicting  claims  of  the 
leading  manufacturers  of  all  nations,  as  if  it  were  possible  to  adopt  any 
common  standard  by  which  the  productions  of  all  could  be  fairly  judged. 
It  was  too  ridiculous,  and  accordingly  it  was  at  last  announced  that  the 
prizes  meant — nothing, — a  sorry  ending  for  such  a  magnificent  com- 
mencement. The  announcement,  however,  insulted  both  those  who 
did,  and  those  who  did  not,  obtain  medals;  and  an  amount  of  ill-feeling 
was  engendered,  at  all  events,  amongst  our  own  countrymen,  which  it 
will  require  some  years  to  remove. 

(To  be  continued.) 

STEAM  CORN  MILL,  AS  CONSTRUCTED  BY  M.  DELNEST, 
OF  MONS. 

The  high  reputation  which  French  flour  bears  in  the  English  market, 
proves  that  the  French  millwrights  well  understand  their  business  ;  and 
indeed  the  assertion  was  hazarded  in  Parliament  last  Session,  that  the 
complaints  of  the  English  millers,  against  the  importation  of  Foreign 
flour,  arose  from  the  inferiority  of  their  machinery,  and  that  it  was  only 
by  adopting  the  improvements  of  their  rivals,  that  they  could  hope  to 
compete  with  them.  The  millers  thought  free  trade  an  admirable  doc- 
trine so  long  as  Foreign  wheat  only  was  imported ;  but  when  the  fiour 
came  in  the  case  was  changed,  and  hence  the  complaints  alluded  to. 

We  have  no  reason,  at  present,  for  believing  that  there  is  any  real 
superiority  in  the  French  machinery  over  the  best  constructed  mills  in 
this  country ;  but  we  have  a  vast  number  of  mills  at  work,  of  an  inef- 
ficient character,  which  give  our  flour  a  lower  average  quality.  Which- 
ever way  the  case  may  be,  it  can  do  us  no  harm  to  see  what  our  neigh- 
bours are  doing,  and  we  propose,  therefore,  to  devote  some  of  our  space 

to  this  subject. 

The  mill,  of  which  we  have  given  an  engraving,  plate  1,  is  the  inven- 
tion of  M.  Delnest,  of  Mons,  engineer,  constructed  on  a  system  which 
he  has  patented  in  France,  where,  as  our  readers  know,  mechanical 
genius  is  not  fettered  by  being  compelled  to  pay  heavy  penalties  for 
legal  protection  for  its  ideas. 

The  object  of  the  arrangement  is  to  simplify  and  cheapen  the  con- 
struction, without  diminishing  the  efficiency  of  the  machinery.  In 
ordinary  mills  the  fly-wheel  is  fixed  on  the  crank  shaft,  and  conse- 
quently requires  to  be  of  large  diameter,  to  make  its  velocity  at  the 
circumference  superior  to  that  of  the  mill-stones.  Regularity  of  motion 
is,  we  need  hardly  say,  indispensable  to  good  grinding,  and  this  can  only 
be  attained  by  using  a  fly-wheel  of  adequate  velocity,  to  prevent  back- 
lash in  the  teeth  of  the  wheels.  This  may  be  done  by  putting  the  fly- 
wheel on  a  separate  shaft,  and  using  gearing  to  get  up  the  speed ;  but 
the  expense  and  complication  of  this  method  has  led  M.  Delnest  to 
design  the  plan  before  us. 

Plate  1,  drawn  to  a  scale  of  half  an  inch  to  a  foot,  shows  an  eleva- 
tion and  plan  of  a  horizontal  high  pressure  steam  engine,  and  two  pairs  of 
stones.  The  engine  and  gearing  are  placed  in  the  ground  floor  of  the 
mill,  and  the  stones  in  the  floor  above.  The  sole  plate  of  the  engine, 
a,  a,  is  cast  in  one  piece,  and  is  only  of  sufficient  length  to  receive  the 
cylinder  and  guides,  instead  of  being  continued  to  carry  the  crank- 
shaft. The  guides  are  flat,  and  of  cast  iron,  and  the  bearings  b,  b,  of 
the  weigh  shaft,  are  cast  on  them. 

The  slide  is  worked  by  a  return  crank  and  shaft  c,  which  is  designed 
to  give  facilities  for  altering  the  stroke  and  lead  of  the  slide,  so  as  to 
vary  the  expansion ;  on  the  end  of  the  shaft  c  is  keyed  a  face  plate, 
and  the  pin  of  the.  eccentric  rod  d  is  fixed  into  a  similar  plate.     These 


two  plates  are  bolted  together,  in  the  position  required  for  the  action 
of  the  slide,  and  can  be  easily  adjusted  by  stopping  the  engine,  and 
slacking  the  bolt.  Where  the  work  on  an  engine  is  of  a  fluctuating 
character,  it  is  advisable  to  make  the  expansion  acted  upon  by  the 
governor,  so  as  to  come  into  operation  without  the  intervention  of  the 
engine  driver,  and  without  stopping  the  engine ;  but  in  a  flour  mill, 
where  the  work  is  only  occasionally  changed,  and  with  a  small  engine, 
it  is  hardly  worth  the  extra  complication. 

The  plutnmer-blocks  carrying  the  crank-shaft  are  bolted  on  plates 
to  the  masonry  which  forms  the  foundation  of  the  mill.  The  vertical 
shaft  e,  is  driven  through  the  bevel  wheels  /and  g,  and  is  carried  up 
through  the  floor  to  drive  the  rest  of  the  mill  work.  The  spur-wheel  h, 
which  makes  about  89  revolutions  per  minute,  drives  the  two  pinions 
i,  i,  and  the  stones  at  120  revolutions.  The  fly-wheel  k  revolves  nearly 
one-half  quicker  than  it  would  do,  if  it  were  fixed  on  the  crank  shaft, 
and  takes  up  less  room,  being  completely  out  of  the  way.  This  is 
effected  with  the  least  possible  gearing  and  friction  in  this  arrangement. 

It  is  obvious  that  three  pairs  of  stones  might  be  arranged  ronnd  the 
centre  vertical  shaft,  for  a  larger  mill.  For  colonial  use  a  mill  of  this 
kind  would  be  very  suitable,  as  it  is  self-contained,  and  therefore  easily 
fixed,  and  there  are  no  parts  of  any  great  weight.  If  any  difficulty  were 
apprehended  about  the  foundations,  it  would  be  easy  to  cast  a  sole 
plate  to  take  the  crank-shaft  plummer7blocks  and  the  columns  carrying 
the  millstones.  A  timber  foundation  would  then  suffice,  and  the  extra 
cost  would  be  more  than  compensated  for,  by  the  saving  in  the  erec- 
tion— skilled  labour  being  always  expensive,  and  often  unattainable,  in 
the  colonies. 


FORBES'S  REGISTERED  DRAIN  PAVEMENT. 

This  is  a  simple  and  effectual  arrangement  designed  for  the  pavement 
of  cattle  lairs,  breweries,  wash  houses,  dye  houses,  and  other  places 
where  water  is  being  constantly  spilt.  It  consists  in  forming  each 
paving  brick  with  a  groove  down  the  centre  as  shown  in  fig.  1.  These 
bricks  (thanks  to  the  repeal  of  the  excise)  may  be  of  any  convenient 
dimensions ;  but  the  inventor  finds  that  about  a  foot  in  length,  and  five 
inches  in  breadth,  forms  the  most  convenient  dimensions.  The  groove 
is  about  half-inch  wide  at  the  top,  and  widens  out  at  the  bottom,  as 
shown,  to  prevent  choking. 

The  pavement  being  laid  at  a  slight  inclination,  all  the  liquid  will 
flow  to  the  lower  end,  where  it  is  intercepted  in  a  cross  drain,  shown 
in  fig.  2,  covered  with  a  loose  tile  or  board,  to  make  it  flush  with  the 


Fig.  2.  Fig.  1. 

rest  of  the  pavement,  and  to  prevent  its  being  filled  up.     Passages  are 
formed  in  the  sides  of  the  cross  drain-bricks  to  meet  the  channel  in  the 


Fig.  3. 


6 


Carlsons  Patent.— Strike  of  Engineering  Artizans. 


[January, 


pavement.     Fig.  3,  is  a  sketch  of  a  portion  of  the  pavement  laid  as 
described. 

The  great  use  for  this  pavement  will  probably  be  for  the  stalls  of 
agricultural  stock,  and,  in  cases  where  straw  is  dear,  will  effect  a  great 
economy.  The  plan  which  Mr.  Mechi  and  other  agriculturists  have 
adopted,  of  putting  the  cattle  on  a  sort  of  wooden  gridiron  (if  we  may  be 
allowed  the  bull),  is  open  to  several  objections.  The  cattle  suffer  in 
their  hoofs,  and  are  not  at  ease,  and  consequently  do  not  fatten  so  fast ; 
and  the  wood  absorbs  the  liquid  and  the  effluvia,  and  rapidly  decays ; 
besides  giving  out  a  stench  which  cannot  but  be  prejudicial  to  the  health 
of  the  animals.  These  objections  are  all  overcome  by  the  plan  before 
us.  The  bricks  are  indestructible,  and  the  price  at  which  they  can  be 
manufactured  is  stated  to  be  about  2^d.  per  square  foot. 


CARLSON'S  PATENT  DIRECT  ACTING  ENGINES  FOR  THE 
SCREW  PROPELLER. 

The  plate  of  these  engines,  which  we  gave  last  month,  will  be  found 
suggestive  to  the  draughtsman  and  designer  of  engines  for  the  screw. 

We  have  never  failed  to  express  our  conviction  that  geared  engines 
for  the  screw  will  ultimately  be  given  up  in  favour  of  the  direct  acting 
ones,  and  we  believe  that,  just  as  firmly  as  we  do  that  the  direct  acting 
system  in  locomotive  engines  will  never  be  abandoned  and  gearing 
substituted.  The  same  difficulties  which  are  felt  with  direct  acting  screw 
engmes  were  felt  with  locomotives,  and  were  conquered  by  judiciously 
adapting  the  means  to  the  end.  In  place  of  being  an  objection,  it  ought 
to  be  considered  rather  an  advantage,  that  the  screw  admits  of  a  high 
velocity  of  piston,  whereby  we  can  diminish  the  weights  and  space  occu- 
pied by  the  machinery.  We  have  seen  instances  where  a  pair  of  screw 
engines  have  occupied  more  space  than  they  would  have  done  had  they 
been  applied  to  paddle  wheels.  In  fact  they  were  a  pair  of  oscillating 
engines,  as  constructed  for  a  paddle  wheel  boat,  put  lengthwise  into  the 
ship,  and  occupying  nearly  double  the  length  in  the  vessel  they  ought 
to  have  done.  It  is  only  in  very  large  vessels  that  advantage  can  be 
taken  of  the  room  over  low  screw  engines,  and  even  then  it  interferes 
with  the  ventilation  and  the  facility  of  getting  at  the  parts  for  repair. 
On  these  accounts,  then,  it  is  desirable  to  place  the  cylinders  in  a  line, 
and  opposite  each  other,  as  in  the  case  before  us,  in  which  one  crank 
pin  serves  for  the  two  engines.  The  strain  between  the  piston  and  the 
crank  shaft  is  taken  by  a  wrought-iron  framing,  against  the  ends  of 
which  the  cyjioder  flanges  abut,  and  lateral  stiffness  is  obtained  by 
making  the  cylinders  act  as  distance  pieces  between  the  transverse 
bulkheads,  to  which  they  are  bolted.  The  slide  faces  project  through 
the  bulkheads,  and  are  thus  perfectly  accessible  for  examining,  or 
facing  up. 

All  the  moving  parts  are  designed  to  save  weight,  in  order  to  admit 
of  high  velocities.  The  piston  is  a  simple  casting  of  a  dished  form, 
which  gives  great  strength  and  a  much  more  convenient  means  of 
fixing  the  piston  rod,  than  the  pistons  as  ordinarily  constructed.  Its 
dished  form  admits  of  the  piston  rod  stuffing  box  being  sunk  into  the 
cover,  which  shortens  to  that  extent  the  distance  between  the  cylinder 
and  the  crank  shaft. 

The  air-pump  is  not  only  worked  at  the  same  speed  as  the  piston, 
but  the  valves  are  of  metal  instead  of  vulcanized  India-rubber,  as  has 
been  commonly  used,  under  similar  circumstances,  in  this  country; 
yet  the  patentee  affirms  that  air-pumps  on  this  construction  have  been 
working  for  a  considerable  time  at  a  speed  of  from  300  to  400  feet  per 
minute,  and  making  from  70  to  120  double  strokes  per  minute  without 
inconvenience.  The  air-pump  bucket,  it  will  be  observed,  is  a  solid 
bucket,  the  packing  being  accessible  from  the  upper  end.  The  pump 
draws  in  the  water  and  air  from  the  condenser,  on  making  its  upper 
stroke,  and  as  the  air  occupies  the  higher  place  the  rim  of  the  bucket 
first  strikes  the  elastic  medium,  which  sets  the  water  in  motion  with 


less  concussion,  the  air  forming  a  spring  between  the  bucket  and  the 
water.  The  valves  are  of  metal,  of  the  spindle  variety,  and  are  of  a  para- 
bolical shape,  so  that  they  are  pressed  equally  over  their  surface,  and 
gradually  lifted.  Spiral  springs  on  the  spindle  have  been  employed  by 
the  patentee,  to  cause  the  valves  to  shut  more  quickly. 

English  engineers,  who  might  hesitate  to  follow  Mr.  Carlson's  ex- 
ample in  the  construction  of  air-pumps,  may  choose  a  middle  course, 
by  applying  a  small  engine  to  work  the  air-pump  alone,  and  one  air- 
pump  and  condenser  would  then  suffice  for  the  two  cylinders.  The 
position  of  the  cylinders  would  entirely  prevent  any  risk  of  water  getting 
into  them  from  the  condenser,  which  might  be  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel. 

There  is  a  degree  of  ingenuity  about  these  engines,  which  entitles  Mr. 
Carlson  to  great  credit.  We  understand  that  he  has  constructed  a 
great  number  of  engines  on  these  and  other  plans,  which  have  earned 
for  him  a  high  reputation  on  the  continent. 

THE  IMPENDING  STRIKE  OF  ENGINEERING  ARTIZANS. 

It  is  with  deep  regret  that  we  have  witnessed  the  present  attempt,  on 
the  part  of  the  engineering  artizans,  to  coerce  the  leading  firms  of 
London  and  Lancashire ;  and  our  concern  is  the  greater,  because  the 
grounds  put  forward  by  them  are  so  absolutely  untenable,  that  their 
best  friends  are  utterly  precluded  from  accepting  their  defence.  For 
nine  years  the  conductors  of  this  journal  have  been  occupied  in  raising 
the  social  and  educational  condition  of  the  artizan  classes,  and  we  have 
never  hesitated  to  speak  out  in  plain  and  unmistakeable  language, 
whenever  we  conceived  their  interests  were  at  stake.  We  are  not, 
therefore,  afraid  that  in  the  present  instance  our  motives  will  be  mis- 
understood or  misrepresented  by  any  whose  character  lends  any  weight 
to  their  opinion. 

The  history  of  the  present  movement,  as  far  as  we  can  learn  from  the 
statements  of  the  men  themselves  and  their  representatives,  is  briefly 
this.  Early  in  1851,  under  what  circumstances  does  not  now  concern 
us,  Messrs.  Hibbert  and  Piatt,  of  Oldham,  signed  an  agreement  with 
their  men,  which  we  find  given  at  length  in  the  Operative,  a  weekly 
journal  representing  the  Amalgamated  Engineers'  Society.  They  are 
styled — "  Resolutions  of  a  meeting  of  engineers  and  machinists  of 
Oldham,  held  February  6th,  1851,  and  agreed  to  by  Messrs.  Hibbert 
and  Piatt : — 

"  No.  1 .  That  in  future,  all  planing,  slotting,  shaping,  and  boring 
machines,  at  the  workshop  of  the  undersigned,  be  worked  either  by 
mechanics  or  apprentices,  to  be  taken  up  by  them  as  they  fall  vacant. 

"  2.  That  the  labourers  at  present  employed  upon  those  machines, 
be  not  unduly  interfered  with  before  Christmas,  1851,  when  the  machines 
shall  fall  entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  mechanics ;  but  if  any  of  the 
labourers  are  discharged,  or  the  machines  otherwise  become  vacant,  the 
vacancies  shall  be  filled  up  by  the  mechanics  as  they  occur. 

"  3.  (Stipulates  for  the  discharge  of  an  obnoxious  foreman.) 

"  4.  That  systematic  overtime  be  abolished,  and  any  claims  for 
exemption  be  referred  to  the  District  Committee." 

In  a  circular  sent  to  the  London  firms,  and  from  a  letter  from  Mr. 
W.  Newton,  member  of  the  Council,  in  the  Times  of  25th  instant,  the 
abolishment  of  piece-work  and  overtime  (except  in  cases  of  breakdown, 
when  double  time  is  to  be  paid)  is  demanded,  and  Mr.  Newton  expressly 
disclaims  the  demand  for  the  discharge  of  labourers.  We  are  very  glad 
to  hear  that ;  but  it  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  Mr.  Newton  formed 
one  of  the  deputation  which  waited  on  Messrs.  Hibbert  and  Piatt,  and 
requested  them  to  accede  to  a  condition  under  which  the  whole  of  the 
machines  would  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  mechanics,  under  pain 
of  a  strike  on  the  ensuing  17th  of  the  month.  We  cannot  therefore 
but  infer  that  the  same  demand  would  have  been  made  in  London,  as 
it  is  not  pretended  to  be  denied  that  the  proceedings  in  both  places  are 


1852.] 


Reviews. —  Scythe  Making. 


under  the  direction  of  one  and  the  same  amalgamated  society.  But  we 
are  content  to  take  Mr.  Newton's  own  account  of  the  case,  and  we  will 
therefore  only  discuss  the  two  acknowledged  points — the  abolition  of 
piece-work  and  overtime. 

The  result  of  the  piece-work  system  is  this,  that  each  man  earns 
exactly  what  his  skill  and  industry  entitle  him  to,  and  no  more. 
Wherein  the  injustice  of  this  principle  lies,  we  confess  we  are  unable 
to  point  out.  The  advantage  we  have  found  to  be  this,  that  the  diffi- 
culty of  doing  justice  to  each  man  respectively,  on  the  day-work  plan, 
is  thereby  entirely  obviated.  Every  one  who  has  ever  had  to  employ 
engineers,  knows  that  he  may  have  two  men,  working  side  by  side,  one 
at  five  shillings  a  day;  and  if  that  man  be  worth  five  shillings  a  day,  the 
other  is  fairly  worth  ten,  and  yet  he  is  only  receiving  six  shillings. 
And  moreover,  if  it  were  attempted  to  raise  the  wages  of  the  better 
man,  the  other  would  immediately  expect  to  be  raised  in  the  same 
proportion.  Do  we  find  this  system  of  an  equalization  of  wages  hold 
good  with  any  mercantile  or  professional  business?  Does  the  clerk  at 
MbO  a  year  strive  to  reduce  the  salary  of  his  more  talented  fellow-clerk, 
who  gets  his  ,=£300  a  year  ?  Or  does  the  barrister,  as  yet  unknown  to 
fame,  refuse  five  guineas  with  a  brief,  because  a  leading  man  would  get 
fifty  ?  The  advantage  of  piece-work  is,  that  it  tends  to  counteract 
this  unfair  equalization  of  wages,  which  practically  takes  place,  and 
which  taxes  the  industrious  to  pay  the  idle.  But  Mr.  Newton  says, 
"  He  cannot  assert  that  we  (the  Council)  have  advocated  equality  of 
wages ;  on  the  contrary,  we  have  always  repudiated  the  doctrine.  If 
such  a  proposition  had  been  made  in  our  Council,  it  would  have  been 
laughed  at."  What  is  the  objection,  then,  to  piece-work  ?  With 
respect  to  overtime,  we  admit  it  to  be  bad  in  principle,  and  injurious 
far  more  to  the  masters  than  to  the  men ;  but  can  engineers  obtain  an 
exemption  from  the  ordinary  fluctuations  of  trade  ?  Take  farm 
labourers,  who  are  compelled  at  harvest  time  to  work  sixteen  or 
eighteen  hours  a  day ;  or  printers,  who  are  compelled  to  work  all  night 
towards  the  end  of  the  month  or  the  week;  in  what  do  the  cases  differ? 
Indeed,  is  it  likely  that  any  employer  would  work  overtime,  if  it  could 
be  avoided,  when  he  has  to  pay  for  2J  hours  instead  of  2,  and  does  not 
get  in  reality  more  than  1J  hour;  for  it  cannot  be  expected  that  a  man 
who  has  done  10  hours'  good  work  is  able  to  work  with  the  same 
vigour  for  another  quarter  of  a  day.  The  effect  of  abolishing  overtime 
entirely  would  be  to  draw  an  additional  number  of  men  into  the  trade, 
whenever  it  became  prosperous,  and  these  men  would  either  accept 
lower  wages,  when  trade  became  bad,  or  would  emigrate.  The  ultimate 
effect  in  either  case  would  be  to  deprive  the  really  hard-working  man  of 
all  opportunity  of  making  a  provision  for  old  age. 

If  we  are  to  believe  that  these  demands  are  required  by  the  most 
industrious  and  skilful  workmen,  how  is  it  that  that  class  have  always 
been  the  most  eager  to  take  advantage  of  working  overtime  when 
trade  was  good?  We  have  put  the  question  so  far,  entirely  as  it  con- 
cerns the  emolument  of  the  men;  but  we  entreat  them  to  reflect  that 
this  is  no  one-sided  question.  Those  who  object  to  overtime  and  piece- 
work are  at  liberty  to  refuse  either;  but  let  them  beware  how  they 
attempt  to  dictate  to  their  fellow-workmen  who  entertain  a  different 
opinion.  The  spirit  of  the  age  is  running  in  a  direction  so  entirely 
opposite,  that  any  such  attempt  cannot  fail  to  bring  with  it  its  own 
punishment. 

REVIEWS. 

A  Treatise  on  Agricultural  Buildings.  By  John  Ewart,  Law 
Surveyor.  London :  Longman  and  Co.  Newcastle :  Messrs. 
Lambert. 

The  progress  of  agricultural  literature  argues  well  for  the  advance- 
ment of  the  art  of  Husbandry,  and  it  is  with  pleasure  that  we  see  such 
works  as  the  one  before  us  issuing  from  the  press.  The  supply  denotes 
a  demand,  and  the  demand  shows  that  landlords  and  farmers  are  not 
willing  to  be  beaten  in  the  race  of  competition,  to  which  they,  in  com- 
mon with  the  rest,  are  now  exposed. 

Mr.  Ewart's  work  contains  a  very  complete  set  of  plans  of  buildings 
for  farms  of  various  magnitudes,  conducted  under  both  tillage  and 
grazing  systems,  with  specifications  and  estimates ;  although,  as  he 
justly  remarks,  detailed  estimates  are  no  criterion,  because  the  prices  of 
materials  and  labour  vary  in  every  locality.  A  very  good  plan  is  adopted, 
to  show  the  effect  of  alterations  and  additions  to  buildings  so  designed, 
by  attaching  to  the  plates,  supplementary  leaves,  which  are  fixed  at  one 
edge  only,  and  can  be  lifted  up  to  show  the  arrangement  beneath.  A 
comparison  is  thus  more  readily  made,  and  the  effective  number  of  plates 


increased.  The  plates  are  on  a  large  scale,  and,  as  well  as  the  letter 
press,  handsomely  got  up.  Altogether  it  is  a  work  to  which  we  can 
give  an  unqualified  commendation.  At  another  page  we  have  given  an 
extract  on  the  subject  of  the  construction  of  cattle  lairs,  in  which  the 
much  disputed  question,  as  to  the  respective  merits  of  the  fold-yard  and 
loose  box  systems  for  cattle,  are  discussed. 


A  LESSON  ON  SCYTHE  MAKING, 
Mr.  Charles  Hardy,  of  Lowmoor,  the  well  known  iron-works  in  York- 
shire, has  lately  specified  a  patent  (dated  15th  April,  1851),  for  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  scythes,  in  which  he  gives  such  a  complete 
history  of  the  affair,  that  we  cannot  refrain  from  quoting  it  from  the  Patent 
Journal. 

"  Hitherto,"  says  Mr.  Hardy,  "  scythes  have  been  made  from  iron  and 
steel  welded  together.  The  process  the  patentee  employs,  is  to  take  a  bar 
of  stfeel,  which  may  be  of  the  natural  or  cemented  kind,  hammered  or  cast. 
The  weight  of  the  scythe  to  be  fabricated  being  known,  that  of  the  steel  to 
be  employed  is  easily  proportioned.  The  bar  is  guaged  and  divided  into 
portions  representing  the  weight  necessary  for  one  scythe,  by  placing  the 
bar  in  a  tube,  into  which  is  introduced,  either  before  the  bar  or  at  the  same 
time,  and  successively  once  for  each  division,  an  iron  or  steel  guage,  gradu- 
ated, and  upon  which  a  moveable  stop  is  fixed  at  the  point  corresponding  to> 
the  required  weight.  The  tube  being  full  of  water,  the  guage  is  introduced, 
which  displaces  a  quantity  of  water  equal  in  volume  to  that  of  the  guage  ; 
the  bar  is  then  introduced  to  such  a  length  as  to  cause  the  water  in  the  tube 
to  reach  the  level  of  the  orifice.  Thus  the  volume  of  that  portion  of  the  bar 
introduced  into  the  tube  will  be  found  to  be  exactly  equal  to  that  of  the 
guage  previously  introduced.  A  mark  is  made  across  the  bar  with  a  brass 
point,  and  the  same  operation  is  continued,  until  the  whole  of  the  bar  is 
guaged.  Under  a  hammer,  moved  by  water  or  steam  power,  of  about  2  cwt., 
the  workman,  at  one  heat,  draws  out  the  bar  of  steel  to  about  the  length  of 
the  scythe,  of  a  blade-shape,  and  of  equal  thickness  throughout  to  that  of 
the  back  of  the  scythe.  Under  the  same,  or  a  similar  hammer,  a  workman 
draws  out  the  handle  of  the  scythe,  and  gives  it  its  curvature.  Another 
workman  forms  the  point  of  the  blade,  and  turns  up  the  extremity  of  the 
handle.  The  scythe  is  then  bevelled  under  a  hammer  of  about  3  cwts.  ;  it 
is  widened  by  the  workman  in  such  a  manner  as  to  retain  the  rib,  and  thin 
off  the  blade  gradually  to  the  edge.  This  operation  is  performed  in  about 
four  successive,  manipulations,  varying  more  or  less,  according  to  the  length 
and  width  of  the  scythe  ;  after  which  it  is  handed  over  to  the  workman  whose 
duty  it  is  to  set  off  the  rib,  and  to  give  it  the  required  appearance  ;  then, 
under  a  small  hammer  of  about  1^  cwt.,  it  is  planished  cold,  to  trim  it  and 
give  it  a  regular  form.  In  this  state,  the  edge  of  the  scythe  is  cut  out  by  the 
beam-cutting  machine,  or  by  the  hand-shears  ;  it  is  thus  finished,  and  ready 
for  hardening.  The  hardening  is  done  either  with  coal  in  a  furnace  of  a 
peculiar  description  described,  or  with  coke,  or  wood  charcoal,  in  open  fur- 
naces. When  the  scythe  has  been  brought  to  a  red  heat,  be  it  somewhat 
higher  or  lower,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  steel  used,  it  is  to  be  entirely 
immersed  in  a  bath  composed  of  beef  suet  and  mutton  fat,  mixed  with  about 
an  equal  portion  of  resin  deprived  of  water.  Upon  taking  it  out  of  the  -. 
hardening  bath,  it  is  dried  in  powdered  charcoal,  and  then,  while  hot,  it  is 
beaten  in  water,  after  having  been  slightly  heated  ;  or  better  still,  it  is 
washed  in  boiling  water,  which  removes  every  particle  of  grease,  and  then 
it  should  be  slightly  heated,  and  beaten  in  cold  water.  In  this  state  it  is 
reheated  and  annealed  in  sand,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  reheated  by  covering,  and 
annealed  successively,  with  red-hot  sand,  until  every  portion  of  it  becomes  a 
blue,  violet,  or  other  colour,  according  to  the  degree  of  hardness  which  it  is 
desired  to  give  to  the  scythe.  If  it  be  desired  to  sharpen  the  scythe  on  the 
grindstone  as  is  commonly  practised,  the  scythe  is  hardened  at  a  somewhat 
greater  heat,  and  reheated  and  annealed  at  a  somewhat  less  heat,  by  which 
it  is  rendered  harder.  It  is  then  finished  according  to  the  processes  commonly 
used  for  the  ordinary  scythe  of  iron  and  steel.  But  if  it  be  desired  to  make 
a  scythe  of  great  perfection,  the  first  reheating  and  annealing  must  in  general 
be  carried  as  far  as  the  blue  colour,  or  even  somewhat  farther.  After  this 
reheat  and  annealing,  the  scythe,  although  it  has  kept  its  edge  sufficiently 
hard,  has  acquired  a  certain  malleability,  and  is  able  to  support  hammering 


8 


English  Patents. —  Correspondence. 


[January, 


without  breaking.  Before  the  hammering,  or  even  before  the  reheat  and 
annealing,  according  to  the  colour  and  appearance  desired  to  be  given  to 
the  scythe,  it  is  scraped  with  a  steel  scraper  ;  and  as  soon  as  it  becomes 
perfectly  white  all  over,  it  is  reheated  and  annealed  in  sand,  to  bring  it  to 
the  desired  colour,  after  which  it  is  placed  under  a  small  hammer,  of  about 
li  cwt.,  making  about  300  strokes  per  minute,  having  on  the  anvil,  as  well 
'  as  the  hammer,  a  block  of  cast  steel,  tempered  hard,  polished,  and  shaped 
according  to  the  form  it  is  desired  to  give  the  scythe.  Under  this  hammering, 
the  scythe-blade  receives  a  brilliant  polish,  and  becomes  perfectly  smooth. 
The  finisher,  with  a  small  polished  hand-hammer  and  an  anvil  similarly 
polished,  goes  over  every  portion  of  the  scythe  upon  the  anvil,  and  with 
gentle  blows  of  the  hammer  gives  it  a  proper  appearance,  and  removes  any 
small  flaws  that  may  have  arisen.  According  to  what  is  necessary,  with 
regard  to  the  state  of  perfection  to  which  it  is  desired  to  bring  the  scythe, 
the  successive  operations  of  planishing  and  finishing  are  repeated  several 
times,  to  which  may  also  be  added,  if  required,  one  or  several  reheats  and 
annealings  before  the  planishing.  The  last  or  finishing  operation  is  per- 
formed by  a  more  experienced  workman,  well  versed  in  scythe-making,  who 
in  a  few  moments  rectifies  whatever  small  defects  of  form  may  have  arisen, 
and  gives  every  portion  the  proper  definitive  form.  After  this  operation 
there  only  remain  two  things  to  be  done  ;  the  first  is,  to  give  a  small  touch 
along  the  edge  on  the  grindstone,  to  remove  any  slight  unevenness  or  in- 
equality which  the  shearing  may  have  left,  or  the  planishing  and  finishing 
may  have  produced.  The  edge  is  given  by  applying  the  planishing  hammer 
to  the  edge  only  of  the  scythe.  Under  this  hammer  it  becomes  perfectly 
keen,  and  so  formed  as  to  enable  the  mower  to  use  the  scythe  at  once,  as  if 
it  had  been  done  on  the  stone.  "When  this  operation  has  not  been  performed, 
the  mower  gives  the  edge  himself,  by  means  of  a  small  hand-hammer  with  a 
cross  end,  and  a  small  portable  anvil,  composed  of  a  vertical  stock,  from  nine 
to  ten  inches  long,  with  a  head  like  a  hammer,  of  about  one  inch  square,  and 
finished  in  the  middle  with  a  cross  piece  of  an  8  shape,  or  other  analogous 
form.  He  then  passes  the  hand-stone  over  the  scythe,  as  ordinarily  practised. 
This  scythe  is  much  less  brittle  at  the  edge  than  the  common  scythe  sharpened 
on  the  stone.  The  edge  can  be  kept  equally  good,  hard,  and  tough  along 
the  whole  width  of  the  scythe  up  to  the  point ;  and  when  the  scythe  is  worn 
out,  it  is  not  a  mixture  of  iron  with  a  few  shreds  of  steel  which  remains,  but 
a  piece  of  excellent  steel,  which  can  be  rendered  very  serviceable  and  ad- 
vantageous for  agricultural  purposes.  Lastly,  to  protect  the  scythe  from  the 
effects  of  rust,  it  is  varnished  over  with  a  coat  of  copal  varnish,  which  is 
spread  over  (the  varnish  being  melted  and  the  scythe  heated),  by  means  of  a 
small  brush,  and  is  used  as  thin  as  possible. 

ABSTRACTS  OF  RECENT  ENGLISH  PATENTS. 
John  Ashworth,  of  Bristol,  manager  of  the  Great  Western  Cotton  Works, 
for  certain  improvements  in  the  method  of  preventing  and  removing  incrusta- 
tions in  steam  boilers  and  steam  generators.     May  29th,  1851. 
The  following  mixture  is  to  be  put  in  the  boiler,  in  the  proportion  of  one 
gallon  to  30  horses  power,  every  three  or  four  days  . — 
32  gallons  of  coal  tar, 
21  gallons  of  linseed  water, 
6  lbs.  of  pulverized  black  lead, 
8  lbs.  of  Castile,  or  common  soap. 
The  linseed  water  is  prepared  by  boiling  in  it  14  lbs.  of  linseed.      This 
mixture,  it  is  stated,  will  not  only  prevent  future  incrustation,  but  will  remove 
that  already  on  the  boiler.    In  the  Artizan  for  July  last,  we  stated,  on  the 
authority  of  the  Scientific  American,  that  coal  tar  had  been  tried  in  the 
United  States,  and  found  more  efficacious  in  preventing  incrustation  than 
any  other  material. 

A.  V.  Newton,  of  Chancery  Lane,/o?-  improvements  in  the  carbonization  of  coal, 
and  in  the  utilization  of  the  products  disengaged  during  that  operation  ;  in 
improving  the  qualities  of  the  products  intended  for  illuminating  purposes,  and 
in  regulating  the  same.     May  27th,  1851. 

This  invention  is  designed  to  produce  gas  coke  of  equal  value  to  that  at 
present  known  as  oven  coke,  and  the  gas  from  which  is  not  withdrawn  so  as 
to  make  use  of  it  for  illuminating  purposes.  This  is  proposed  to  be  attained 
by  using  large  ovens  instead  of  the  smaller  sized  gas  retorts,  and  by  cooling 


the  coke  without  the  access  of  atmospheric  air.  An  oven  and  a  cooling- 
chamber  are  so  arranged,  that  by  opening  a  sliding  door  between  them,  the 
coke  will  slide  down  from  the  oven  to  the  chamber  below,  whence  it  is  re- 
moved when  sufficiently  cooled.  The  oven  is  then  filled,  without  loss  of  time, 
through  a  sliding  door  in  its  higher  side.  The  oven  is  heated  by  furnaces 
beneath,  in  which  either  coal,  or  the  gas  produced  in  the  oven,  may  be  used. 
The  cooling  chamber  is  surrounded  with  channels,  through  which  the  atmo- 
sphere is  allowed  to  circulate,  in  order  to  reduce  the  temperature. 

The  method  of  regulating  the  passage  of  the  gas,  is  by  means  of  a  small 
gasholder,  acting  on  a  throttle  valve. 

We  doubt  whether  distilling  coals  in  such  masses  as  the  inventor  seems  to 
contemplate,  will  produce  gas  so  good,  either  in  quantity  or  quality,  as  where 
the  coals  are  distributed  over  a  larger  surface.  Circular  retorts  are  found 
objectionable  on  this  principle.  The  system  of  filling  and  discharging  seems 
ingenious,  and  likely  to  be  effective.  The  governor  does  not  appear  to  offer 
any  advantage  over  the  ordinary  one,  and  seems  more  liable  to  stick  from 
the  action  of  the  tar,  &c. 

Archibald  Slate,  of  Woodside  Iron  Works,  Worcester,  for  improvements  in 
steam-engines  and  steam-boilers ;  and  in  the  passages  and  valves  for  the  in- 
duction, eduction,  and  working  of  fluids.     May  27th,  1851. 
The  improvements  in  steam-engines  consist  in  placing  the  steam  cylinder 
within  a  larger  cylinder,  and  making  the  slides  of  annular  rings,  filling  up  a 
portion  of  the  space  between  the  inner  and  outer  cylinders.     By  this  means, 
the  pens  are  nearly  the  whole  circumference  of  the  cylinder  in  length,  and 
consequently  a  very  small  travel  of  the  slide  will  open  a  large  area  of  port, 
and  so  enable  the  engines  to  be  worked  at  a  very  high  velocity.      The  same 
principle  may  be  applied  to  the  valves  of  pumps. 

The  improvements  in  boilers  consist  in  making  the  stays  in  the  fire-l>oxes 
of  locomotives  hollow,  and  open  at  the  inner  end,  and  closed  at  the  outer. 
In  this  way  the  heat  can  pass  into  but  not  through  them.  The  stays  at  the 
sides  are  proposed  to  be  carried  through  the  fire-box,  to  form  water  tubes, 
and  give  additional  heating  surface. 

CORRESPONDENCE. 

EORM  OF  THE  SAILS  OE  VESSELS. 
To  the  Editor  of  the  Artizan. 

Sir, — Whilst  reading  your  interesting  journal,  I  lighted  on  the  following 
passage,  p.  188,  extracted  from  Mr.  Bourne's  work  on  the  screw  propeller. 
"  Hooke  says,  (writing  about  horizontal  windmills  in  1681,)  that  there  are 
certain  first  principles  common  to  the  sails  both  of  windmills  and  ships,  which 
it  is  important  should  not  be  transgressed,  if  an  efficient  performance  is 
required  ;  and  of  these,  the  first  is,  that  the  vane  or  sail  upon  which  the  wind 
impinges,  shall  be,  as  far  as  possible,  a  perfect  plane,  without  any  bellying, 
bunting,  or  curvity,  such  as  is  often  to  be  met  with  in  the  sails  of  ships,  and 
which  nautical  men  commonly  reckon  as  an  advantage." 

My  object  is,  to  call  the  attention  of  your  readers  to  the  manner  in  which 
this  prediction  has  been  fulfilled  in  the  trials  of  the  American  yacht,  America. 
Her  success  was  attributed  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  cut  of  her  sails,  which 
lay  as  flat  as  a  board,  without  any  bellying  ;  and  I  think  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  that  principle  is  the  correct  one.  Mr.  Hooke  was,  it  appears,  two 
centuries  in  advance  of  his  age,  like  many  other  men,  who  are  only  too  far- 
sighted  for  the  generation  in  which  they  live.  I  do  not  know  what  can  be 
said  in  favour  of  the  bellied  sail,  unless  there  exists  some  such  idea  as  "that 
it  holds  more  wind."  But  it  appears  to  require  hut  a  slender  knowledge  of 
mechanics,  to  see  that  a  body  passing  through  a  fluid,  whether  air  or  water, 
will  be  obstructed  in  proportion  to  the  "immersed  area,"  as  shipbuilders  say; 
and  it  is  evident  that  a  bellied  sail,  moving  obliquely  through  the  air,  offers 
a  greater  surface  for  resistance  than  a  perfect  plane  of  similar  dimensions.  I 
understand  that  some  experiments  have  been  made  at  the  Isle  of  Wight,  with 
sails  made  of  thin  board,  and  I  should  be  glad  to  hear,  from  some  of  your 
readers,  with  what  success.  It  seems  to  me  that  a  sail  of  this  kind  might  be 
made  so  as  to  furl  by  shutting  up  like  a  fan,  which  might  suit  the  material 
better  than  any  attempt  to  imitate  the  rolling  up  of  sail  cloth. 

I  am,  Sir,  yours,  &c. 

Inquirer. 


ON  MEASURING  THE  WATER  EVAPORATED  BY  BOILERS. 
To  the  Editor  of  the  Artizan. 
Sir, — I  am  connected  with  a  concern,  having  boilers  working  at  20  and 
60  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  and  as  I  have  no  means  of  guagiug  the  feed  water, 
I  cannot  correctly  estimate  the  quantity  of  water  evaporated  ;  if,  Mr.  Editor, 
any  your  numerous  readers  would  furnish  a  rule  for  ascertaining  the  quantity 
of  water  contained  in  a  cubic  foot  of  steam  at  each  of  those  pressures,  and 
supply  proof  of  its  correctness,  they  would  give  me  the  clue  for  arriving  at 
the  information  sought,  and  would  greatly  oblige, 

Yours  very  sincerely, 

T.  T.,  Jun. 
P.S. — Are  you  aware  of  any  metre  being  in  existence,  capable  of  measnre- 
ing  water  with  the  accuracy  required,  and  with  a  varying  amount  of  pressure 
always  acting  against  it? 


1852.] 


Notes  by  a  Practical  Chemist. — Steam  to  Australia. 


9 


NOTES    BY   A    PRACTICAL    CHEMIST. 


Combination  of  Arsenious  Acid  with  Albumen.  —  It  has 
latterly  been  maintained  by  Liebig  and  Muspratt,  that  arsenious  acid 
is  capable  of  forming  with  albumen  a  definite  and  moderately  stable 
compound,  and  that  this  reaction,  in  fact,  determines  the  poisonous 
effects  of  arsenic  when  introduced  into  the  system.  Other  chemists, 
again,  maintain,  that  no  true  combination  takes  place,  but  that  the  arsenic 
is  merely  entangled  in  the  albumen  in  a  mechanical  manner,  resembling 
the  action  of  animal  charcoal  upon  the  vegetable  alkalies,  and  other 
organic  bodies.  This  latter  opinion  is  especially  supported  by  the  ex- 
periments of  Mr.  Edwards,  who  finds  that  the  so  called  arsenite  of 
albumen  may  be  completely  freed  from  arsenious  acid  by  means  of 
boiling  water,  if  previously  triturated  so  as  to  "  break  up  the  mechanical 
net-work  of  the  coagulate."  Herapath,  who  has  recently  examined  the 
subject,  has  obtained  results  to  a  great  extent  confirmatory  of  those  of 
Edwards.  The  quantity  of  arsenious  acid  remaining  in  the  albumen, 
after  washing,  was  a  scarcely  appreciable  trace  not  near  the  atomic 
proportion  (0.632  per  cent.),  483  grains  of  albumen  having  been 
treated  with  3  grains  of  arsenious  acid,  the  washings  were  found  to 
contain  2.921  grains,  so  that  only  0.0/9  grain  remained  in  the  albumen. 
It  was  found,  moreover,  that  the  poisonous  properties  of  arsenic  are 
not  perceptibly  modified  by  previous  treatment  with  albumen  in  excess. 
It  need  scarcely  be  added,  that  these  experiments,  unless  some  unsus- 
pected source  of  error  has  crept  in  (which,  from  the  simplicity  of  the 
process,  and  the  character  of  the  operator,  is  highly  improbable),  must 
be  fatal  to  Liebig's  theory. 

Test  for  Iodate  of  Potassa  in  Iodide  of  Potassium. — ■ 
When  iodide  of  potassium  is  exposed  to  a  high  temperature  in  a  por- 
celain or  iron  vessel,  iodate  of  potassa,  if  present,  is  decomposed  and 
converted  into  iodide,  oxygen  being  given  off.  The  presence  of  oxygen 
gas  may,  of  course,  be  easily  shown  by  introducing  a  lighted  match 
into  the  mouth  of  the  crucible.  The  weight  of  the  remaining  iodide, 
deducted  from  what  was  put  into  the  crucible,  shows  the  amount  of 
oxygen  lost. 

Arsenic  present  in  Vegetable  Matter. — M.  Stein  finds, 
in  10,000  parts  old  linen,  0.11  of  arsenic;  in  ditto  rye-straw,  0.009; 
in  ditto  cow-dung,  3.0. 

Direct  Production  of  Cyanogen  from  the  Nitrogen  of 
the  Atmosphere. — Rieken  finds  that  carbonate  of  potassa,  mingled 
with  carbon,  and  exposed  to  a  current  of  nitrogen  gas,  is  entirely  con- 
verted into  cyanide  of  potassium,  at  the  temperature  at  which  potassium 
is  reduced.  This  result  proves  that  cyanogen  and  its  compounds  may 
justly  be  treated  in  inorganic  chemistry. 

Re-conversion  of  Chloride  of  Manganese  into  Per- 
oxide.— In  manufactories  where  chlorine  gas  is  extensively  used  (as  in 
the  preparation  of  bleaching  and  disinfecting  compounds),  a  considerable 
amount  of  the  chloride  of  manganese  is  formed.  This  may  be  re-con- 
verted into  pure  peroxide  by  the  following  process.  The  chloride  is 
dissolved  in  distilled  water,  and  kept  at  a  temperature  of  86° — 104°. 
Oxychloride  of  potassium,  sodium,  or  calcium,  is  then  added,  until  no 
further  change  of  colour  takes  place  in  the  precipitate  formed.  The 
supernatant  liquid  is  then  run  off,  and  the  precipitate  washed  with  a 
mixture  of  one  part  nitric  acid  and  50  of  water.  The  foreign  metals 
are  thus  dissolved  outt  and  the  peroxide  remains  pure  as  a  dark  brown 
powder. 

answers  to  correspondents. 

"B.  B."  Unless  you  have  a  practical  acquaintance  with  the  appa- 
ratus, &c,  used  in  preparing  prussiate  of  potash,  we  must  advise  you 
not  to  embark  in  the  manufacture.  The  instructions  you  may  find  in 
books  will  conduct  you  merely  to  the  Bankruptcy  Court. 


"  Bird's-eye"  is  informed  that  we  cannot,  in  conscience,  reveal  secret 
processes  which  have  been  communicated  to  us  in  confidence.  Let  him 
set  his  own  wits  to  work. 

"  Pharmaceutics. "  You  are  in  error ;  tartaric  acid  has  proved  fatal 
in  at  least  one  case. 

"  X.  P.,  Liverpool."  The  development  of  phosphuretted  hydrogen 
gas  from  putrefying  animal  matter  is  a  subject  of  dispute.  Liebig  denies 
it,  as  he  maintains  that  phosphorus  occurs  in  the  body  only  as  phos- 
phoric acid,  which  would  render  the  formation  of  the  above  deadly  gas 
impossible.  Those  who  consider  that  phosphorus  is  found  in  other 
combinations  (such  as  Mulder's  phosphamide),  are  of  a  different  opinion. 
We  are  not  in  possession  of  any  very  delicate  re-agent  for  phosphuretted 
hydrogen. 

S. 

STEAM    TO    AUSTRALIA. 

(Concluded  from  Vol.  IX.,  page  284.) 

Captain  William  Watts — Has  commanded  the  City  of  Rotterdam,  City 
of  London,  Sir  Robert  Peel,  and  the  Hellespont  screw  steamers,  belonging  to  the 
General  Screw  Company,  during  four  years  and  a  half,  and  during  the  whole 
time  has  not  had  a  casualty  which  has  stopped  the  vessel  an  hour,  or  obliged 
her  to  put  back  into  port;  prefers  iron  vessels  to  wood  for  the  screw.  The 
Hellespont  has  been  out  three  months,  and  has  no  fur  on  her  bottom ;  on  the  two 
voyages  out  and  home,  to  the  Cape,  her  average  speed  was  8.47  knots. 

The  screw  is  always  efficient  in  heavy  weather.  A  vessel  may  sail  within 
six  points  without  the  screw,  and  within  nine  points  with  the  screw.  In  a 
run  from  Malta  to  Gibraltar,  the  Hellespont  beat  a  Dutch  paddle  steamer, 
William  the  First,  by  spreading  canvas  as  soon  as  the  breeze  freshened.  In 
very  bad  weather,  an  auxiliary  screw  steamer  would  beat  to  windward  with 
the  aid  of  her  screw,  and  perform  a  greater  actual  distance  dead  to  windward 
than  a  paddle-wheel  vessel  of  full  power  could  do,  steaming  head  to  wind. 
Witness  believes  that  vessels  of  1,400  tons  and  250  horse  power  would  make 
an  average  of  8^  knots  in  all  weathers  in  the  Atlantic. 

Captain  John  Hyde — Has  commanded  vessels  for  the  last  five  years 
from  London  to  Adelaide;  believes  that  any  vessel  could  make  the  voyage 
round  Cape  Leuin  at  even  the  worst  period  of  the  year;  vessels  are  delayed 
in  going  round  Cape  Leuin  more  frequently  from  calms  and  light  winds 
than  heavy  gales ;  believes  that  steamers  would  make  the  passage  home  in 
less  time  than  the  passage  out,  and  that  auxiliary  screw  steamers  would 
maintain  an  average  of  8  J  knots.  The  average  speed  of  sailing  vessels,  which 
witness  has  commanded,  has  been  5  knots. 

Captain  John  Lane — Made  two  return  voyages  to  India  from  Australia, 
in  the  worst  months,  and  met  with  no  very  bad  weather.  The  passage  round 
Cape  Leuin  is  commonly  made  by  coasters  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  ;  has 
no  doubt  the  screw  vessels  proposed  will  easily  accomplish  an  average  of  8^- 
knots.  Once  commanded  a  barque,  the  Isabella  Blyth,  from  London  to  the 
Mauritius — she  was  443  tons,  and  was  fitted  with  a  pair  of  engines  of  30 
horse  power,  and  paddle  wheels  which  could  be  raised  or  depressed  about 
4  feet,  so  that  when  she  heeled  over,  the  wheels  could  be  trimmed  so  as  to 
keep  them  in  the  water.  The  steam  was  intended  for  calm  weather,  and  pro- 
pelled her  at  4|  knots.  The  machinery  was  designed  and  constructed  by 
Messrs.  J.  and  A.  Blyth  (misspelt  Bligh,  in  the  report),  engineers  of 
Limehouse. 

[This  gentleman,  we  observe,  has  since  taken  the  command  of  the  Har- 
binger, one  of  the  General  Screw  Company's  new  fleet.] 

Authur  Anderscn,  Esq.,  M.P. — Is  the  managing  director  of  the  Penin- 
sular and  Oriental  Steam  Navigation  Company.  That  Company  has  made 
four  separate  propositions  to  government  to  carry  out  the  Australian  packet 
service  ;— the  first  is  dated  17th  July,  1848,  and  states,  that  in  consequence 
of  the  uncertainty  of  the  amount  of  freight  and  passage  money  to  be  obtained 
on  the  line,  the  Company  proposes  that  Government  should  charter  two 
steamers  of  about  800  tons  and  250  horse  power,  and  run  them  for  twelve 
months,  making  six  voyages  between  Singapore  and  Sydney  ;  that  the 
Government  should  be  at  the  expense  of  coal  stations,  and  that  the  Company 


10 


Steam  to  Australia. 


[January, 


should  man  and  coal  the  vessels,'the  estimate  for  which  is  £29,800,  the  Com- 
pany doing  all  in  their  power  to  obtain  freight  and  passengers,  and  per- 
forming all  the  Home  and  Foreign  Agencies  without  charging  any  commis- 
sion for  the  same.  When  the  six  voyages  have  been  made,  the  profit  or  loss 
to  be  divided  in  the  following  way : — One-third  to  the  Government,  one- 
third  to  the  Colonial  Government,  and  one-third  to  the  Company.  That 
on  the  experience  thus  acquired  as  to  the  probable  traffic,  the  service  should 
be  put  up  to  tender  for  ten  years,  and_,  that  should  any  other  Company  than 
the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  obtain  the  contract,  such  Company  should  pay 
them  their  share  of  the  loss,  had  they  incurred  any,  by  the  agreement  before 
mentioned.  No  answer  was  given  to  this  proposal,  and  subsequently  tenders 
were  advertised  for,  for  the  Torres  Straits  route ;  in  answer  to  which,  the  Com- 
pany wrote,  on  November  2nd,  1848,  in  which  they  expressed  their  willingness 
to  abide  by  their  former  offer,  and  to  give  up  the  re-payment  to  them  of  the 
one-third  loss  if  there  were  any.  They  decline  to  tender  for  auxiliary 
screw-steamers,  as  punctuality  would  be  indispensable  in  running  in  con- 
junction with  the  other  lines.  With  full-powered  steamers  of  288  to  330 
tons  and  260  horse  power,  their  estimate  for  a  monthly  mail  between  Singa- 
pore and  Sydney  was  £60,000  per  annum,  and  an  additional  £6,000  if  the 
Government  decline  to  take  charge  of  floating  coal  depots  at  Cape  York 
and  Sandy  Cape.  The  Company  have  estimated  the  passenger  traffic  at 
only  10,000  per  annum,  on  account  of  .the  great  discrepancy  of  opinion 
amongst  those  best  qualified  to  give  an  opinion ;  but  they  are  willing  to  keep 
separate  accounts,  under  the  superintendence  of  a  government  officer,  of 
their  earnings  under  the  heads  of  passengers  and  freight,  and  should  it  prove 
greater  than  they  anticipate,  they  will  deduct  the  net  surplus  amount  from 
the  contract  sum,  after  allowing  26  per  cent,  for  repairs,  depreciation,  in- 
surance and  interest.  They  also  state,  that  should  any  other  Company  under- 
take the  contract  on  more  favourable  terms,  they  will  co-operate  with  them 
in  the  through  traffic. 

On  the  13th  January,  1851,  in  order  to  put  on  record  previous  semi-official 
communications,  a  letter  was  addressed  to  the  secretary  of  the  Admiralty 
(offering  to  postpone  the  consideration  of  the  line  between  Bombay  and  Suez, 
which  the  E.  I.  Co.,  declined  to  relinquish)  stating,  that  they  were  ready  to 
establish  the  desired  communication  with  Australia,  in  connexion  with  a 
line  of  steamers  between  Calcutta,  Penang,  Singapore,  and  Hong  Kong,  to 
be  arranged  so  as  to  afford  a  twice-a-month  postal  communication  between 
this  country  and  China,  and  a  direct  steam  communication  between  Bengal, 
the  Straits  settlements,  China  and  Australia,  excluding  the  Bombay  and 
Suez  service  altogether,  at  a  rate  of  6s.  3d.  per  mile,  being  exactly  the  same 
pro  rata  at  which  they  had  offered  to  execute  the  whole  service. 

The  last  proposal  was  in  answer  to  an  advertisement  issued  by  govern- 
ment, and  is  dated  13th  February,  1851.  It  states  that  the  Company 
is  willing  to  abide  by  any  of  their  former  offers,  or  to  carry  the  mails  on  the 
terms  recommended  by  the  Committee  of  the  House  of  Lords,  1847,  viz. — 
that  the  Company  shall  receive  the  postage  of  all  letters  they  may  convey, 
at  not  less  than  the  rates  now  established,  of  Is.  per  single  letter  not  exceed- 
ing half-an-ounce.     This  offer  has  been  officially  declined. 

It  was  proposed  to  take  the  western  route  between  Singapore  and  Sydney, 
round  Cape  Leuin,  both  out  and  home,  as  that  would  give  the  greatest 
accommodation  to  the  colonies.  The  vessel  would  first  touch  at  Batavia, 
and,  if  necessary,  at  Shark's  Bay,  for  coals;  also  for  coals  at  Swan  River, 
and  St.  George's  Sound,  then  Adelaide,  and  then  Port  Philip  (from  which 
a  branch  steamer,  provided  by  the  colonial  legislature,  would  take  the  mails 
for  Van  Diemen's  Land),  and  thence  to  Sydney.  At  85  knots  this  would 
occupy  29  days,  and  would  bring  Sydney  within  72  days  of  London. 

If  the  eastern  route  were  adopted  through  Torres  Straits  (see  ante, 
p.  234),  Sydney  would  be  reached  first;  but  it  is  supposed  that  this  passage 
would  delay  a  steamer  more  than  calling  at  the  ports  on  the  western  route, 
and  that,  therefore,  Sydney  would  not  receive  the  letters  any  sooner,  whilst 
the  other  colonies  would  be  prejudiced.  Setting  aside  the  question  of  the 
danger  of  Torres  Straits,  they  involve  coming  round  an  immense  tract  of 
coast,  where  there  are  no  settlements  and  no  intercourse.  Witness  has 
examined  a  number  of  captains,  and  they  have  concurred  in  opinion,  that 
there  is  no  more  difficulty  in  getting  round  Cape  Leuin  than  in  crossing  the 
Bay  of  Biscay,  nor  so  much. 


English  coal  at  Hong  Kong  costs  from  50s.  to  £3;  at  Singapore,  about 
45s. ;  at  Suez,  from  £4  to  £5. 

Witness  is  of  opinion,  from  considerable  experience  in  such  matters,  that 
no  Company  could  have  a  fleet  of  15  steamers,  as  proposed,  built,  and  set 
running  in  18  months.  Witness  knows  Mr.  Green,  Messrs.  Miller  and 
Ravenhill,  Mr.  Penn,  Messrs.  Kobinson  and  Co.,  Messrs.  Napier  and  Co., 
and  Messrs.  Scott,  Sinclair  and  Co.  All  these  men  are  very  respectable 
builders  and  engineers. 

Q.  3330. — These  men  having  guaranteed  to  find  vessels  within  18  months, 
should  you  consider  that  to  he  a  sufficient  guarantee  that  those  vessels 
could  be  found?— I  should  not,  decidedly. 

Q.  3331.— On  what  ground? — Because,  in  my  experience,  those  guaran- 
tees are  worth  nothing. 

Q.  3332. — Then  you  would  take  no  guarantee  of  any  sort? — Not  for 
time. 

The  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company  contracted  for  5  or  6  ships  for  the 
India  service,  with  respectable  parties,  under  stamped  contracts,  with  a  fine 
attached  for  loss  of  time;  but  it  was  impossible  to  enforce  it,  because  the  delay 
arose  from  causes  over  which  the  contractors  had  no  control,  although  the 
ships  were  12  months  after  time.  It  is  possible  to  draw  a  contract  under 
which  the  fine  may  be  easily  enforced,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  get  builders  and 
engineers  to  take  such  a  contract. 

If  the  voyage  from  England  to  Sydney  had  to  be  performed  at  an  average 
speed  of  11  knots  (as  the  latest  Cunard  and  West  India  Mail  steamers),  it 
would  be  done  at  a  most  enormous  expense. 

(At  a  re-examination,  witness  hands  in  a  time-table,  calculating  the 
speed  at  10^  knots,  which  gives  62  days  between  London  and  Sydney,  as 
against  72  days  at  8£  knots.  No  statement  is  mentioned  as  to  the  extra 
charge  for  the  higher  speed.) 

Witness  has  not  had  sufficient  experience  of  auxiliary  screw  vessels  to 
speak  confidently  of  them;  but  is  of  opinion,  that  they  could  not  be  depend- 
ed on  for  regularity.  The  whole  postal  lines  concentrate  at  Point  de  Galle, 
where  the  Chinese  Mail  is  transferred  from  the  Calcutta  steamer  to  the 
China  line  of  steamers.  Out  of  no  less  than  74  voyages,  the  steamers  of  the 
Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company  have  always  met  at  Point  de  Galle 
within  48  hours  of  each  other,  and  there  was  only  one  occasion  on  which  the 
China  mail  missed  the  homeward  steamer.  Witness  does  not  think  such 
regularity  could  be  maintained  by  screw  steamers,  running  in  combination 
with  paddle-wheel  steamers.  Has  heard  part  of  the  evidence  of  Captain 
Matthews,  but  it  has  not  shaken  his  opinion.  The  vessel  he  commanded  was 
larger  than  could  be  put  upon  the  Australian  service,  and  his  observations 
were  confined  to  the  homeward  voyage. 

The  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company  would  have  no  difficulty  in  raising 
another  million  capital,  as  they  have  lately  issued  half-a-million  in  50/. 
shares,  of  which  only  5?.  has  been  called;  and  they  have  a  reserve  fund 
applicable  as  capital. 

[From  not  hearing  the  whole  of  Captain  Matthew's  evidence,  probably, 
Mr.  Anderson  appears  to  have  assumed, that  his  remarks  applied  only  to  the 
homeward  voyages,  whereas  it  will  be  seen  that  he  speaks  of  the  average  of 
both  out  and  home.] 

Captain  B.  R.  Matthews — Was  commander  of  the  Great  Western  and 
City  of  Glasgow,  and  is  now  commander  of  the  Great  Britain.  Has  made 
102  passages  across  the  Atlantic,  in  steamers.  Has  made  twelve  voyages 
with  the  screw,  and  never  had  an  accident  with  it;  prefers  it  to  the  paddle- 
wheel.  With  light  winds  and  smooth  water  would  prefer  a  full-powered 
screw  or  paddle-wheel  vessel ;  but  in  heavy  gales,  such  as  are  said  to  be 
found  off  the  Western  coast  of  Australia,  has  no  doubt  that  the  proposed 
vessels  will  be  able  to  maintain  an  average  of  more  than  8£  knots.  Those 
vessels  witness  has  seen  are  better  formed,  have  a  greater  rise  of  floor,  than 
the  City  of  Glasgow,  and  ought  to  make  a  better  speed.  The  weather,  in  the 
Atlantic,  it  is  presumed,  is  worse  than  on  an  Australian  voyage,  and  the 
average  of  the  City  of  Glasgow  was  8  knots  out  and  10  home,  or  a  general 
average  of  9  knots.  That  exceeds  the  average  of  the  Great  Western,  during 
the  three  years  that  witness  commanded  her. 

The  following  are  the  particulars  of  five  voyages  of  the  City  of  Glasgow .— 


1852.] 


On  the  Dynamical  Stability  of  Floating  Bodies. 


11 


out.  Days.  Hours. 

1st  trip  to  New  York  17        0   (detained  with  ice). 

2nd      „           „        .  14        6 

3rd      „           „        .  15        8 

4th       „           „        .  14  10 

HOME. 

1st  trip  from  New  York  14  6 
2nd  „  „  .  14  14 
3rd        „  „        .         15        0 

4th         „  „         .         14         8 

1st  trip  from  Liverpool  to  Philadelphia  21         6 
This  trip  the  Mail-hoats  took  18  days  to  New  York. 
1st  trip  from  Philadelphia  13         15 

The  worst  speed  witness  ever  made  in  had  weather  was  160  miles  in  the 
24  hours,  that  is  through  the  water — say  120  miles  on  the  direct  course. 
Witness  has  known  the  Great  Western  make  only  40  miles  in  24  hours. 
In  one  of  the  voyages  from  Philadelphia  witness  made  a  greater  average 
speed  than  the  Niagara,  a  full-powered  paddle  steamer  of  Cunard's,  which 
sailed,  nearly  at  the  same  time,  from  New  York. 

The  City  of  Glasgow  is  300  horse-power,  nominal,  and  witness  supposes 
the  highest  power  they  were  capable  of  working  at  was  500.  At 
that  power  the  consumption  of  coal   was  from  30  to  32  tons  per  day,  and 

the  highest  speed,  under  steam  alone,  10?  knots. 2EL  ±=  5.6  lbs.  of 

4  300  h.  p. 

coal  per  horse  power  per  hour.  The  screw  could  be  disconnected,  but  not 
feathered.  On  one  occasion,  when  the  vessel  was  making  10^  knots,  with 
the  engines  and  screw  going,  the  screw  was  disconnected,  and  allowed  to 
drag,  which  reduced  the  speed  to  8  j  knots.  It  would  not  pay  to  lose  2knots, 
and  therefore  the  fires  were  never  put  out;  but  the  consumption  of  fuel  was 
reduced  under  such  circumstances,  with  a  leading  wind,  to  18  tons  in  24 
hours.  This  would  be  saved  in  the  vessels  witness  has  seen,  because  the 
feathered  screw  offers  no  obstruction  to  the  vessel.  Witness  would  bank  up 
the  fires,  and  keep  the  water  at  such  a  temperature  that  steam  could  be  got 
up  very  quickly.  Witness  is  only  doubtful  that  in  large  screws  there  might 
be  some  corrosion  or  derangement,  unless  the  screw  were  feathered  pretty 
often;  but  he  likes  the  principle.  Witness  is  not  an  advocate  for  lifting  the 
screw  out  of  the  water  (in  place  of  feathering  it),  not  so  much  for  fear  of 
derangement  of  the  machinery;  "but  when  you  are  scudding,  and  you  are 
caught  suddenly  by  a  heavy  wind,  you  require  the  screw  in  action  im- 
mediately to  keep  the  vessel  steady,  and  prevent  the  sea  breaking  over  her 
stern;  you  are  wallowing  about  in  the  trough  of  the  sea  while  you  are 
putting  the  screw  in  ;  the  motion  of  the  sea  is  terrific  at  that  time,  and 
you  want  the  power  of  the  screw  applied  immediately;  you  cannot  afford 
to  lose  ten  minutes  in  fixing  the  screw." 

Note. — One  of  our  correspondents  has  fallen  into  a  slight  error,  by  taking  it  for  granted 
that  the  greater  portion  of  this  evidence  is  given  in  the  words  of  the  witnesses.  The  only 
part  so  given,  a  very  small  one,  is  marked  by  inverted  commas.  We  have  given  the 
spirit  not  the  letter. — Ei>.  Arlizan. 


ON  THE  DYNAMICAL  STABILITY  OF  FLOATING  BODIES. 

(Continued  from  Vol.  IX.,  page  279). 
BY  ROBERT   RAWSON,   PORTSMOUTH  DOCKYARD. 

(23.)  To  approximate  to  the  volume  included  by  a  curved  surface  and  given 
planes. 

It  has  been  already  observed,  that  the  solution  of  this  problem  depends 
entirely  upon  the  solution  of  the  preceding;  the  only  difference,  then, 
between  the  two  questions  is,  that  in  this,  the  units  of  area,  which  are  ob- 
tained by  the  preceding  rules,  have  to  be  summed  in  order  to  approximate 
to  the  required  volume.  The  square  units,  contained  in  the  sections  into 
which  the  geometrical  solid  is  divided,  have  the  same  relation  to  the  cubjc 
units  in  the  solid,  as  the  linear  units  contained  in  the  ordinates  of  a  plane 
curve  have  to  the  square  units  in  the  curve.  Mathematically  considered,  all 
the  difficulties  in  finding  the  volume  of  a  geometrical  solid  are  to  be  found 
in  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  quadrature  of  curved  lines.  And  the 
principal  question  to  be  considered,  in  the  approximation  to  the  area  of  curved 


lines  and  volumes  of  geometrical  solids,  is,  will  the  same  rule  of  approxima- 
tion which  is  applied  to  the  former  give  results  involving  unimportant 
practical  errors  when  applied  to  the  latter  ?  This  question  can  be  answered 
only  in  particular  examples  ;  but  the  remarks  which  have  been  made,  and  the 
formulae  which  have  been  given,  in  the  preceding  articles,  will  be  of  consider- 
able use  in  assisting  those  who  may  be  engaged  in  computations  of  this 
kind,  to  select  the  best  formula,  to  ensure  a  near  approximation. 
A  >  Ba 


(24.)  Let  A  A3  B3,  &c.,  be  a  solid,  contained  by  the  plane  A  D,  &c,  and  the 
curved  surface  A3  B3,  &c.  It  is  then  divided  into  a  convenient  number  of 
parallel  sections,  A  A3,  B  B3,  &c.,  at  equal  distances,  A  B  =  B  C,  &c,  for  the 
same  reason  that  a  plane  curve  is  divided  into  a  number  of  equidistant 
ordinates.  The  area  of  each  section  is  then  obtained  by  one  of  the  foregoing 
rules,  and  perpendiculars,  A  A4,  B  B4,  C  C4,  &c.,  to  A  D,  are  drawn,  making 
A  A4  equal  to  the  area  in  the  section  A  A3,  and  B  B4  equal  to  the  area  in 
the  section  B  B3,  &c,  giving  the  curved  line  A4,  B4,  C4,  &c.  Now,  the 
area  in  square  units  included  by  the  straight  line  A  D,  &c,  and  the  curve 
A4  B4,  &c,  will  represent  the  volume  of  the  solid  A  A3,  B3,  &c.,  &c,  in 
cubic  units.  The  greater  the  number  of  sections  into  which  the  solid  is 
divided,  the  nearer  this  process  will  approximate  to  the  volume  required. 


(25.)  This  diagram  will  show  the  application  of  the  foregoing  rules  to 
compute  the  immersed  volume  of  a  ship,  an  element  by  means  of  which  the 
weight  of  the  vessel  and  its  contents  can  be  readily  obtained. 

A,  C3,  &c,  is  a  plane  about  which  the  ship  is  symmetrical;  that  is,  the 

ordinates  A,  A/,  A2  A.,',  &c,  perpendicular  to  the  plane  A,  C3,  &c,  and 

extending  to  the  outer  surface  of  the  ship  A/,  A2',  &c,  on  both  sides  of  the 

plane  A,  C3,  &c,  are  equal.     The  plane  A,  C3,  &c.  then  divides  the  ship 

into  two  equal  parts  in  the  direction  of  its   length,  and  perpendicularly  to 

the  water-line  plane.     The  parallel  sections,  A,'  A3,  B/  B3,  C,'  C3,  &c,  are 

called  horizontal,  and  the  parallel  sections  A/  C,,  A/  C2,  A3'  C3,  are  called 

vertical.    Both  the  vertical  and  horizontal  sections  are  drawn  at  equally 

distant  intervals,  their  position  and  number  being  fixed  at  the  discretion  of  the 

draughtsman;  so  that  A,  A2=:  A2  A3,  &c,  &c,  and  A,  B,  =  B,  C,,  &c,  &c. 

The  ordinate,  A,  A/  =  a,  B,  B/  =  b,  C,  C/  =  c, 

A2A2'z=:<z2  B,B2'  =  62  C2C2' =  c2 

A3  A3'  =  a3  B3  B3'  =  b3  C3  C3'  =  e3 

&c.    &c.  &c.    &c.  &c.     &c. 

A,  A2  =  A2  A3  &e.  =  n 

A,  B,  =  B,  C,  &c.  =  m 


12 


Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


[January; 


(26.)  The  areas  of  the  sections  of  a  solid  are  summed  to  obtain  its  volume* 
exactly  as  the  lengths  of  the  ordinates  of  a  plane  curve  are  summed  in  order 
to  obtain  its  area.  And  it  can  be  shown,  that  the  same  volume  is  obtained 
by  summing  the  vertical  sections,  as  by  summing  the  horizontal,  when 
Simpson's  rule  is  used. 

Let  H,  H2  and  H3  represent  the  areas  of  the  three  horizontal  sections  ; 
then  by  Simpson's  rule  we  shall  have 


+  4  b2  +  b3  >  See  equation  (l,)art.  (20). 


Put  V  to  represent  the  volume  A,  C3' 
m  C 
V=--?H.  +  4  H2+H3 


m  ( 

=  7f' 


m C n  4«  n 

=  —  ]—  (a, +  4  «2  +  e,)+ (&,+  4&2  +  63)+  — (c,  +  4c2  +  c3) 

3(3  3  3 


+  4a2  +  as  +  46,  +  16i2  +  4  b3  +  c,  +  4  c2  +  c3 


(1). 


ButV 


V2 
+  4V,    !■   V 


+  4  b3  +  c3>  Seeequation(l)art.(20). 


4m  m  ' 

+  4  b,  +c,)  +  —  (a,  +  4b2+  c2)  +  —  (a3  +  463  +  c3) 
3  3  I 

,  +  4  b,  +  c,  +  4  a2  +  16  b2  +  4  c2  +  a3  +  4  63  +  c3 ' 


Again,  let  V,,  V2,  and  V3  represent  the  areas  of  the  three  vertical  sections; 
then  by  Simpson's  rule  we  have 
m  ( 

m  C 

=  —  <a. 
3   I 

—  —  )«3  +  4  b3  +  c3[se 

-#• 

3(3 

WW     f 

— r r 

—  ^.Ja(  +  4ojl  +  a,  +  4  4/+16  6a-H4*s+c/  +  4ca+c»K2). 

Now,  equations  (1)  and  (2)  are  identical ;  therefore  the  same  volume  is 
obtained  by  summing  the  vertical  sections  as  by  summing  the  horizontal. 

(27.)  If  the  outer  surface,  A/  C3'(see  figure  art.  25)  be  determined  from 
the  parabolic  equation, 

z  =  A  +  Bx  +  O2  +  Hy  +  E y2  +  ~Fxy  +  Gxhj  +  Hn/2  +  Ir2*,2  (a),' 
where  A,  B,  C,  &c.  are  constant  quantities,  depending  on  the  points  A/, 
&c. ;  the  volume  included  by  this  surface  and  the  various  planes  in  the  figure 
will  be  the  same  as  that  obtained  by  Simpson's  erule.  The  constants  A,  B, 
C,  &c,  must  be  determined  by  making  the  surface  (a)  pass  through  the  nine 
points,  A,",  A2',  &c.;  this  will  give  the  nine  following  equations,  from  which 
the  values  of  A,  B,  C,  &c.  may  be  obtained  by  the  ordinary  methods  of 
elimination. 

a,  =  A 
a2  —  a,  =  Bra  +  Cn5 
a3  —  a,=  2Bn  -f  4  Cm2 

b,  —  a,  =  Dm  -\-  Em2 

c,  —a,  =  2T)m  +  4  Em2 

b2  —  b,  +  a,  —  a2  =  Enm  +  Gn2m  +  Hrem2  +  In  V 
b3  —  bf  +  a,—a3  =  2T?nm  +  4  GrAn  +  2Hnm2  +  4ln2M2 
c2  —  c,  +  a,  —  a2  =  2Fwn  +  2Gre2m  +  4Hwn2  +  4ln2»i2 
c3  —  c,+al  —  a3  =  4¥nm  +  8Gn2m  +  8Hnm2  +  16  In2??!1 
From  these  nine  equations  the  following  values  of  A,  B,  C,  &c.  may  be 
readily  obtained. 


A=.at 
2   Bre  ss  4a2  —  3a,  —  a3 
2  C/i2  =  a,  —  2a2  -f-  a3 
2  Dra  :=  4&  —  3a,  —  c, 
2  Em2  =  a,  —  2b,  +  c, 

4  Enm=  9a,  —  12a2  +  3a3  —  12J,  +  1652  —  4&3  +  3e,  —  4c2  +  c3 
4  Gn%  =  —  3a,  +  6a2  —  3a3  +  4b,  —  8b2  +  4&3  —  c,  +  2c2  —  c3 
4  Hnms=  —  3a,  +  4a2  —  a3  -|-  6&,  —  8J2  -f  2&3  —  3c,  +  4c2  —  c3 
4  In2m2=  a,  —  2a2  -J-  a3  —  26,  +  462  —  263  +  c,  —  2c2  +  c3 
The  volume  of  the  elementary  solid  A, '  C3'  will  be  represented  by  (see 
Gregory's  Examples,  p.  425), 


s*in pim  mn  C 

.J  otSo  zdxdy  ~      > 


36a,  +  36B»  +  4802  +  36Dm  +  48Em2 


+  36Frem  +  48Gn2m  +  48Hnm2  +  64  InW 


= <ar  +  4a2  +  a3  +  4b,  +  1662  +  4J3  +  c,  +  4c2  + 


which  is  the  same  as  equation  (2),  art.  (26.)  Therefore  the  usual  mode  of 
approximating  to  the  volume  of  the  solid  of  immersion  leads  exactly  to  the 
same  result  as  that  obtained  by  supposing  the  elementary  surface  passing 
through  the  nine  points  A,',  A2',  &c.  to  coincide  with  the  surface  whose 
equation  is  represented  by  equation  (a). 

SOCIETIES. 

INSTITUTION  OF  MECHANICAL  ENGINEEKS. 
22d  October,  1851. 

"  On  the  Preservation  op  Timber  by  Creosote,"  bt  Mr.  J.  E. 
Clift,  Birmingham. 

In  the  present  day,  when  the  requirements  for  timber,  in  the  various 
mining,  engineering,  and  other  works,  are  so  great,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
consider  carefully  the  best  means  of  rendering  it  as  durable  as  possible,  and 
that  at  the  least  expense;  and  the  writer  cannot  think  that  sufficient  atten- 
tion has  been  paid^to  the  subject  by  the  parties  most  interested,  from  the  fact 
that  but  few  of  the  larger  consumers  of  that  article  have  adopted  any  plans 
for  its  preservation;  and  this  fact  must  be  the  apology  for  bringing  before 
the  institution  a  paper  upon  a  process  which  has  been  partially  in  use  for 
several  years. 

In  looking  through  the  colliery  districts,  it  is  found  that  thousands  of  loads 
of  timber  are  taken  green  from  the  forests,  and  used  every  year;  and  the 
greater  portion  is  used  in  the  pits,  where,  owing  to  damp  atmosphere  and 
increased  temperature,  it  is  rotted  in  a  few  months ;  whereas,  with  a  small 
expense,  it  might  be  made  to  last  for  years. 

It  may  be  observed,  also,  that  the  railway  engineers  are  seeking  for  a  more 
durable  bearing  for  the  rails  in  iron  sleepers,  and  overlooking  the  means  of 
making  wood,  which js  allowed  to  be  the  most  agreeable  for  travelling  upon, 
the  most  durable  as  well  as  the  most  economical  material  for  the  permanent 
way. 

Wood  may  be  briefly  stated  to  be  composed  of  a"fibrous  tissue,  which, 
upon  examination  with  the 'microscope,  is  found  to  consist  of  longitudinal 
tubes,  arranged  in  concentric  rings  around  the  centre  pith ;  these  tubes 
varying  in  diameter  from  ^th  to  jjgth  part  of  an  inch.  The  use  of  these 
tubes  in  a  growing  tree  is  to  convey  the  sap  from  the  root  to  the  branches; 
and  after  the  tree  is  cut  up  for  use  they  contain  the  chief  constituent  of  the 
sap,  vegetable  albumen — a  substance  very  much  resembling  in  its  composition 
animal  albumen,  orthe  white  of  an  egg.  Different  woods  vary  in  the  pro- 
portion which  they  contain  of  this  substance;  but  in  the  softer  woods  it 
averages  one  per  cent. 

The  dry  rot  in  timber  is  caused  by  the  putrefaction  of  the  vegetable  albu- 
men, to  which  change  there  is  a  great  tendency ;  and  when  once  this  has 
taken  place,  it  soon  infects  the  woody  fibre,  inducing  decomposition,  and 
causing  its  entire  destruction. 

Many  plans  have  been  proposed  to  arrest  this  evil,  each  with  more  or  less 
success;  the  chief  aim  of  the. authors  heing^to  coagulate  the  albumen  by 


1852.] 


Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


13 


means  of  metallic  salts,  and  so  prevent  putrefaction.  Among  others  may 
be  mentioned  the  following,  as  being  the  most  successful : — Kyan's  process, 
by  the  use  of  chloride  of  mercury;  Burnett's  by  chloride  of  zinc;  and 
Payne's,  by  sulphate  of  iron  and  muriate  of  lime,  forming  an  insoluble  pre- 
cipitate in  the  pores  of  the  wood.  To  each  of  these  plans  there  are  serious 
objections  in  practice.  In  the  first  place,  when  metallic  salts  are  injected 
into  timber  in  sufficient  quantities  to  crystallize,  the  crystals  force  open  the 
pores,  causing  a  disruption  of  the  fibre,  and  when  the  timber  afterwards 
becomes  wet  they  dissolve,  leaving  large  spaces  for  the  lodgment  of  water, 
and  rendering  the  timber  much  weaker.  Secondly,  the  metallic  salts  being 
incapable  of  sealing  the  pores  of  the  wood,  the  fibre  is  still  exposed  to  the 
action  called  eremacausis, — a  process  of  oxidation,  after  the  albumen  has  been 
precipitated.  These  processes  are  also  objectionable  for  wood  that  requires 
iron  inserted  in  or  attached  to  it,  as  the  acids  act  upon  the  iron  in  a  manner 
well  known,  and  ultimately  destroy  it. 

The  plan  that  is  the  subject  of  the  present  paper  is  the  one  invented  by 
Mr.  Bethell,  for  the  use  of  a  material  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  coal  tar. 
This  material  consists  of  a  series  of  bituminous  oils,  combined  with  a  portion 
of  creosote;  this  latter  substance  being  acknowledged  to  possess  the  most 
powerful  antiseptic  properties.  The  action  of  this  material  may  be  thus 
described : — When  injected  into  a  piece  of  wood,  the  creosote  coagulates  the 
albumen,  thus  preventing  the  putrefactive  decomposition,  and  the  bituminous 
oils  enter  the  whole  of  the  capillary  tubes,  encasing  the  woody  fibre  as  with 
a  shield,  and  closing  up  the  whole  of  the  pores,  so  as  entirely  to  exclude 
both  water  and  air;  and  these  bituminous  oils  being  insoluble  in  water,  and 
unaffected  by  air,  renders  the  process  applicable  to  any  situation.  So  little 
is  this  oil  affected  by  atmospheric  change,  that  the  writer  has  seen  wrought- 
iron  pipes  that  had  merely  been  painted  over  with  it,  and  laid  in  a  light 
ground  one  foot  beneath  the  surface,  taken  up  after  twenty  years,  and  they 
appeared  and  smelt  then  as  fresh  as  when  first  laid  down. 

By  using  these  bituminous  oils,  the  most  inferior  timber,  and  that  which 
would  otherwise  soonest  decay,  from  being  'more  porous  and  containing 
more  sap,  or  being  cut  too  young  or  at  the  wrong  season,  is  rendered  the 
most  durable.  This  will  be  readily  understood,  when  it  is  considered  that 
this  porous  wood  will  absorb  a  larger  portion  of  the  preserving  material 
than  the  more  close  and  hard  woods:  in  fact,  the  soft  woods  are  rendered 
hard  by  this  process.  By  this  means,  therefore,  engineers  will  be  enabled  to 
use  a  cheaper  timber  with  greater  advantage  than  they  could  use  a  more 
expensive  timber  uncreosoted;  —  thus,  taking  the  cost  of  a  sleeper  of 
American  yellow  pine  at  4s.,  and  one  of  Scotch  fir  at  3s.,  and  then  adding 
Is.  to  the  latter  for  creosoting-,  the  two  would  be  the  same  cost;  but  the 
former  one  would  last,  under  the  most  favourable  circumstances,  not  more 
than  ten  or  twelve  years,  and  the  other^would  be  good  under  any  circum- 
stances, in  all  probability,  in  a  hundred  years. 

This  system  of  preserving  timber  has  been  in  use  on  several  railways,  and 
other  works,  for  several  years  past.  A  portion  of  the  London  and  North 
"Western  Railway,  about  seventeen  miles  in  length,  has  been  laid  with  the 
creosoted  sleepers  from  nine  to  eleven  years,  during  which  period  the  en- 
gineer reports  that  no  instance  has  occurred  in  which  any  decay  has  been 
detected  in  them,  and  they  continue  quite  as  sound  as  when  first  put  down. 
On  the  Stockton  and  Darlington  Railway,  creosoted  sleepers  have  also  been 
laid' for  ten  years,  and  are  found  to  continue  without  any  appearance  of 
change  or  decay;  also  on  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Railway  creosoted 
timber  has  been  used  for  five  years,  as  paving  blocks,  posts,  &c. :  the  upper 
part  becomes  very  hard,  and  the  part  under  ground  appears  as  fresh  as 
when  taken  out  of  the  creosote  tank,  though  the  timber  was  of  inferior, 
sappy  quality.  In  a  trial  commenced  twelve  years  since,  by  Mr.  Price  of 
Gloucester,  of  the  comparative  durability  of  timber  in  the  covers  of  a  melon- 
pit,  where  it  was  exposed  constantly  to  the  combined  action  of  decomposing 
matter  and  the  atmosphere,  the  unprepared  timber  became  decayed  in  one 
year,  and  required  replacing  in  a  few  years.  A  portion  of  the  timber  that 
had  been  kyanised  lasted  well  for  about  seven  years,  but  then  gradually, 
though  very  slowly,  became  quite  decayed ;  but  the  timber  that  had  been 
creosoted  still  continues  as  sound  as  when  first  put  down,  twelve  years 
since. 

Prom  these  facts,  it  appears  not  unreasonable  to  infer,  that  if  timber  be 


made  to  continue  unchanged,  and  to  show  no  symptom  of  decay  for  ten 
or  twelve  years,  under  circumstances  that  reduce  unprepared  timber  to  dust 
in  two  years,  in  the  absence  of  any  proof  to  the  contrary  we  may  ex- 
pect to  find  that  it  will  last  an  unlimited  period,  and  that  one  hundred  years 
will  be  a  moderate  life  to  assign  to  it. 

And  not  only  does  this  creosoting  process  render  wood  free  from  decay, 
but  it  also  preserves  it  from  the  attacks  of  the  teredo  worm,  when  used  for 
ship-building,  harbours,  docks,  and  other  work  contiguous  to  the  sea. 

This  has  been  satisfactorily  proved  at  Lowestoft  harbour,  where  the  plan 
has  had  a  very  extensive  trial  for  four  years  ;  and  the  superintendent  reports 
that  there  is  no  instance  whatever  of  an  uncreosoted  pile  being  sound  ;  they 
are  all  attacked  by  the  limnoria  and  the  toredo  to  a  very  great  extent,  and 
the  piles  in  some  instances  are  eaten  through  ;  but  there  is  no  instance  what- 
ever of  a  creosoted  pile  being  touched,  either  by  the  toredo  or  the  limnoria, 
and  all  the  creosoted  piles  are  quite  sound,  though  covered  with  vegetation, 
which  generally '  attracts  the  toredo.  This  extraordinary  fact  is  to  be 
accounted  for  by  the  creosote  remaining  intact  in  the  timber,  either  wet  or 
dry  ;  and,  being  destructive  to  all  animal  life,  is  proof  against  the  attack  of 
these  parasites  ;  whereas,  with  the  other  processes,  the  metallic  salts  are 
washed  out,  or  that  portion  which  unites  with  and  coagulates  the  albumen 
is  rendered  quite  innocuous  by  the  process.  It  will  be  seen,  by  the  specimens 
exhibited,  that  the  ravages  of  the  worm  reduce  the  unprepared  timber  to  a 
completely  honeycombed  state  in  two  \ears;  but  the  creosoted  timber 
remains  untouched  after  a  period  of  four  years. 

There  are  two  processes  in  use  by  Mr.  Bethell,  for  impregnating  timber 
with  creosote; — one  is  by  placing  the  wood  in  a  strong  iron  cylinder,  and 
exhausting  the  air  from  it  by  an  air-pump,  until  a  vacuum  is  created,  equal 
to  about  twelve  pounds  on  the  square  inch.  The  creosote  is  then  allowed  to 
flow  into  the  cylinder,  and  afterwards  a  pressure  is  put  upon  the  creosote 
by  a  force  pump,  equal  to  about  150  pounds  on  the  square  inch;  the  timber 
then  taken  out  is  fit  for  use. 

The  second  process  is  by  placing  the  timber  in  a  drying-house,  and 
passing  the  products  of  combustion  through  it  ;  thereby  not  only  drying  the 
timber  rapidly,  but  impregnating  it,  to  a  certain  extent,  with  the  volatile 
oily  matter  and  creosote  contained  in  the  products  given  off  from  the  fuel 
used  to  heat  the  house.  When  the  timber  is  taken  out  of  this  house,  it  is  at 
once  immersed  in  hot  creosote  in  an  open  tank,  thus  avoiding  the  use  of  a 
steam-engine,  or  pumps. 

Mr.  Clift  exhibited  specimens  of  Creosoted  Sleepers,  which  had  been  in 
use  for  ten  years  on  the  London  and  North  Western  Railway,  near  Man- 
chester, and  were  still  perfectly  sound  and  unchanged;  also  specimens  of 
Creosoted  Piles  from  Lowestoft  Harbour,  which  had  been  in  the  sea  for 
four  years,  and  continued  quite  fresh  and  sound,  and  without  being  touched 
by  the  worm;  with  specimens  of  similar  piles,  uncreosoted,  from  the  same 
situation,  which  were  completely  eaten  away  and  honeycombed  by  the  worm 
in  the  same  period. 

Mr.  Bethell  observed,  that  when  he  first  commenced  to  preserve  timber, 
he  found  that  no  pressure  would  get  the  creosote  into  the  timber  from  the 
presence  of  moisture  in  the  pores,  and  it  became  necessary  to  adopt  the 
system  of  drying  the  timber  first;  and  after  fourteen  days  he  found  that  the 
wood  lost  3  lbs.  in  weight  in  every  cubic  foot ;  this  was  by  the  old  process 
of  drying.  He  then  introduced  the  present  drying-house,  and  in  twelve  or 
fourteen  hours  they  lost  8  lbs.  per  cubic  foot,  in  Scotch  sleepers,  and  these 
then  absorbed  an  equal  weight  of  creosote.  An  average  of  11 J  lbs.  of 
creosote  per  cubic  foot  was  now  put  into  all  the  Memel  timber  at  Leith 
harbour  works ;  it  was  forced  in  with  a  pressure  of  180  lbs.  per  inch.  One 
piece  of  creosoted  timber  had  been  observed  at  Lowestoft,  which  had  been 
half  cut  through  for  a  mortice,  but  not  filled  up  again,  and  a  teredo  had 
penetrated  a  little  way  into  it  at  that  part,  and  then  attempted  to  turn  to 
the  right,  and  then  to  the  left,  and  had  ultimately  quitted  the  timber  with- 
out proceeding  any  farther.  Young  wood  was  the  most  porous  round  the 
exterior,  and  consequently  absorbed  most  creosote,  which  formed  a  shield  to 
keep  off  the  worm.  The  creosoted  sleepers  were  better  after  eight  or  ten 
years  than  when  new,  because  the  creosote  got  consolidated  in  them,  and 
rendered  them  harder.  He  had  taken  the  idea  originally  from  the  Egyptian 
mummy;  it  was  exactly  the  same  process  ;  any  animal  put  into  a  creosote 


14 


Institution  of  Civil  Engineers. 


[January, 


tank  assumed  the  appearance  and  became  in  like  condition  to  a  mummy. 
Timber  creosoted  was  now  chiefly  used  in  railways;  but  he  believed  that  if  it 
was  introduced  into  coal-pits  it  would  be  found  that  no  timber  so  used  in 
those  places  would  rot. 

The  Chairman  remarked,  that  if  the  owners  of  pits  found  it  so  much  to 
their  advantage,  he  was  sure  the  plan  would  come  into  use. 

Mr.  Clift  said  he  had  taken  up  the  subject  in  the  present  paper  with 
that  view;  his  object  was  to  draw  attention  to  pit  timber,  and  he  was  satis- 
fied that  if  the  timber  used  in  coal-pits  was  creosoted,  it  might,  when  done 
with  in  one  situation,  be  again  taken  out  to  use  in  another  place;  whereas 
now,  because  the  dry  rot  seized  the  timber  so  quickly,  it  was  left  behind  in 
the  workings  of  the  pit. 

The  Chairman  enquired  whether,  in  the  process  of  creosoting,  the  quan- 
tity of  sap  extracted  was  calculated,  and  how  the  exact  quantity  of  creosote 
that  was  put  into  the  timber  was  ascertained? 

Mr.  Bethell  replied,  that  every  piece  of  timber  was  weighed  before  it 
was  put  into  the  creosote  tank,  and  again  when  taken  out,  and  each  piece 
was  required  to  be  increased  in  weight  by  the  process  10  lbs.  per  cubic  foot; 
the  quantity  of  oil  used  always  rather  exceeded  the  weight  gained  in  the 
timber,  on  account  of  the  loss  of  weight  from  the  moisture  extracted  by  the 
exhaustion  of  the  air-pump. 

The  Chairman  inquired  what  difference  was  found  in  the  quantity  of 
creosote  absorbed  by  the  harder  woods? 

Mr.  Bethell  replied,  that  oak  only  absorbed  half  as  much  creosote  as 
Memel  timber.  Common  fir  creosoted  would  last  double  the  time  of  hard 
wood  creosoted,  because  it  took  more  creosote.  Beech  made  the  best  wood, 
being  full  of  very  minute  pores,  and  they  could  force  a  greater  quantity  of 
creosote  into  beech  than  into  any  other  wood;  consequently  it  took  a  more 
uniform  colour  throughout  from  the  process. 

Mr.  Shipton  inquired  how  the  process  was  regulated  to  allow  for  the 
difference  in  size  of  timber? 

Mr.  Bethell  said  that  long  pieces  of  timber  were  found  to  require  more 
time  to  saturate  them  in  proportion  to  their  length,  and  the  creosote 
appeared  to  enter  at  the  two  ends,  and  be  forced  up  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  pores.  The  progress  was  known  by  the  quantity  of  creosote 
forced  into  the  tank  after  it  was  filled,  according  to  number  of  cubic  feet  of 
timber  contained  in  the  tank. 


INSTITUTION  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS. 
December  9,  1851. 


The  paper  read  was  "  An  Account  of  the  "Works  on  the  Birmingham 
Extension,  of  the  Birmingham  and  Oxford  Junction  Railway,"  by  Mr.  C.  B. 
jLane,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.E. 

The  act  for  this  line,  which  was  intended  to  form  the  connecting  link 
between  the  Birmingham  and  Oxford,  and  the  Birmingham,  Wolverhamp- 
ton, and  Dudley  Railways,  and  so  complete  the  broad  gauge  circuit  with 
Bristol  and  the  south-west  of  England,  was  passed  in  the  month  of  July, 
1846.  Subsequent  events,  however,  caused  the  suspension  of  these  works  in 
1849,  before  their  final  completion.  The  line  commenced  near  the  Coventry 
road,  and  was  to  have  terminated  at  Great  Charles-street.  From  Adderley- 
street  to  Park-street,  both  inclusive,  the  town  was  crossed  by  a  viaduct;  and 
from  Moor-street  to  Monmouth-street,  the  line  passed  under  the  highest  of  the 
eminences  on  which  Birmingham  stands,  by  means  of  a  tunnel,  which  was 
to  have  been  constructed  as  a  covered  way,  that  is,  by  opening  the  ground, 
putting  in  the  brick-work,  and  again  covering  up  ;  and  the  part  of  it  as  yet 
completed,  from  Moor-street'to  High-street,  being  about  142  yards  in  length, 
was  executed  in  this  manner.  It  was  27  feet  in  width  at  the  level  of  the 
rails,  and  was  built  entirely  of  Staffordshire  brick  set  in  mortar,  with  the 
exception  of  the  arch  lengths  through  Carr's-lane,  which  were  set  in  cement. 
The  average  rate  of  progress  in  the  tunnel  was  8.1  lineal  yards  per  week. 

The  viaduct  consisted  of  fifty-seven  openings,  composed  of  nine  segments, 
each  30  feet  span  and  6  feet  rise,  fifteen  semicircles  also  30  feet  span  and  15 
feet  rise,  twenty-seven  semi-ellipses,  each  15  feet  rise,  and  varying  in  span 
from  37  feet  to  48  feet,  and  six  street  bridges,  mostly  skew,  and  varying  in 


form,  span,  and  rise.      Its  total  length  was  930  yards,  general  width,  from 
face  to  face,  31  feet  7  J  inches,  and  between  the  parapets  at  the  level  of  the 
rails  29  feet.    It  was  built  entirely  of  brick-work  set  in  mortar,  with  the 
exception  of  the  soffit  of  the  bridge  over  Park-street,  which  was  constructed 
of  cast-iron  girders,  with  a  cross-transomed  memel  flooring.     The  red  brick 
of  the  district  was  used  throughout  the  footings,  the  internal  work  of  the 
piers,  and  the  spandril  walls;  the  arches  and  parapets  were  constructed  of 
Staffordshire   brick,  from  the  "  common  stock  " — the  copings,  mouldings, 
and  dentals  being  made  of  Staffordshire  brick  clay,  and  the  whole  of  the 
work  was  faced  with  Staffordshire  "  best  blue."    All  the  brick-work  was  set 
in  moist  mortar,  so  as  to  press  to  a  thin  joint,  and  in  hot  weather  the  bricks 
were  kept  constantly  wet.     The  mortar  used  in  the  work  was  composed  of 
the  red  sand  of  the  locality,  and  Dudley,  or  Greaves'  blue  lias  lime — the 
latter  being  used  in  all  foundations,  arches,  and  face  work — mixed  in  the 
proportions  of  one  part  of  slaked  lime  to  two  parts  of  sand,  and  worked  by 
a  steam  mill,  driven  by  a  four-horse  power  engine,  made  by  Mr.  Nathan 
Gough;  Assoc.  Inst.  C.E.,  of  Manchester.     This  mill  was  capable  of  supply- 
ing fifty  bricklayers  per  day,  with  a  mortar  of  a  perfectly  even  texture, 
entirely  free  from  lumps,  and  therefore  less  likely  to  become  vesicular,  from 
the  trans-filtration  of  water,  than  that  mixed  by  the  common  pug-mill.    Each 
set  of  centres  consisted  of  five  ribs,  each  rib  being  supported  on  two  vertical 
and  two  sloping  props,  the  former  under  the  heels  of  the  ribs,  and  the  latter 
under  the  points  where  the  struts  of  the  ribs  terminated  in  an  iron   shoe. 
The  laggings  used  were  3  inch  deals,  carefully  dressed  by  the  adze  to  the 
proper  curves,  and  lined  for  the  courses  of  the  skew  arches.      Corbels  of 
heading  bricks  were  carried  out  from  the  backs  of  the  arches  in  the  range 
of  the  spandril  walls,  of  equal  width  with  them,  and  connected  by  brick 
beams  from  arch  to  arch,  for  stiffening  and  equalizing  the  pressure  from  end 
to  end  of  the  viaduct,  and  the  useful  effect  of  this  mode  of  construction  was 
proved  by  the  comparatively  small  amount  of  the  settlements  of  the  arches. 

The  various  modes  adopted,  and  mechanical  contrivances  used,  for  raising 
the  materials  to  a  considerable  height,  were  described;  and  deductions  were 
drawn  from  a  very  numerous  series  of  experiments,  to  ascertain  the  values 
of  the  useful  effect  produced  by  the  "Labouring  Force"  (Whewell),  or 
"  Travail  Mechanique"  (Poncelet),  of  a  man  under  different  modes  of  its 
application,  and  also  for  a  horse  under  alternating  motion  over  a  short  space. 
From  these  it  appeared,  that  the  relative  costs  of  raising  the  materials  to  a 
height  of  46  feet,  by  the  horse-lift,  the  swing-lift,  and  the  box-lift,  were  3.08. 
5.90,  and  4.13  pence  per  ton  respectively,  showing  a  saving  in  favour  of  the 
horse-lift  against  the  swing-lift,  of  nearly  threepence  per  ton,  and  against 
the  box- lift  of  rather  above  one  penny  per  ton. 

The  communication  was  accompanied  by  a  most  elaborate  series  of  tables 
on  the  absorption  of  water  by  bricks,  by  mortar,  and  by  Shrewley  sandstone 
— of  the  settlements  of  the  arches  of  the  street  bridges — of  the  work  per- 
formed by  the  various  lifts,  under  different  circumstances,  with  the  concurrent 
particulars,  and  that  by  ordinary  hod-men. 


December  16,  1851. 

The  paper  read  was  "On  the  Alluvial  Formations  and  the  Local  Changes 
of  the  South-eastern  Coast  of  England :  first  Section,  from  the  River  Thames 
to  Beachy  Head,"  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Redman,  M.  Inst.  C.  E. 

The  paper  stated,  that  the  passage  of  shingle  along  the  English  coast,  due, 
as  was  generally  believed,  to  the  action  of  waves  alone,  took,  on  the  south 
coast,  a  course  from  west  to  east,  and,  on  the  east  coast, from  north  to  south; 
during  certain  winds  the  shingle  was  heaped  up  coincident  with  their  direc- 
tion, and  repeated  withdrawals  and  renewals  (the  latter  being  the  most 
frequent),  caused  a  leeward  movement  of  the  material,  forming  it,  at  the 
same  time,  into  a  series  of  triangles,  of  which  the  shore  was  the  base.  If 
any  natural  projection  intercepted  this  motion,  an  accumulation,  which 
would  increase  and  be  held  in  check,  according  to  the  state  of  the  wind, 
took  place  up  to  a  certain  point,  or  until  the  angle  formed  was  filled  up, 
when  the  shingle  passed  round.  With  groynes,  by  jfar  the  most  common 
action  was,  unless  they  were  of  great  height,  or  short  length,  for  the  shingle, 
after  accumulating  on  the  weather  side  to  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  groyne, 
to  pass  over  it,  and  then  travel  to  leeward. 

The  degradation  of  the  north  shore  of  Kent,  the  local  formation  of  shingle 


1852.] 


Royal  Scottish  Society  of  Arts. 


15 


around  the  Isle  of  Thanet,  by  the  wasting  away  of  that  chalky  promontory, 
and  the  retention  of  large  masses  of  alluvial  matter  in  Pegwell  Bay,  were 
dwelt  on.    The  main  belt  of  shingle  lying  to  the  south  of  Deal,  and  extending 
from  thence  to  Dover,  with  its  early  and  present  effects  on  the  harbour  at 
the  latter  place,  were  then  described  ;  also  the  early  condition  of  Folkestone 
Harbour,  the  large  accumulation  of  shingle  arresting  to  the  westward  of  that 
haven,  by  the  projection  of  a  low-water  pier,  or  groyne,  at  right  angles  to 
the  harbour,  and  its  effects  upon  the  shore  to  the  eastward,  by  retarding  the 
the  progressive  motion  of  the  shingle  in  that  direction.    Further  on,  the 
curious  formation  of  Dungeness  Point,  which  it  was  reasonable  to  suppose 
did  not,  at  one  time,  exist;  as  the  parallel  "  fulls  "  of  beach  between  Komney 
and  Lydd,  and  extending  from  Winchelsea  on  the  west  to  Hythe  on  the  east, 
seemed  fairly  to  have  constituted  the  sea  coast.     The  rectangular  "  full,'' 
running  from  the  banks  on  the  west  side  of  Lydd  towards  the  point  might 
have  been  created  by  an  accumulation  of  shingle  travelling  from  the  west- 
ward, held  in  check  by  the  outfall  of  the  river  Rotlier  ;  the  angle  contained 
by  this  spit  and  the  coast  to  the  westward  becoming  gradually  filled  up  with 
shingle,  a  silty  deposit  would  take  place  on  the  east  side,  consequent  on  the 
gradual  loss  of  Romney  harbour,  and  the  length  of  the  spit  would  be  in- 
creased by  the  parallel  ridges  of  shingle  periodically  added  to  and  travelling 
round  it.     Numerous  examples,  extending  over  two  centuries,  showed  that 
the  average  annual  increase  was  six  yards,  reaching,  over  certain  periods, 
an  average  of  eight  yards  per  anhum — the  absolute  increase  since  the  time 
of  Elizabeth  being  nearly  one  mile  ;  and  they  proved  conclusively,  that  the 
average  progress  seaward,  producing  a  determinate  aggregate  elongation  in 
a  south-easterly  direction,  was  much  greater  than  had  been  generally  assumed, 
though  not  regular,  for  the  Ness  had  even  been  stationary  during  certain 
periods. 

The  gradual  decadence  of  the  ancient  ports  of  Hythe,  Romney,  and  Lydd 
to  leeward  of  this  Point,  were  then  alluded  to  ;  as  also  the  diversion  of  the 
outfall  of  the  river  Rother  to  Rye,  once  an  estuary  of  the  sea,  and  then 
forming  Romney  Harbour  ;  the  great  increase  of  shingle  to  the  westward ; 
the  early  and  abortive  attempts  to  form  a  harbour  at  Hastings  ;  the  vast 
abrasion  of  the  coast  along  Pevensey  Bay,  the  harbour  of  which  place  had 
been  lost  by  an  elongation  and  extension  of  Langley  Point.  Between  the 
origin  of  this  Point  and  that  of  Dungeness,  there  was  a  remarkable  similarity, 
both  having  originally  had  a  tidal  haven  to  the  leeward,  eventually  choked 
up  by  the  elongation  of  these  spits  across  their  outfalls  ;  both  had  pools,  or 
meres,  arising  from  the  land-locked  waters,  and  in  both  cases  the  modern 
"fulls"  of  shingle  could  be  plainly  distinguished  from  the  more  ancient,  by 
their  forms  and  direction.  The  remarkable  decrease  of  this  point,  about 
three-eighths  of  a  mile,  during  the  last  century,  appeared  to  rise  principally 
from  Old  Brighton  Beach  no  longer  affording  the  necessary  supply  of  shingle. 
The  early  condition  and  present  state  of  Cuckmere  and  Newhaven  Harbours, 
the  great  degradation  of  the  coast  at  Rotcingdean,  the  sweeping  away,  in 
Elizabeth's  reign,  of  the  beach  and  town  of  Old  Brighton,  then  standing  on 
the  site  of  the  present  chain-pier,  the  materials  from  which  formed  the  spits 
to  the  eastward,  were  then  described. 

The  author  had  personally  inspected  the  whole  of  this  coast,  the  different 
sections  of  which  he  promised  to  give  in  succession,  and  had  also  examined 
the  earliest  accessible  maps,  and  the  works  of  the  best  topographical  writers, 
who  were  frequently  referred  to,  in  elucidation  of  the  subject,  which  was  one 
of  vast  importance  in  marine  engineering,  especially  in  reference  to  the  con- 
struction of  harbours  and  coast  works  of  defence ;  and  he  submitted  that 
it  was  most  desirable  that  such  natural  agencies,  and  the  many  instances  of 
the  compensating  effects  of  alternating  loss  and  gain,  should  be  correctly 
understood. 

PROCEEDINGS.  OF  THE  ROYAL  SCOTTISH  SOCIETY  OF  ARTS. 
December  8,  1851. 


The  following  communications  were  made  : — 

1.  Description  and  drawing  of  public  baths  and  wash-houses  established  at 
Hawick.    By  John  Goodfellow,  Buccleuch-street,  Hawick. 

The  commencement  of  the  wash-houses,  on  the  present  plan,  was  in  1847, 
and  with  three  compartments.    In  the  spring  of  the  year  1850  the  author 


had  twenty-four  washing  compartments  in  operation — each  compartment 
holding  three  tubs,  or  seventy-two  tubs  in  all.  One  of  the  tubs  in  each  stall 
is  made  a  boiler,  with  a  lid  j  and,  by  having  a  steam-pipe  dipping  into 
it,  the  supply  of  water — cold  and  hot — is  without  limit;  as  also  is  the  steam 
for  boiling  the  clothes.  The  charge  for  each  washer  is  one  penny  per  hour. 
In  the  course  of  the  first  year,  from  April  1850  to  April  1851,  upwards  of 
25,000  washers  made  use  of  the  public  wash-houses— a  number  equal  to 
three  times  the  entire  population  of  the  town  of  Hawick.  The  baths  were 
erected  in  the  autumn  of  1850,  and  during  the  summer  months,  and  in  warm 
weather  especially,  are  well  patronized.  In  winter  the  demand  for  baths 
falls  off,  and,  consequently,  they  are  only  open  on  Saturdays.  The  charges 
are  a  penny  for  a  warm  shower-bath,  and  twopence  for  a  warm  bath— second 
class  ;  first  class  warm  bath,  sixpence  ;  with  use  of  clean  towels  in  both. 
The  baths  are  twelve  in  number,  with  shower-bath  in  each.  To  the  boiler 
is  attached  a  small  steam-engine,  which  pumps  water  from  a  sunk  well  on 
the  premises  for  the  baths  and  wash-houses  ;  while  the  steam,  after  doing 
this  duty,  is  conducted  away  in  covered  pipes,  and  heats  the  water  for  the 
baths  and  washers,  and  also  boils  the  clothes  being  washed.  Similar  es- 
tablishments may  be  erected  in  every  town  in  Scotland,  where  coals  are 
moderate  in  price,  and  water  to  be  had  at  no  great  depth  below  the  surface 
— being  thus  independent  of  any  water  company  or  corporation. 

2.  Description  and  drawing  of  a  self-acting  railway  signal.  By  Mr.  John 
G.  Winton,  Cherry  Bank,  North  Leith. 

The  object  of  a  signal  of  this  description  is  to  show,  to  the"engine-driver 
of  a  following  train,  the  time  when,  or  distance  at  which,  a  preceding  train 
has  passed  along  the  line,  so  as  to  caution  him  in  passing  through  a  tunnel 
rounding  a  curve,  or  any  place  that  may  be  considered  necessary.  The  time 
signal  is  effected  by  meaus  of  a  cataract,  with  catches,  palls,  &c.  (such  as 
are  in  use  for  regulating  the  strokes  of  large  pumping  engines),  wrought  by 
the  engine  on  passing,  which  also  raises  the  signal  board.  The  arrangement 
is  such  that  the  danger  signal  remains  for  five  minutes,  the  caution  for  other 
five  minutes,  when  it  shows  all  clear.  The  distance  signal,  instead  of  having 
a  cataract,  has  a  wire  rope  connected  with  the  palls,  which  passes  along  the 
line  to  a  certain  distance,  where  it  is  fixed  to  a  lever,  which  the  engine,  on 
passing,  depresses  and  sets  off  the  signal  at  one  or  more  of  the  stages,  as 
may  be  considered  best. 

3.  Suggestions  for  the  improved  manufacture  of  sheet  iron.  By  Mr.  John 
Waters,  mill-wright  and  engine-builder,  Macon. 

Mr.  Waters  conceives  the  following  plan  will  accomplish  the  object,  and 
he  requests  the  Society  to  endeavour  to  get  it  tried,  viz.,  to  have  a  pair  of 
rolls,  say  26  inches  diameter,  working  horizontally  one  in  front  of  the  other, 
and  set  in  a  cast-iron  frame  as  strong  as  is  generally  used  in  rolling  iron. 
The  rolls  being  perfectly  true,  let  a  groove  be  turned  out  of  both  ends  of 
each  roll,  so  that  a  plate  can  be  fitted  nicely  to  each  roll.  These  plates  will 
form  a  receiver  on  the  top  of  the  rolls,  with  a  chance  of  allowing  the  waste 
or  cinder  to  get  away.  Let  the  iron  be  run  from  an  air-furnace,  at  that 
stage  of  heat  when  the  iron  is  properly  melted  and  in  a  fine  liquid  state, 
into  the  receiver  on  the  top  of  the  rolls.  Working  downwards,  a  thin  skin 
will  be  formed  on  each  roll,  which  will  vary  in  thickness  according  to  the 
temperature  of  the  rolls,  and  will  weld  together  at  their  junction,  which  will 
form  a  continued  length  of  sheet-iron  without  scale,  and  of  the  purest 
quality.  The  sheet  can  never  exceed  one  3-32ds  of  an  iuch  in  thickness. 
Let  there  also  be  a  cast-iron  pan  underneath  the  rolls,  two-thirds  of  their 
radius,  covered  with  water,  so  that  the  rolls  may  be  kept  at  a  proper  tem- 
perature by  a  constant  stream  of  water  being  made  to  run  into  the  pan. 

4.  Description  of  an  improved  jointed  artificial  leg  for  short  stumps.  By 
Mr.  John  Howell,  Polyartist,  110,  Rose-street,  Edinburgh. 

The  seat  or  top  of  the  artificial  leg  is  attached  to  the  buttock,  and  plays 
outwards,  to  enable  the  wearer  to  sit  on  his  breech  by  means  of  the  hip 
joint.  In  the  action  of  sitting  down,  a  slip  bolt  is  drawn,  which  enables  the 
knee-joint  to  play,  so  that  the  lower  part  of  the  limb  and  foot  takes  the 
natural  position  ;  and,  in  rising  up,  the  bolt  by  that  action  again  enters  the 
knee-joint,  whereby  the  limb  becomes  rigid,  and  fit  for  supporting  the  body, 
and  for  walking.  The  full-sized  limb  has  been  made  for  a  person  of  fourteen 
stone  weight,  and,  as  worn,  weighs  only  six  and  a  quarter  pounds. 


16 


Geological  Society. — Agricultural  Engineering. 


[January, 


PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  SOCIETY. 

December  3rd,  1851. 

W.  Hopkins,  Esq.,  in  the  chair. 


Mr.  Btjnbury,  foreign  secretary,  read  a  paper  on  a  new  plant  discovered 
in  the  coal  field  of  Cape  Breton,  and  presented  to  hirn  by  Mr.  Brown,  a  resi- 
dent in  the  neighbourhood.  The  plant  possessed  characters  which  rendered 
it  difficult  to  distinguish  whether  it  belonged  to  the  ferns  or  to  the  Lycopo- 
diacea; ;  and  it  was  stated  that  the  plant  was  new  to  the  coal  fields  of  this 
country.  The  paper  contained  numerous  botanical  details,  which  it  would 
be  impossible  to  condense  into  a  small  space. 

Sir  Charles  Lyell  stated  that  this  plant,  which  he  had  also  examined, 
was  from  a  coal  field  where  an  abundance  of  plants  were  found  growing 
upright,  and  he  trusted  that,  through  the  exertions  of  Mr.  Brown,  the  Society 
would  shortly  be  in  possession  of  some  of  those  interesting  forms,  which 
would  serve  to  throw  much  light  on  the  history  of  the  coal  plants. 

The  next  paper  was  by  Professor  Sedgwick,  on  a  remarkable  district  of 
Westmoreland  and  part  of  Yorkshire,  intersected  by  the  two  great  faults, 
termed  the  Penine  and  the  Craven  faults.  Numerous  sections,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Kirkby  Stephen,  Brough,  Houghhill  Fells,  &c,  were  referred  to 
in  illustration  of  the  paper.  The  carboniferous  limestone  and  the  scar 
limestone,  which  forms  the  base  of  the  carboniferous  system  in  this  part  of 
England,  had  been  much  shattered  by  the  great  faults  alluded  to.  The  old 
red  sandstone,  below  the  scar  limestone,  is  very  feebly  represented ;  but  there 
is  a  considerable  development  of  Silurian  rocks  occupying  the  country  to  the 
south-west  of  Bavenstone  Dale.  Professor  Sedgwick  appears  to  identify 
these  rocks  with  the  Coniston  flags  and  limestone.  With  reference  to  the 
flaggy  beds  which  furnish  slates  for  roofing  purposes  in  this  part  of  the 
country,  the  Professor  said  the  slates  were  not  split  in  the  lines  of  cleavage, 
as  was  usually  the  case,  but  were  raised  from  their  natural  beds,  and  split 
into  lamina;  parallel  with  those  beds.  Other  beds  of  stone,  locally  termed 
calliards,  were  raised  in  the  same  neighbourhood  as  the  slates.  The  Pro- 
fessor described  the  occurrence  of  a  remarkably  thick  mass  of  sandstone, 
stratified  in  the  middle  of  the  carboniferous  limestone,  or  rather  between  the 
upper  and  lower  limestones.  The  beds  of  sandstone  bore  a  remarkable  re- 
semblance to  those  of  the  new  red  sandstone,  were  frequently  quite  red  in 
colour,  and  presented  that  variegated  and  blotchy  appearance  so  character- 
istic of  the  new  red  sandstone  in  Cheshire.  Professor  Sedgwick  alluded  to  the 
occurrence  of  immense  blocks  of  grit  stone  on  the  top  of  Houghhill,  and  said 
that  similar  transported  blocks  of  limestone  were  met  with  in  some  parts  of 
the  district.  These  blocks  have  been  carried  across  deep  valleys  at  a  com- 
paratively recent  period  ;  they  are  covered  with  lichens,  ring  with  a  clear 
sound  on  being  struck  with  a  hammer,  and  present  no  signs  of  disintegration. 
He  also  noticed  a  remarkable  distinction  between  the  two  great  faults  of  this 
district,  namely,  that  the  Penine  fault  took  place  after  the  deposit  of  the 
magnesian  limestone  and  several  other  beds  of  the  Permian  series,  as  these 
are  found  resting  conformably  on  the  inclined  beds  of  carboniferous  limestone 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  that  fault,  whereas  the  Craven  fault  took  place 
before  the  deposit  of  the  Permian  beds,  which  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that 
these  beds  rest  horizontally  on  the  inclined  strata  of  carboniferous  limestone. 
Sir  Roderick  Murchison,  in  paying  some  well-deserved  compliments  to 
Professor  Sedgwick,  seemed  to  think  that  the  flags  and  limestone  beds 
containing  Silurian  fossils,  and  supposed  by  the  Professor  to  be  identical  with 
the  Coniston  beds,  were  higher  in  the  Silurian  series  than  the  place  assigned 
to  them  by  the  Professor.  Some  of  the  fossils  in  these  beds  were  commonly 
found  in  the  Wenlock  limestone. 

Professor  Forbes,  in  reference  to  remarks  by  the  author  of  the  paper  on  the 
subject  of  tracks  of  A.nnelides  and  other  markings  on  sandstone  slabs,  said 
that  these  were  common  to  sandstones  of  many  different  ages,  and  thaj 
specimens  existed  in  the  Museum  of  Economic  Geology,  where  not  only 
markings  of  animals  resembling  Annelides  were  seen,  but  also  lines  of 
short  dashes,  such  as  would  be  made  by  the  fins  of  fishes  striking  the  sand. 
He  also  referred  to  the  existence  of  sandstone  beds  in  the  limestone  at 
Alston,  of  a  similar  character  to  that  described  by  Professor  Sedgwick. 
After  a  few  unimportant  remarks  by  other  gentlemen,  the  President,  in 


observing  how  gratifying  it  was  to  the  Society  to  see  Professor  Sedgwick 
resuming  his  labours  in  so  zealous  a  manner,  took  occasion  to  repudiate  the 
idea  that  the  transported  blocks  of  stone  spoken  of  by  the  Professor  had 
been  carried  either  by  currents  of  water  or  by  glaciers.  He  thought  they 
were  undoubtedly  due  to  floating  ice. 

AGRICULTURAL    ENGINEERING     AND     CONSTRUCTION. 

ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  CATTLE  LAIRS.* 

The  change  of  fiscal  regulations  as  to  the  importation  of  foreign  agricul- 
cural  produce,  which  has  taken  place  within  the  last  few  years,  will  render 
every  improvement  in  agriculture  in  Britain  of  increased  importance  ;  and 
to  those  more  immediately  interested  in  the  pursuit,  no  branch  of  rural 
economy  can  be  of  more  consequence  than  the  means  for  the  economical 
management  of  cattle.  The  generally  imperfect  management  of  fattening 
stock,  and  the  negligent  preparation  of  manures,  so  prevalent  in  times  past, 
cannot  enable  the  husbandmen  of  Britain  to  meet,  without  diminution  of 
capital,  the  unrestricted  competition  of  foreigners  in  the  British  market  in 
every  kind  of  produce  of  the  soil,  which  he  now  has,  and  it  is  probable  he 
will  have  to  encounter.  The  excrements  of  a  few  half-fed  wintering  cattle 
and  the  litter  of  an  open  yard,  exposed  to  the  alternate  influence  of  rain, 
wind,  and  sunshine,  will  do  little  towards  raising  such  grain  crops  as  will 
encourage  the  British  farmer  in  the  employment  of  his  capital  and  of  native 
industry  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  ;  nor  will  the  estate  of  the  proprietor 
of  land  be  supported  in  its  value  in  the  absence  of  accommodation  for  the 
fattening  of  stock  with  the  greatest  economy,  and  of  convenience  for  the 
collection  and  conservation  of  manure,  without  waste  of  its  fertilizing 
properties. 

The  importance  of  conveniences  for  fattening  stock  is  not  at  all  a  matter 
of  controversy  ;  but  on  the  best  mode  for  obtaining  that  end  considerable 
difference  of  opinion  as  yet  exists.  Some  advocate  the  confining  of  the 
animals  singly  in  loose  boxes ;  others  prefer  tying  them  up  in  stalls ;  whilst 
many  consider  the  fold-yard  and  hovel  the  best  and  most  economical  mode 
by  which  the  object  in  question  can  be  attained.  On  a  careful  examinatio  n 
of  the  merits  of  the  question  in  all  its  bearings,  it  will  be  found,  however, 
that  each  of  the  modes  referred  to  has  its  superiority  under  different  cir- 
cumstances. 

The  conditions,  on  which  the  fattening  of  cattle  can  be  attained  with  the 
greatest  economy,  are  warmth,  quietude,  wholesomeness  of  atmosphere,  and 
cleanliness. 

In  the  plan  of  feeding  fattening  cattle  singly  in  boxes  or  loosestalls, 
first  suggested  by  Mr.  John  Warnes,  of  Trimington,  in  Norfolk,  the  condi- 
tions for  the  rapid  and  economical  conversion  of  the  inedible  vegetable 
productions  of  the  field  into  food  for  mankind,  through  the^medium  of  their 
consumption  by  cattle,  are  in  every  respect  perfectly  fulfilled.  By  the  plan 
now  being  discussed,  warmth1  andj  shelter  are  provided  without  the  rigid 
restraint  of  the  stall,  while  at  the  same  time  much  of  the  freedom  of  the 
yard  and  companionship — enjoyments  so  consonant  to  the  natural  habits 
of  gregarious  animals — are  secured  without  the  possibility  of  molestation  or 
injury.  From  the  constant  trampling  of  beasts  kept  in  boxes,  their  excre- 
ments mixed  with  their  litter  become  so  much  compressed  as  to  be  impervious 
to  air  ;  and  the  contents  of  the  boxes  being  thus  deprived  of  an  essential 
agent  in  producing  putrefaction,  no  sensible  exhalation  of  effluvia  takes 
place.  A  daily  supply  of  as  much  dry  litter  as  will  keep  the  animals  clean 
of  their  solid  excrements  is  sufficient  to  absorb  the  whole  of  the  urine  they 
void  ;  and  where  economy  in  the  use  of  straw  may  be  an  object,  its  being 
cut  into  lengths  of  about  an  inch  considerably  increases  its  power  of  ab- 
sorption. As  to  the  latter  observation,  respecting  the  absorption  of  moisture, 
it  may  be  stated  that,  before  having  had  an  opportunity  of  ascertaining 
the  fact,  the  writer  was  of  opinion  that  super-saturation  of  an  inordinate 
quantity  of  litter  with  urine  would  take  place;  but  three  years'  experience 
in  the  matter  has  induced  a  thorough  conviction  that  less  straw  is  required 
to  keep  cattle  clean  and  comfortable  in  boxes  than  in  any  other  mode  of 
confinement.     In  recommending  the  box  system  as  an  excellent  mode  of 


*  From  a  "  Treatise  on  Agricultural  Buildings,"  by  John  Ewart,  land  surveyor.  London  : 
Longman  and  Co. 


1852. 


Dimensions  and  Details  of  Steamers. 


17 


sheltering  cattle  whilst  in  a  fattening  state,  whatever  may  be  supposed  by 
those  who  may  not  have  had  an  opportunity  of  watching  the  box  feeding 
system  in  operation,  the  writer  can  bear  positive  testimony  to  its  being 
consistent  with  perfect  cleanliness  and  perfect  health  of  the  beasts.  He 
moreover  firmly  believes  that  whenever  any  objection  has  been  raised  to  the 
system,  as  to  its  being  either  uncleanly  or  unhealthy,  such  objection  has  been 
induced  by  having  seen  boxes  of  improper  construction  and  fitting,  or  per- 
haps from  excess  of  moisture  from  rain  above  or  from  springs  beneath. 

Besides  the  efficiency  of  cattle  boxes  in  their  chief  purpose,  a  secondary, 
but  scarcely  less  important  object,  is  attained  by  their  use,  and  that  is  the 
raising  of  manure  much  superior  in  quality  to  any  of  a  similar  description 
produced  by  any  other  means. 

So  far  from  the  use  of  boxes  being  necessarily  accompanied  with  any 
extraordinary  labour  or  expense  in  attendance  on  the  animals,  the  writer 
can  state,  from  personal  knowledge,  that  in  boxes  well  arranged  with  a 
view  to  economy  of  time  and  labour,  a  boy  under  fifteen  years  of  age,  at 
wages  of  5s.  a  week,  prepared  and  served  the  whole  of  the  food,  consisting 
of  chaff,  softened  by  steam,  mixed  with  linseed  jelly,  and  barley-meal, 
and  raw  turnips  sliced,  in  alternate  feeds,  five  or  six  times  a  day,  to  twenty- 
two  fattening  beasts  (seventeen  of  which  were  fed  in  boxes  and  five  in  stalls). 
The  boy,  moreover,  thoroughly  dressed  every  beast  with  curry-comb  and 
brush  ;  all  this,  too,  without  being  so  fully  employed  as  not  to  have  spare 
time  to  attend  to  swine,  and  do  other  usual  jobs  in  the  vicinity  of  his  prin- 
cipal charge. 

A  box  of  about  80  square  feet  clear  of  area,  and  2  feet  deep,  will  contain 
tlic  manure  produced  by  a  beast,  having  a  sufficient  supply  of  litter  to  keep 
it  clean  and  dry,  from  the  commencment  of  November  to  the  end  of  Febru- 
ary; and  by  increasing  the  depth  an  additional  foot,  it  will  hold  the 
manure  produced  till  the  end  of  April.  If  80  square  feet  for  the  clear  area 
of  a  box  is  sufficient  for  a  beast  of  the  largest  size,  the  dimensions  may  be 
varied  from  9  to  11  feet  from  back  to  front,  by  frontage  breadth  varying 
from  9  to  7  feet,  as  may  be  best  adapted  to  the  site  on  which  a  given  num- 
ber of  boxes  are  required  to  be  built.  The  depth  should  never  exceed  3  feet, 
as  beyond  that  depth  it  would  be  inconvenient  and  not  altogether  unattended 
with  danger  to  the  animals  in  getting  them  in  and  out  until  a  considerable 
quantity  of  manure  had  accumulated  in  the  boxes. 

For  this  particular  purpose  of  fattening,  tying  cattle  up  in  stalls  is  un- 
doubtedly less  efficacious  than  keeping  them  singly  in  boxes  of  proper  arrange- 
ment and  construction.  This  inferiority  is  chiefly  on  account  of  the  con- 
finement being  too  rigid,  and  of  incurring  the  labour  consequent  on  the 
frequent  removal  of  the  dung.  For  milk  cows,  however,  they  being 
usually  allowed  moderate  exercise  during  a  portion  of  the  day,  stalls  appear 
generally  to  be  as  well  adapted  as  boxes,  with  the  particular  advantages  of 
stalls  over  boxes  in  the  more  ready  access  to  the  animals  for  the  purpose  of 
milking,  and  of  requiring  much  less  space  for  the  same  number  of  cattle. 

The  boxes  should  be  sunk  one  foot  below  the  level  of  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  be  separated  from  each  other  by  a  wall  one  brick  thick  and  two 
feet  high  from  their  bottom  or  floor.  They  should  also  have  a  similar  wall 
in  front ;  upon  both  of  which  there  should  be  a  wall  plate  of  deal,  nine 
inches  wide  and  three  inches  thick,  bringing  the  entire  height  of  the  division 
walls  to  two  feet  three  inches  above  the  level  of  the  floors,  and  that  of  the 
front  to  one  foot  three  inches  above  the  level  of  the  passages.  All  the  inter- 
sections of  the  front  wall  of  the  boxes  by  the  divison  walls,  should  be  cast-iron 


pillars,  6  feet  long  and  4 J  inches  outside  diameter,  supporting  a  deal,  similar 
to  the  wall  plates  described,  to  carry  the  roof ;  and  at  each  end  of  the  range 
of  boxes  should  be  an  upright  jamb  of  9-inch  deal,  laid  flat  to  the  inside  of 
the  north  wall,  and  to  the  north  side  of  the  party  wall,  between  the  range  of 
boxes  and  the  calf  house,  such  jambs  being  framed  to  the  wall  plate,  and 
the  deal  supported  by  the  pillars.  The  cast-iron  pillars  should  have  grooves 
formed  on  each  of  their  sides,  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  range, 
and  also  another  groove  on  the  side  in  the  direction  of  the  division  walls 
between  the  boxes,  the  grooves  being  formed  of  flanges,  ll\  inches  apart 
and  2  inches  deep.  The  upright  deals  against  the  walls  at  the  ends  of  the 
range  of  boxes,  should  have  half  the  breadth  of  a  Norway  batten  nailed 
firmly  on  the  face,  at  1\  inches  apart,  thus  forming  a  groove  in  the  middle 
of  the  breadth  of  the  deals  throughout  their  length,  2g  inches  wide  and  2  \ 
inches  deep.  On  the  deal  supporting  the  front  of  the  roof,  and  immediately 
above  each  cast-iron  pillar,  should  be  firmly  spiked  one  end  of  a  Norway 
batten,  which  should  extend  across  the  range  of  boxes  to  the  back  or  west 
wall,  on  which  it  should  rest  firmly,  spiked  to  template,  or  a  continuous  wall 
plate  of  deal,  4|  inches  wide.  Against  the  back  or  western  wall  of  the  boxes 
should  be  upright  deals,  framed  to  the  wall  plates  on  the  division  walls 
between  the  boxes,  and  receiving  the  cross  beam  spoken  of  above  in  a  notch. 
The  upright  deal  just  mentioned  should  have  a  groove  formed  on  its  face, 
similar  to  those  previously  described  on  the  upright  deals  at  each  end  of 
the  range,  at  the  front  of  the  boxes.  Midway  in  the  length  of  the  divisions 
between  the  boxes  should  be  two  upright  pieces,  half  the  breadth  of  a  Nor- 
way batten,  opposite  to  each  other,  at  2^  inches  apart,  the  lower  ends  of 
which  should  be  framed  to  the  wall  plate  on  the  division  walls,  between 
the  boxes  and  the  upper  end,  secured  to  the  cross  beam  by  a  screw  bolt. 
The  fronts  of  the  boxes  should  be  enclosed  to  the  height  of  about  4  feet 
above  the  walls  ;  first  by  an  11-inch  deal,  and  then  by  Norway  battens  in 
succession,  one  above  another,  fitting  rather  loosely  in  the  grooves  on  the 
sides  of  the  pillars,  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  range.  The  fences 
between  the  boxes  may  be  formed  also  of  battens,  one  end  of  which  being 
fitted  into  the  groove  on  the  pillar  in  the  direction  of  the  breadth  of  the 
boxes,  the  other  in  the  groove  formed  upon  the  upright  deal  on  the  back 
wall,  passing  between  the  half-battens  at  the  mid-length  of  the  division  walls, 
and  should  be  held  one  foot  apart  from  each  other  by  cotterill  bolts,  in  holes 
made  for  the  purpose  in  the  flanges  of  the  grooves.  When  the  excavations 
of  the  boxes  are  in  sound  clay,  and  impervious  to  liquid,  all  that  will  be  re- 
quired to  be  done  to  the  bottom  is  to  beat  it  firm  ;  but  if  the  soil  be  loose 
and  impermeable  in  which  the  boxes  are  made,  it  will  be  necessary  to  cover 
their  bottoms  with  concrete,  described  in  the  appendix  ;  or  perhaps  in  some 
cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  line  them  with  bricks  laid  in  cement,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  liquid  ;  and  in  all  cases  before  being  used,  the 
outside  of  the  walls  should  from  their  foundations  be  carefully  cleared  of 
brickbats  and  rubbish  let  fall  by  the  bricklayers,  and  well  puddled  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  Such  precautions  are  essentially  necessary  to 
perfection  in  the  construction  of  the  boxes,  as  escape  of  liquid  would  cause 
a  great  deterioration  of  the  fertilizing  quality  of  the  manure. 

It  is  a  well-ascertained  fact,  that  young  cattle,  from  the  time  of  their 
being  weaned,  until  they  have  advanced  towards  their  full  stature — which, 
in  the  breeds  most  distinguised  for  precocity,  is  not  until  they  have  completed 
the  second  year  of  their  age — require  freedom  and  exercise  to  attain  the 
necessary  growth  of  frame,  to  fatten  at  an  alter  period  to  the  greatest  ad- 
vantage. To  confine  and  attempt  to  fatten  oxen  by  forced  feeding 
previous  to  their  having  nearly  attained  their  full  growth,  is  apt  to  stop  the 
development  of  frame  necessary  to  carry  a  great  thickness  of  flesh  ;  if  such 
treatment  be  not  even  productive  of  absolute  disease,  from  the  shock  the 
constitution  of  the  animal  is  exposed  to,  by  so  violent  an  opposition  to 
nature.  The  aim  of  the  prudent  rearer  of  cattle  is  to  promote  in  bis  stock 
a  continually  progressive  increase  of  frame  and  muscle,  without  acquiring 
fat.  To  attain  this  object,  the  animals  require  at  all  times  a  plentiful  supply 
of  provender,  of  good  but  not  too  nutritive  quality;  considerable  extent  of 
freedom ;  and  in  winter  perfect,  but  not  in  any  degree  heating  shelter. 
These  conditions  will  be  best  fulfilled  by  means  of  fold  yards  provided 
with  sheds. 


DIMENSIONS  OF 

STEAMERS    BUILDING    IN    BALTIMORE, 

UNITED  STATES. 


1.  Palmetto,  Propeller. — The  first  of  a  line  of 
Steamers  to  be  established  between  Baltimore  and 
Charleston,  S.  C.  Builder,  J.  A.  Robb  ;  engines 
by  C.  Reeder,  jun. 

Length  on  deck  ..         ..  ..      186  feet 

„        of  keel i     172    „ 

„        between  perpendiculars      175    „ 
Breadth  of  beam  . .  . .       30    „ 

Depth  of  hold 18     „ 

Dead  rise. .  ..  ..  ..        10  inches 

Tonnage  (custom  house  measure- 
ment) ..        ..        ..         ,.     750  tons 


Immersed  sectional  area  at  load  line,  or  direct 

resistance,  224  square  feet. 

Two  direct  action  engines,  with  vertical  cylinders. 
Diameter  of  cylinders    . .  . .       44  inches 

Stroke  of  pistons..  ..  ..       40     ,, 

Diameter  of  air  pump    . .  . .       28     „ 

Stroke  of  air  pump  piston         . .        20    „ 
Slide  valves— Steam  ports,   4  X    20  ;   exhaust 

ditto  4  X  20. 
Two  cylindrical  iron  boilers,  with  double  return 

flues.     Length,  16  feet ;  diameter,  9£  feet.    Fuel, 

bituminous  coal. 

One  cast  iron  propeller.     Diameter,  1 1 J  feet ; 

face,  40  inches  ;  pitch,  23  J  feet.     Propeller  surface, 

98  square  feet  ;  being  a  proportion  of  propelling 

surface  to  area  of  direct  resistance  as  1  to  2-28. 


Length  of  propeller  shaft  (3  sections),  72  feet  ; 
diameter  of  ditto,  10  inches  ;  journals  of  ditto,  10 
X  by  12  inches. 

The  Palmetto  is  a  fine  looking  vessel,  with  ex- 
cellent lines  of  flotation.  Three  masted,  schooner 
rigged,  with  foresail,  foretopsail,  and  foretop- 
gallantsail. 

2.  General  McDonald. — For  the   Philadelphia 
line,  to  run  in  connexion  with   the  Robert  Morris 
on  the  Delaware.    Builder,  J.  S.  Brown  ;  engine 
re-built  by  C.  Reeder,  jun. 

Length  on  deck  ..  ..  ..      225  feet 

Breadth  of  beam. .         . .         . .       30    „ 

Over  guards        . .  . .         . .       54    „ 

Depth  of  hold 9    » 

% 


18 


Draft  of  water    . .         . .         • .         4§  „ 

Hollow  lines,  coppered  and  copper  fastened. 
One  beam  engine,  re-built,  having  been  in  use 
for  several  years  on  board  the  late  steamer  Consti- 
tution. 
Diameter  of  cylinder        ..         ..      52  inches 

Stroke  of  piston    ..  ..  ..      10  feet 

Diameter  of  air  pump      . .         . .     40  inches 

Stroke  of  air  pump  piston. .  ...     44  inches 

Two  iron  boilers,  arch  and  tubular.    Fire  and 
flue  surface,  about  3,000  square  feet ;  fuel,  wood. 
Length  of  boilers  . .         ..         ..      17|  feet 

Breadth      . .  . .         . .  . .       9      „ 

Height  in  front     ..         ..         ..      10     „ 

„       at  back      . .  . .         . .       8-J-   „ 

Diameter  of  flues  (internal) 
Diameter  of  water  wheels 
Face  ,,  „ 

Depth  of  buckets 
Diameter  of  water  wheel 
(wrought  iron) 


shaft, 


3  inches 
31  feet 

30  inches 

13      „ 


3.  A  side  wheel  steamer  for  Savannah,  Georgia. 
R.  and  E.  J.  Bell,  builders ;  engine,  by  C.  Eeeder, 
junior. 

Length  on  deck    . .         . .         . .  130  feet 

Breadth  of  beam  ..          ..         ..  20    „ 

„       over  guards        . .          . .  34    „ 

Depth  of  hold       7£  „ 

One  beam  engine. 

Diameter  of  cylinder        . .         . .  24  inches. 

Stroke  of  piston    . .          . .          . .  8  feet 

Diameter  of  air  pump      ..          ..  18  inches 

Stroke  of  air  pump  piston           . .  42     „ 

One  cylindrical  iron  boiler. 

Length  of  boiler    ..         ..         ..  15^  feet 

Diameter   . .          . .          . .          . .  7 \    „ 

Double  return  flu.es,  fire  and  flue  surface,  800 
square  feet ;  fuel,  wood. 

Diameter  of  water  wheel 

Face  of  „         „     . . 

Depth  of  bucket 

Diameter  of  shafts  (wrought  iron) 


22  feet 

5    „ 
20  inches 

7       „ 


4.  A  side  wheel  steamer  for  La  Guayra,  South 

America.      Builder,   Gardner;    engines   by 

Murry  and  Hazelhurst,  Vulcan  Works. 

Length  on  deck 132  feet 

„      between  perpendiculars  . .    130    ,, 

Breadth  of  beam 21     „ 

„        over  guards         . .          . .      34    „ 
Depth  of  hold 9    „ 


Novelties. 


Tonnage  (custom-house  measure- 
ment)      250  tons 

Has  a  drop  deck  and  is  a  three  masted  schooner 
rigged.    Is  supplied  with  two  steeple  engines  con- 
nected. 
Diameter  of  cylinders      ..         .;.     28  inches 
Stroke  of  piston     . .  . .         . .     48      „ 

One  double  acting  air  pump,  worked  from  crank 
motion  of  centre  shaft. 

Diameter  of  air  pump      ..  ..      18|  inches 

Stroke  of  „  piston       . .     24      „ 

One  iron  boiler ;  double  return  flues. 

Length  of  boiler 15  J  feet 

Width  of      , 10^   „ 

Height  of      „       . .         . .  . .      1 1     „ 

Heating  surface  1,000  feet ;  fuel,  soft  coal. 
Diameter  of  water  wheel . .  ..      15^  feet 

Face  of  „  „     . .  5  5-  „ 

Depth  of  buckets 20  inches 

Hanging  wheel. 

5.  A  large  steamer  for  the  Powhattan  Co.,  the 
Belvedere ;  freight  and  passengers  to  Richmond, 
Va.  Builders,  Cooper  and  Butler;  engine  by 
Murry  and  Hazlehurst,  Vulcan  Works. 

Length  on  deck 225  feet 

„       between  perpendiculars  . .   210    „ 

Depth  of  hold 12    „ 

Breadth  of  beam  . .         . .         . .      34    „ 

„        over  guards       . .  . .      58    „ 

Draft  at  load  line . .         . .  9    ,, 

Tonnage  (custom-house  measure- 
ment       840  tons 

Line  of  flotation  slightly  concave. 

One  beam  engine. 

Diameter  of  cylinder        . .         . .      50  inches 

Stroke  of  piston 10  feet 

Diameter  of  air  pump      ..         . .       3    „ 
Stroke  of  air  pump  piston  . .       4^  „ 

Area  of  steam  valves       . .  . .    230  sq.  inch. 

One  iron  boiler,  single  return  flues. 

Length  of  boiler 24  feet 

Height  of     ,,        . .         . .         . .      13    „ 

Width  of     „        ..  ..  ..      ll£„ 

Diameter  of  cylindrical  part       . .      11    » 
Heating  surface,  2,200  feet;  fuel,  wood. 
Diameter  of  water  wheel. .  . .     29  feet 

Face  of  „  „     . .         . .       9i  „ 

Depth  of  bucket 2 \  „ 

Buckets  radiated  from  centre  of  shaft.  The  Bel- 
vedere is  to  fill  the  place  of  the  Columbus,  recently 
burnt,  belonging  to  the  same  company. 


[January, 


6.  A  side  wheel  steamer  for  the  Norfolk  line, 
Bay  route;  builders,  Cooper  and  Butler;  engine 
by  Murry  and  Hazlehurst,  Vulcan  Works. 

Length  on  deck 245  feet 

„      between  perpendiculars  . .   237    „ 
Breadth  of  beam  . .         . .         . .     34    „ 

„        over  guards        . .         . .     60    „ 

Depth  of  hold        ..         ..         ..      11    „ 

Draft  at  load  line . .  . .  . .       6    „ 

Tonnage  (custom-house  measure- 
ment)      864  tons 

One  beam  engine. 

Diameter  of  cylinder        . .  . .      56  inches 

Stroke  of  piston    . .         . .         . .      11  feet 

Diameter  of  air  pump      . .         . .     44  inches 

Stroke  of  air  pump  piston  . .     50      „ 

Two  iron  tubular  boilers 

Length  of  boilers 14  feet 

Width  of        „ 14    „ 

Height  of       „ 11    „ 

Arch  below  and  returns  through  3  inch  tubes ; 
fuel,  bituminous  coal ;  heating  surface,  4,000  square 
feet. 
Diameter  of  water  wheels  . .     32  feet 

Face  of  „  „  ..       91,, 

Depth  of  bucket 2&  „ 

Buckets  radiate  from  centre  of  shaft. 
The  company  to  whom  this  boat  belongs  will 
find,  to  their  regret,  that  they  have  limited  the  en- 
gineers in  the  size  of  her  cylinders  injudiciously.  A 
reservation  of  power  in  the  capacity  of  a  cylinder,  to 
meet  exigences  that  occur  during  the  winter  pas- 
sages on  that  route,  would  certainly  more  than 
pay  the  difference  in  the  first  cost  in  a  short  time, 
between  a  56  and  60  inch  cylinder,  in  the  certainty 
of  her  time,  and  a  reduced  amount  of  wear  and 
tear  in  machinery,  owing  to  the  fact  that  forcing 
her  will  be  unnecessary. 

I  have  for  comparison  taken  the  steamer  Van- 
derbilt,  running  on  the  Long  Island  Sound. 
Vanderbilt,  tonnage,  1041,  capa- 
city of  cylinder  339  cubic  ft. 

Norfolk  Boat,  tonnage,  864,  capa- 
city of  cylinder  188         „ 

Vanderbilt    cylinder,    capacity    to 

tonnage  is  as       1  to  3.07 

Norfolk  Boat  cylinder,  capacity  to 

tonnage  is  as        1  to  4.05 

Thus  showing  a  proportion  of  power  to  tonnage, 
largely  in  favor  of  the  Vanderbilt,  a  boat  having 
very  similar  duties  to  perform,  to  that  of  the  Nor- 
folk Boats.  S. 


NOVELTIES. 


Improved  Scythes. — Messrs.  Robert  Sorby  and  Sons,  of  Carver-street, 
Sheffield,  have  recently  registered  an  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of 
scythes  and  reaping-hooks,  designed  to  increase  their  durability,  by  the 

substitution  of  solid  steel  points  for 


the  ordinary  method  of  construction. 
Fig.  1  represents  the  point  of  the 
ordinary  scythe  ;  the  back  is  made 
of  wrought  iron,  and  the  blade  of 
steel,  which  are  riveted  together. 
The  back  does  not  extend  the  whole 
length  of  the  blade,  and  the  va- 
cancy is  filled  in  with  lead,  which 
tears  off  in  use,  and  leaves  the  point 
of  the  back  exposed,  to  the  annoy- 
ance of  the  mower,  as  it  never  fails 
to  catch  in  the  crop,  and  so  impede 
his  operations.  This  objection  is 
neatly  obviated  in  the  plan  before 
us,  by  lapping  the  steel  point  over 
the  end  of  the  back,  so  that  an  uni- 
form steel  back  is  presented  for  a 
short  distance  from  the  point.  Fig. 
2  shows  the  iron  back,  to  be  riveted 
to  the  steel  blade,  fig.  3,  which,  when  finished,  presents  the  appearance 
shown  in  fig.  4,  where  the  iron  back  is  completely  protected  by  the  steel,  at 
the  wearing  part. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


m* 


Symon's    Convertible    Plane.— These   planes,    which    we    noticed 

in  onr  last  volume,  are  designed 
to  save  joiners  the  expense  of 
purchasing  a  quantity  of  mould- 
ing planes,  by  making  one  stock 
serve  for  a  set  of  moulds.  Fig  1 
is  a  section  of  a  stock,'  show- 
ing how  the  mould  is  fitted  to  it, 
and  Fig.  2  shows  the  sections  of 
three  other  moulds  of  usual  forms, 
which  may  be  fitted  to  the  same 
stock.  The  inventor  states  that 
he  would  fix  them  so  that  the 
mouth  of  the  plane  should  be 
enlarged  or  contracted,  so  as  to  fit 
any  sort  of  work. 

The  Cleveland  Iron  District. — The  iron  district  covers  an  area  of 
several  thousand  acres,  lyinglbetween  Guisbro'  and  Stokesley,  in  the  county 
of  York,  and  the  stone  contains  from  30  to>40  per  cent,  of  iron,  and  the  seam, 
from  12  to  20  feet  thick,  lying  from  1  to  20  feet  below  the  surface,  is  esti- 
mated to  produce  40,000  tons  per  acre.  The  supply  will,  therefore,  be 
unlimited,  and  can  be  raised  for  a  considerable  time  at  not  exceeding  6d. 
per  ton.  This  extraordinary  iron  bed,  which  has  been  traced  and  tested  for 
fifteen  miles,  is  full  of  calcareous  matter,  and  was  probably  a  sea-shore  in 
the  antediluvian  world  ;  it  is  composed  of  ground  shells  and  mud,  and  filled 


1852.] 


List  of  English  Patents. 


19 


with  iron  by  percolation  of  water,  taking  up  iron  in  solution  which  it  leaves 
behind,  and  in  ages  becomes  a  concrete  mass";  and  in  the  ore,  when  examined 
through  a  magnifying  glass,  particles  of  shells  are  very  visible.  50,000  tons 
have  been  already  smelted  in  Northumberland,  producing  33  per  cent.,  and 
a  contract  recently  made  by  the  two  proprietors  to  supply  an  iron-work  with 
200,000  tons  per  annum,  for  seven  years,  at  8s.  3d.  per  ton,  delivered  at 
Middlesbro',  which,  on  a  low  estimate,  will  yield  a  profit  of  £200,000  ;  and 
it  is  thoroughly  understood  that  it  works  remarkably  well,  being  very  mild, 
and  making  capital  iron.  It  is  intended  to  trace  the  geological  course  of  the 
coal  veins  in  the  district,  which  is  expected  to  be  found  in  quantity  at  some 
depth  below  the  iron,  as  in  other  quarters..  Way-leave  is  likely  to  be  obtained 
to  construct  a  railway  from  the  centre  of  the  ore,  at  a  cost  of  about  £2,500 
per  mile,  to  join  the  Stockton  and  Bedcar  Railway,  and  it  is  fairly  presumed 
the  landed  proprietors  will  willingly  agree  to  a  beneficial  arrangement,  many 
having  engaged  to  do  so  ;  but  should  any  difficulty  unexpectedly  arise,  an 
Act  will  be  applied  for,  the  necessary  survey  made,  and  plans  and  sections 
deposited.  It  is  also  contemplated  to  erect  ironworks  on  the  property  al- 
ready secured  in  connexion  with  the  rail,  and  concentrate  the  latest  improve- 
ments, and  thus  be  enabled  to  produce  iron  at  the  lowest  possible  cost,  about 
8s.  per  ton  below  the  present  rate.  Three  furnaces  will  cost  about  £3,000, 
blast-engines  about  £4,060,  and  heating  apparatus  about  £2,000  ;  and  each 
fnrnace  will  produce  near  900  tons  of  pig-iron  per  week  by  hot-blast,  or 
80  tons  by  cold  ;  and  by  calcining  the  ore  on  the  spot  fully  25  per  cent,  will 
be  saved  on  its  carriage,  and  about  two  tons  produce  one  ton  of  pig-iron. 

Peat  Charcoal  in  the  United  States. — In  the  agricultural  section 
of  the  report  issued  from  the  United  States'  Patent  Office,  we  find  the  follow- 
ing testimony  to  the  merits  of  peat  charcoal,  given  by  an  intelligent  farmer, 
S.  B.  Beckett,  of  Portland: — "Pulverized  peat  charcoal  (a  new  article)  I  am 
disposed  to  believe  will  be  found  to  be  a  most  excellent  fertilizer,  especially 
composted  with  other  manures.  It  is  a  perfect  deodorizer,  rendering  human 
excreta  and  the  most  offensive  offal  entirely  scentless,  as  I  have  ascertained 
from  frequent  experiments.  Hence,  its  discovery  will  prove  of  great  utility 
to  the  world  in  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  as  well  as  for  its  fertilizing  qualities; 
and  I  am  happy  to  add,  that  a  large  manufactory  of  the  article  is  just  going 
into  operation  in  our  vicinity.'' 

Society  of  Arts'  Exhibition  op  Patented  Inventions  for  1851. — 
This  Exhibition  is  now  open,  and  We  regret  to  find  has  been  deprived  of 
many  most  interesting  objects  through  the  perverse  obstinacy  of  the  Board, 
of  Trade,  who  have  refused  to  allow  it  to  be  considered  a  "  place  of  Exhibi- 
tion," as  required  by  the  Act  for  the  provisional  Registry  of  Inventions.  This, 
however,  is  perhaps  not  so  much  to  be  wondered  at,  when  we  remember  that 
Lord  Granville,  the  Vice-President  of  that  board,  is  of  opinion  that  we  have 
no  right  to  any  Patent  Laws  at  all.  We  have  noted  down  a  number  of 
articles,  some  of  which  we  must  reserve  for  next  month. 

Wright's  Refrigerating  Appa- 
ratus is  simple,,  and  likely  to  be 
effective.  It  is  constructed  on  the 
evaporative  principle,  and  consists  of 
a  wire  frame  covered  with  linen,  the 
lower  edge  of  which  stands  in  a 
small  channel,  into  which  water  is 
poured.  The  water  rises  by  the  capil- 
lary action,  and  keeps  the  linen  con- 
stantly moist,  the  evaporation  from 
which  carries  off  the  caloric  from  the 
object  placed  beneath  it. 

Adams'  Victoria  Regia  Sponging  Bath,  is  designed  to  prevent  the 
splashing  which  such  ablutions  are  apt  to  cause,  and  this  is  effected  by  curl- 
ing inwards  the  upper  edge  of  the  bath,  so  that  the  water  in  rising  is  caught 
and  returned. 

Young's  Rotary  Boot  and  Shoe  Cleaner,  consists  of  a  set  of  brushes, 
made  to  revolve,  by  a  treadle  and  fly  wheel,  like  a  foot-lathe.  This  labour- 
saving  machine  is  said  to  have  been,  in  use  in,  the  United  States  for  some 
years. 

(To  be  continued.) 


LIST  OF  ENGLISH  PATENTS. 

From  20th  November  to  27th  December,  1851. 

Six  months  allowed  for  enrolment,  unless  otherwise  expressed. 

Samuel  Colt,  of  Bond-street,  Middlesex,  for  certain  improvements  in  fire-arms.     Nov.  22, 

Thomas  Marsden,  of  Salford,  for  improvements  in  machinery  for  hackling  and  combing 
flax  and  other  fibrous  materials.    November  22. 

Enoch  Statham,  of  Liddals-road,  Derby,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  lace  and 
other  fabrics.    November  22. 

Frederick  Weiss,  of  the  Strand,  Middlesex,  surgical  instrument  maker,  for  improvements 
in  certain  surgical  instruments ;  also  In  scissors  and  other  like  cutting  instruments.  No- 
vember 22.    (Communication.) 

Frederick  Benjamin  Geithner,  of  Camden-street,  Birmingham,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  castors  and  legs  of  furniture.    November  22. 

Jean  Baptiste  Chalrain,_of  Rouen,  merchant,  for  improvements  in  preparing  and  weaving 
cotton.  November  22. 


William  Armand  Moreau  Gilbee,  of  South-street,  Finsbury-square,  London,  gentleman, 
for  certain  improvements  in  the  process  of,  and  apparatus  for,  treating  fatty  oleaginous 
matters,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  candles  and  other  useful  articles  therefrom.  November 
22.     (Communication.) 

George  Mills,  of  Southampton,  Hampshire,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  steam-engine 
boilers  and  in  steam  propelling  machinery...  November  22. 

Alexander  Southwood  Stocker,  of  Wandsworth,  Surrey,  gentleman,  for  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  stoppering  or  stopping  of  bottles,  jars,  pots,  and  other  such-like  receptacles. 
November  22. 

Henry  Ellwood,  of  the  firm  of  J.  Gillwood  and  Sons,  of  Great  Charlotte-street,  Blackfriars. 
hat  manufacturers,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  hats.    November  27. 

Richard  Whytock,  of  Edinburgh,  for  improvements  in  applying  colours  to  yarns  or 
threads,  and  in  weaving  or  producing  fabrics  when  coloured  or  party-coloured  yarns  or 
threads  are  employed.    November  27. 

John  Lee  Stevens,  of  Kennington,  Surrey,  gentleman,  for  certain  improvements  in  pro- 
pelling vessels  on  water. .  November  27. 

William  Exall,  of  Reading,  Berkshire,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  certain  agricultural 
implements;  and' in  steam-engines  and  boilers  for  driving  the  same.    December  1. 

George  Laycock,  late  of  Doncaster,  Yorksliire,  but  now  of  Albany,  .in  the  state  of  New 
York,  in  the  United  States  of  America,  dyer,  for  improvements  in  unhair.ing  and  tanning 
skins.   December  1. 

William  Grayson,  .of  Henley-on-Thames,  Oxfordshire,  watch  and  clock  maker,  for  an  odo- 
meter, or  road  measurer,  to  be  attached  to  carriages  for  showing  distances  over  which  the 
wheels  pass.    December  1. 

Thomas  Burstall,  of  Lee-crescent,  Edgbaston,  Warwickshire,  civil  engineer,  for  certain 
improved  machinery  for  manufacturing  bricks  and  other  articles  from  clay  alone,  or  mixed 
with  other  materials.    December  1 . 

John  Macintosh,  of  Berners-street,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in  steam- 
engines,  in  rigging  and  propelling  vessels,  and  facilitating  their  progress  through  water. 
December  4. 

William  Wood,  of  Oxford-street,  Middlesex,  carpet  manufacturer,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  and  ornamenting  of  carpets,  rugs,  and  other  fabrics.    December  4. 

James  Thompson,  and  Frederick  Altree,  of  Compton-street,  Brunswick-square,  bakers, 
for  certain  improvements  in  the  means  of,  and  apparatus  for  heating  ovens.    December  5. 

Joseph  Harriaon,  of  Oxford-square,  Hyde -park-gardens,  engineer,  for  certain  improve- 
ments in  steam-engines  and  boilers.    December  8. 

Feter  Armand  le  Comte  de  Foutainemoreau,  of  South-street,  Finsbury,  for  improvements 
in  the  apparatus  for  kneading  and  baking  bread,  and  other  articles  of  food  of  a  similar 
uature.    December?.      (Communication.) 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  Fleet-street.  London,  for  certain  improved  modes  of 
applying  electro-chemical  action  to  manufacturing  purposes.    Dec.  8.    (Communication.) 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  Fleet-street,  London,  for  improvements  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sugar,  in  the  preparation  of,  certain  substances  for  such  manufacture,  and  in  the 
machinery  and  apparatus  employed  therein.    December  8.     (Communication.) 

Isaac  Alexander,  of  High  Holborn,  Middlesex,  biscuit-baker,  for  a  mode  of  preparing  and 
treating  certain  kinds  of  cheese,  whereby  to  render  the  same  applicable  to  a  variety  of  culi- 
nary and  other  domestic  purposes.   December  8. 

Perry  G.  Gardiner,  of  New  York,  in  the  United  States  of  America,  civil  engineer  and 
machinist,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  malleable  metals  into  pipes,  hollow 
shafts,  railway  wheels,  or  other  analogous  forms,  capable  of  being  dressed  turned  down,  or 
polished  in  a  lathe.    December  8. 

Charles  Cowper,  of  Southampton-buildings,  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  for  improvements 
in  separating  coal  from  foreign  matters,  and  in  apparatus  for  that  purpose.  December  8. 
(Communication.) 

William  Pidding,  of  the  Strand,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  the  treatment,  manu- 
facture, and  application  of  materials  or  substances  for  building  purposes.    December  8. 

John  Lake,  of  Apsley,  Hertfordshire,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in  propelling  on 
canals  and  rivers.    December  8. 

Thomas  Restell,  of  the  Strand,  Middlesex,  watchmaker,  for  improvements  in  locks  or 
fastenings.    December  8. 

John  Frearson,  of  Birmingham,  for  improvements  in  cutting,  shaping  and  pressing  metal 
and  other  materials.    December  10., 

James  Webster,  of  Leicester,  for  improvements  in  drying  gloves,  and .  other  articles  Of 
hosiery.    December  10. 

Etienne  Alexandre  Armand,  of  Paris,  for  improvements  in  the  modes  of  distilling  and 
treating  organic  substances,  and  bituminous  matters,  and  in  the  treatment  of  their  products, 
together  with  the  apparatus  used  for  the  said  purposes.    December  10. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  improvements 
in  dyeing  textile  fabrics.    December  10.    (Communication.) 

Thomas  Masters,  of  Regent-street,  confectioner,  for  improvements  in  retaining  and 
drawing  off  aerated  and  other  liquids,  and  in  charging  vessels  with  gaseous  fluids,  applicable 
to  vessels  for  holding  solid  matters,  and  also  as  a  fastening  for  utensils  and  apparatus,  and 
in  holders  for  cigars.    December  11. 

Thomas  Twells,  of  Nottingham,  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  looped. fabrics.    December  15. 

Frederick  William  Norton,  of  Paisley,  Renfrewshire,  North.  Britain,  manufacturer,  for 
certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture  or  production  of  plain  and  figured  fabrics. 
December  16. 

John  Gedge,  of  Wellington-street,  Strand,  Middlesex,  for  improvements  in  the  treatment 
of  certain  substances  for  the  production  of  manures.    December  16.    (Communication.) 

James  Souter  and  James  Worton,  of  Birmingham,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture 
of  papier  maehe,  and  in  articles  made  therefrom,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  buttons,  studs, 
and  other  articles,  where  metal  and  glass  are  combined.     December  17. 

William  Hirst,  of  Manchester-,  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements  in  machinery  or 
apparatus  for  manufacturing  woollen  cloth,  and  cloth  made  from  wool  and  other  materials. 
December  19. 

Moses  Poole,  of  London,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  apparatus  for  excluding  dust  and 
other  matters  from  railway  cairiages,  and  for  ventilating  them.j  Dee.  19.  (Communication.) 

Henry  Clay  ton,  of  Atlas  Works,  Upper  Park -place,  Dorset-square,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  tubes,  pipes,  tiles,  and  other  articles  made  from  plastic  materials.     Dec.  19. 

Samuel  Wilkes,  of  Wolverhampton,  brass-founder,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture 
of  kettles,  in  saucepans,  and  other  cooking  vessels.    December  19. 

Joseph  Burch,  of  Craig  Works,  Macclesfield,  for  improvements  in  printing  and  orna- 
menting cut-pile  and  other  fabrics  and  yams.    December  19.. 

Christopher  Rands,  of  Shad  Thames,  miller,  for  improvements  in  grinding  wheat  and 
other  grain.    December  19. 

James  Frederick  Lackersteen,  of  Kensington-square,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in 
machinery  for  cutting  and  splitting  wood  and  other  substances,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
lio^cs     December  19« 

Frederick  Bousfield,  of  Devonshire-place,  Islington,  gentleman,  for  a  new  manufacture  of 
manure.    December  19.  .   . 

Charles  Howland,  of  New  York,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  apparatus  for  ascertaining 
and  indicating  the  supply  of  water  in  steam-boilers.    December  19. 

William  Elliott,  of  Birmingham,  manufacturer,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of 
covered  buttons.    December  19. 

Rodolphe  Helbronner,  of  Regent-street,  for  improvements  in  apparatus  used  when  ob- 
taining instantaneous  light.    December  19. 


20 


List  of  English  Patents. 


[January,  1852. 


John  Thornton  and  James  Thornton,  both  of  Melbourne,  Derbyshire,  mechanics,  for  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  meshed  and  looped  fabrics,  and  other  weaving*,  and  in 
raising  pile  and  looped  fabrics  and  other  weavings.    December  19. 

William  Emery  Milligan,  mechanical  engineer,  of  New  York,  for  certain  improvemeuts 
in  the  construction  of  boilers  for  generating  steam.    December  19. 

Charles  Lamport,  of  Workington,  Cumberland,  shipbuilder,  for  improvements  in  reefing 

Rills        T)6CGTIll)6r   19 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  Fleet-street,  for  improvements  in  sounding  instruments. 
December  19.    (Communication.) 

John  Davie  Monies  Stirling,  of  Black  Grange,  North  Britain,  esq.,  for  certain  alloys  and 
combinations  of  metals.     December  22. 

Sydney  Smith,  of  Nottingham,  for  improvements  in  indicating  the  height  of  water  in 
steam-boilers.    December  22. 

Augustus  Applegarth.of  Dartford,  Kent,  for  improvements  in  machinery  used  for  printing. 
December  24. 

Antonio  de  Sola,  of  Madrid,  Spain,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  treatment  of  copper 
minerals.    December  24.    (Communication.) 

Christopher  Nickels,  of  York-road,  Lambeth,  and  Thomas  Ball,  and  John  Woodhouse 
Bagley,  cf  Nottingham,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  knitted,  looped,  and  other 
elastic  fabrics.    December  24. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  im- 
provements in  separating  substances  of  different  specific  gravities.    December  24. 

Joseph  Stenson,  of  Northampton,  engineer  and  iron  manufacturer,  for  improvements  in 
the  manufacture  of  iron,  and  in  the  steam  apparatus  used  therein,  part  or  parts  of  which 
are  also  applicable  to  evaporative  and  motive  purposes  generally.    December  27. 

LIST  OF  PATENTS  THAT  HAVE  PASSED  THE  GREAT  SEAL  OF  SCOTLAND, 

From  the  22nd  day  of  October  to  the  22nd  day  of  December,  1851, 
Edwin  Deeley  and  Richard  Mountford  Deeley,  of  Andnam  Bank,  Staffordshire,  flint  and 
bottle  glass  manufacturers,  for  improvements  in  the  construction  of  furnaces  for  the  manu- 
facture of  glass.    October  31. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for 
certain  improvements  in  the  construction  of  railways.    November  4.     (Communication.) 

William  Smith,  of  Upper  Grove-cottages,  Holloway,  Middlesex,  engineer,  for  improvements 
in  loenmotive  and  other  engines,  and  in  carriages  used  on  railways.    November  4. 

Robert  Hyde  Greg,  of  Manchester,  Lancashire,  manufacturer  and  merchant,  and  David 
Bowlas,  of  Reddish,  Lancashire,  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements  in  machinery  or 
apparatus  for  manufacturing  weavers'  healcls  or  harness.    November  4. 

Michael  Scott,  of  John-street,  Adelphi,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in  punching, 
rivetting,  bending,  and  shearing  metals,  and  in  building  ships.    November  5. 

Benjamin  Hallewell,  of  Leeds,  Yorkshire,  wine  merchant,  for  improvements  in  drying 
malt.    November  5. 

Matthew  Gibson,  of  Wellington-terrace,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  for  improvements  in 
machinery  for  pulverizing  and  preparing  land.    November  7. 

William  Longmaid,  of  Beaumont-square,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  treating  ores 
and  minerals,  and  in  obtaining  various  products  therefrom,  certain  parts  of  which  improve- 
ments are  applicable  to  the  manufacture  of  alkali.    November  7. 

Antoine  Dominique  Sisco,  of  Slough,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  chains,  and 
in  combining  iron  with  other  metals  applicable  to  such,  and  other  manufacture.    Nov.  11. 
Henry  Lund,  of  the  Temple,  esq.,  for  improvements  in  propelling.    November  12. 
Frederick  Joseph   Bramwell,  of.  Millwall,   Middlesex,  engineer,  for  improvements  in 
working  the  valves  of  steam-engines  for  marine  and  other  purposes,  and  in  paddle-wheels. 
November  12. 

William  Boggett,  of  St.  Martin's-lane,  gentleman,  and  George  Holworthy  Palmer,  of 
Westbourne  villas,  Paddington,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in  obtaining  and  applying 
lie.it  and  light.    November  1.4. 

Henry  Richardson,  of  Aber  Hemant,  Bala,  North  Wales,  esq.,  for  certain  improvements 
in  life-boats.    November  14  (four  months.) 

James  Bagster  Lyall,  of  Thurloe-square,  Brompton,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  an  im- 
proved construction  of  public  carriage,    November  14  (four  months.) 

James  Pyke,  of  Westbourne-grove,  Bayswater,  Middlesex,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  leather,  also  in  making  boots  and  shoes.    November  17. 

Hugh  Bowlsby  Wilson,  of  the  York  Hotel,  Blackfriars,  London,  for  improvements  in  the 
construction  of  rails  for  railways.    November  19. 

George  Tate,  of  Bawtry,  Yorkshire,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
dwelling-houses  and  other  buildings,  including  carriages  and  floating  vessels,  and  in  the 
propulsion  of  said  vessels,  and  in  the  adaptation  and  manufacture  of  materials  for  such 
uses.    November  21. 

F.ichard  Whytock,  of  Edinburgh,  for  improvements  in  applying  colours  to  yarns  or 
threads,  and  in  weaving  or  producing  fabrics  when  coloured  Or  party  -coloured  yarns  or 
threads  are  employed.    November  24. 

Thomas  Crook,  of  Preston,  Lancashire,  cotton  manufacturer,  and  James  Mason,  of  Preston 
aforesaid,  warper,  for  certain  improvements  iu  loqms  for  weaving.    November  26. 

Thomas  Cussons,  of  Bunhill-row,  Middlesex,  for  improvements  in  ornamenting  woven 
fabrics  for  bookbinding  and  its  uses.    November  20. 

Henry  EUwood,  of  the  firm  of  Ellwood  and  Sons,  of  Great  Charlotte-street,  Blackfriars- 
road,  Surrey,  wholesale  hat  mannfacturers,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  hats, 
and  other  coverings  for  the  head.    November  26. 

John  Ashworth,  of  Bristol,  manager  of  the  Great  Western  Cotton  Works,  for  certain  im- 
provements in  the  method  of  preventing  and  removing  incrustations  in  sseam-boilers  and 
steam-generators.    November  26. 

Joshua  Grindrod,  of  Birkenhead,  Cheshire,  consulting  engineer,  for  an  improvement  in 
the  machinery  for  communicating  motion  from  steam-engines,  or  other  motive  power,  and 
in  the  construction  of  rudders  for  vessels.    December  1. 

William  Brydges  Adams,  of  Adam-street,  Adelphi,  Middlesex,  engineer,  for  certain  im- 
provements in  the  construction  of  roads  and  ways  for  the  transit  of  passengers,  of  materials, 
and  of  goods;  also  in  building  and  in  bridges,  parts  of  which  improvements  are  applicable 
to  other  like  purposes.    December  4. 

Godfrey  Ermcn,  of  Manchester,  Lancashire,  cotton-spinner,  for  certain  improvements  in 
the  method  of,  and  apparatus  for,  finishing  yarns  or  threads.    December  1. 

James  Nasuiyth,  of  Patricroft,  Lancashire,  engineer,  and  Herbert  Minton,  of  Stoke-upon- 
Trent,  Staffordshire,  china  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements  in  machinery  or  appa- 
ratus to  be  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  tiles,  bricks,  and  other  articles,  from  disinte- 
grated or  pulverized  clay.    December  1 1 . 

Frederick  William  Norton,  of  Paisley,  Renfrewshire,  North  Britain,  manufacturer,  for 
certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture  or  production  of  plain  and  figured  fabrics.   Dec.  12. 
John  Cumming,  of  Paisley,  Renfrewshire,  North  Britain,  pattern  designer,  for  improve- 
ments in  the  production  of  surfaces  for  printing  or  ornamenting  fabrics.    December  IS. 

John  Livesey,  New  Lenton,  Nottingham,  draughtsman,  for  improvements  in  the  manu- 
facture of  textile  fabrics,  and  in  machinery  for  producing  the  same.    December  15. 

Augustus  Applegarth.of  Dartford,  Kent,  for  improvements  in  machinery  used  in  printing. 
Deeember  22. 

William  Dickinson,  of  Blackburn,  Lancashire,  machine  maker,  for  certain  improvements 
in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  manufacturing  textile  fabrics.  December  2?. 

George  Gwynne,  of  Hyde  Park  square,  Middlesex,  esq.,  and  George  Fergusson  Wilson, 
managing  director  of  Price's  Patent  Candle  Company,  of  Belmont,  Vauxhall,  for  improve- 


DESIGNS  FOR  ARTICLES  OF  UTILITY. 
From  the  21st  November  to  the  23rd  December  1851,  inclusive. 
November  21,  3021,  William  Ashton,  South,  Lincolnshire.  "  Sponging-bath." 

„      21,3022,  Joseph  and  Alfred  Kidsdale,  Minories,  "  Fastening  for  ship's  scuttle- 
lights  or  ports. 
21,  3023,  Stenhen  M.  Feary,  Willingham,  near  Cambridge,  "Wheel-supporter." 
„      22,  3024,  J.  Biggs  and  Sons,  Leicester,  "  Shirts  made  of  looped  fabrics." 
„      24,'302o,  William  Barwell,  Birmingham,  "  Metallic  reel." 

„      25,  3026,  Robert  McConnell,  Port  Dundas-road,  Glasgow,  "Model  water-closet." 
„      25,  3027,  John  William  and  Thomas  Allen,  Strand,  "  Despatch-box." 
„      26,  3028,  Henry  Watson,  High-Bridge  Works,  Newcastle--on-Tyne,  "  Parts  of  a 

safety-lamp." 
„      26,  3029,  William  Drav,  Swan-lane,  City,  "  Bullock-tie." 
„      26,  3030,  Dent,  Allcroft,  and  Co  ,  Wood-street,  Cheapside,  "  Collar-fastening." 
„      27,  3031,  Samuel  Hemmings,  Merrywood-hall,  Bristol,  '-Combined  lactometer 

and  milk-vessel." 
„      27,  3032,  William  Hodgson,  West-End-buildings,  Bradford,  Yorkshire,  "Improved 

spool  motion." 
„      28,  3033,  Robert  Adams,  King  William-street,  City,  "  A  projectile." 
„      29,  3034,  Moses  Wright,  Bingley,  Yorkshire,  "  A  shuttle." 
December  1,  3035,  William  Marr,  Cheapside,  "Improved  girder." 

„      2,  3036,  C.  A.  and  T.  Ferguson,  Mast-house,  Millwall,  Poplar,  "  Compresser  for 

gun-carriages." 
„      2,  3037,  John  Gillam,  Woodstock,  "  Seed-cleanser  and  separater." 
„      3,  3035,  Thomas  B.  Gale,  Victoria-street,  Homertou,  "  A  boring  tool." 
„      3,  3039,  Thomas  Paris,  Greenwood,  Barnet,  "A  brick." 
,,      3,  3040,  Thomas  Paris,  Greenwood,  Barnet,  "A  brick." 
„      4,  3041,  John  Sanders,  Upper  Hockley-street,  Birmingham,  "Adjusting  lock 

furniture." 
„      4, 30.42,  Wolf   and    Baker,    Sambrook-court,    Basinghall-street,    "Condensing 

tobacco-pipe  stem."1 
„      4,  3043,  Richard  Garrett,   Leiston  works,  Saxmundham,  "Reciprocating  knife 

for  reaping-machines:" 
„      4,  3044,  James  Slipper,  Leather-lane,  "The  bronchita  tube  " 
„      5,  3045,   leorge  Sant,  Pomona-place,  Fulham,  "  A  milk-tester." 
„      5,  3046,  Francis  Whishaw.  John-st.,  Adelphi,  "Telekonphonon  (speaking-tube.)" 
„      5,  3047,  Maurice  Moses,  Tower- hill.  "  Janus  coat." 
„      6,  3048,  John  Charles  Evans,  King  William-street,  London-bridge,  "Revolving 

curtain-runner." 
„      6,  3049,  Edward  N.  Fourdrinier,  Sunderland,  "  Penholder." 
„      8,  3050,  John  Hicks,  Dorchester,  "  Stove." 

„       1,  3051,  W.  Flatau  and  Co.,  Mansell-street,  Goodman's-fields,  "  A  shoe." 
„      9,  3052,  Henry  Stephens,  Stamford-street,  Blackfriars-road,  "Improved  parallel 

ruler." 
„      9,  3053,  Cripps  and  Linrlup,  Warwick-street,  Worthing,  "Coat  " 
„     10,  3054,  A.  Lyon,  Windmill-street,  Finsbury,  "Sausage  meat-cutter." 
„     10,  3055,  Charles  Clarke,  Birmincchflm,  "  Casement-stay  and  fastener." 
„     1 1,  3056,  James  Thornton  and  Sons,  Bradtord-street,  Birmingham,  "  Glass  guage- 

tube  for  railway  engines." 
„     12,  3057,  Edward  J.  Dent,  Strand,  ■'  Prismatic  balance." 
„     13,  3051,  James  Neighbour,  High-street,  Windsor,  Berks,  "Geometrical  fimbria, 

or  shirt,  with  graduating  corset  for  females  and  children." 
„     16,  3059,  Charles  Rowley,  Newhall,  Birmingham,  "  Lead  and  slate  pencil  and 

crayon  sharpener." 
„     16,  3060,  Williamson  and  Koberts,  Heaton  Norris,  Lancashire,  "  Apparatus  for 

taking  up  the  cloth  in  looms." 
„     16,  3061,  Edwin  Kesterton,  Long-Acre,  "Improved  frame  for  carriage-windows." 
„     17,  3062,  Joseph  Welch  and  Margetson,  Cheapside,  "  Oxonian  shirt- front." 
„    17,  3063,  Samuel  Whitfield,  Oxford-street,  Birmingham,  "  Improved  fastening  for 

metallic  bedsteads." 
„     18,  3064,  James  Haywood,  i  hcenix  Foundry,  Derby,  "  A  stench-trap." 
„    20,  3065,  Charles  Lenny,  Croydon,  Surrey,  "  Wicker-bodied  carriage." 
„    23,  3066,  Joseph  J.  Lane,  Coventry-street,  Betbnal-green,  "  The  lozenge-cutting 

machine." 


ments  in  treating  fatty  and  oily  matters,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  lamps,  candles,  night- 
lights,  and  soap.    December  22. 

Herman  Schroeder,  of  Bristol,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  and  re- 
fining of  sugar,  which  improvements  are  applicable  to  evaporating  other  fluids  where  a 
low  temperature  is  advantageous.    December  22. 

LIST  OF  PATENTS  THAT  HAVE  PASSED  THE  GREAT  SEAL  OF  IRELAND, 
From  the  21st  Day  of  September  to  the  19th  Day  of  December. 

Samuel  Holt,  of  Stockport,  Cheshire,  manager,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  manu- 
f  acture  of  textile  fabrics.    September  24. 

Henry  Wimshuist,  of  Broad-street,  Radcliff-eross,  Middlesex,  ship-builder,  for  improve- 
ments in  steam-engines,  in  propelling,  and  in  the  construction  of  ships  and  vessels.    Sept.  30. 

Charles  Hardy,  of  Low  Moor,  Yorkshire,  esq.,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  scythes.    October  6. 

Peter  Robert  Drummond,  of  Perth,  for  improvements  in  churns.    October  20. 

John  Oxland  and  Robert  Oxland,  of  Plymouth,  chemists,  for  improvements  in  the  manu- 
facture and  refining  of  sugar.    November  3. 

James  Webster,  of  Leicester,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  the  construction  and  means 
of  applying  carriage  and  certain  other  springs.    November  3. 

Alexis  Delemer,  of  Radcliffe,  Lancashire,  engineer,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  ap- 
plication of  colouring  matter  to  linen,  cotton,  silk,  woollen,  and  other  fabrics,  and  to  linen, 
cotton,  silk,  and  other  wefts,  and  also  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  those  purposes. 
November  5. 

Percival  Moses  Parsons,  of  Duke-street,  Adelphi,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improve- 
ments In  parts  of  railways,  and  in  cranes.    November  18. 

Thomas  Crook,  of  Preston,  Lancashire,  cotton  manufacturer,  and  James  Mason,  of  Pres- 
ton aforesaid,  warper,  for  certain  improvements  in  looms  for  weaving.    November  20. 

Henry  Richardson,  of  Aber  Hernant,  Bala,  North  Wales,  esq.,  for  certain  improvements 
in  life  boats.    November  20. 

George  Tate,  of  Bawtry,  Yorkshire,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
dwelling  houses  and  other  buildings,  including  carriages  and  floating  vessels,  and  in  the 
propulsion  of  said  vessels,  and  the  adaptation  and  manufacture  of  materials  for  such  uses. 
December  2. 

Philip  Nind,  of  Leicester-square,  gent.,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar, 
in  distilling  and  in  cutting  and  rasping  vegetable  substances.     December  2. 

George  Fergusson  Wilson,  managing  director  of  Price's  Patent  Candle  Company,  Vaux- 
hall,  David  Wilson,  of  Wandsworth,  esq.,  James  Childs,  of  Putney,  esq.,  and  John  Jackson, 
ofVauxhall,  gent.,  all  in  Surrey,  for  improvements  in  presses  and  matting,  and  in  the 
process  of  and  apparatus  for  treating  fatty  and  oily  matters,  and  in  the  manufacturing  of 
candles  and  night  lights.    December  19. 


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T  I  I  E    A  I  "i1 1  ZA3ST    JOURNAL  ,  1852  . 


TH 


No.  II.— Vol.  X.— FEBRUARY  1st,  1852. 


ON  DESIGNING  DETAILS  OF  MACHINERY. 

The  remarks  which  we  recently  made  on  the  engines  designed  by  Mr. 
Carlson  for  the  screw,  have  excited  the  susceptibility  of  more  than  one 
of  our  readers,  who  have  hastened  to  impress  upon  us  that  all  the  de- 
tails in  those  engines  are  to  be  found  embodied  in  the  practice  of 
various  English  engineers.  Even  admitting  this  fact  to  the  fullest  ex- 
tent, the  selection  and  combination  of  good  details  is  a  qualification  in 
which  many  engineers  exhibit  a  lamentable  deficiency.  Durability  and 
economy  in  repairs  are  too  often  sacrificed  in  the  attempt  to  economise 
in  first  cost,  or  from  an  inadequate  notion  of  the  importance  of  details. 
Some  of  our  sea-going  engineers,  and  those  who  have  been  employed 
in  the  colonies,  could  "  a  tale  unfold  "  which  would  sadly  tarnish  the 
lustre  with  which  the  names  of  our  "  eminent  engineers"  are  surrounded. 
An  instance  occurs  to  us  where  the  cylinder  covers  of  a  pair  of  large 
marine  engines  had  been  fitted  so  nicely,  their  whole  depth,  into  the 
cylinders,  that  their  removal  entire  was  found  perfectly  impracticable, 
and  they  had  to  be  cut  out,  and  fresh  covers  made  in  two  pieces,  to 
allow  of  their  being  got  into  their  places. 

Many  details  of  engines  and  machinery  are  still  copied  from  the  pro- 
ductions of  our  forefathers,  in  a  servile  spirit  of  imitation,  which  loco- 
motive engineering  has  weakened,  but  has  not  yet  exploded.  A  corres- 
pondent has  written  to  direct  attention  to  the  application  of  the  dished 
piston  to  locomotives,  where  reduction  of  weight  is  a  great  desideratum. 
We  may  also  point  out  the  facility  which  its  form  presents  for  making 
it  of  wrought  iron,  as  it  could  be  finished  under  the  hammer,  like 
Smith's  solid  wrought  iron  railway  wheel,  described  p.  178,  vol.  1849. 

We  propose  to  give  a  few  examples  of  modifications  of  details,  in 
which  we  hope  to  be  assisted  by  contributions  from  our  readers. 

VALVES    AND    COCKS. 

Amongst  the  various  forms  of  valves  which  have  been  employed  for 
air-pumps,  we  may  note,  first,  the  butterfly  valve,  which  was  no  doubt 
copied,  in  the  early  engines,  from  the  leather  bucket-valve;  the  change 
of  the  material  being  necessary  to  resist  the  high  temperature  of  the 
water  to  which  it  was  exposed.  For  land-engines,  the  buckets  were 
made  of  cast-iron,  with  brass  faces  rivetted  on,  and  the  valves  were  of 
solid  brass.  For  marine  engines,  exposed  to  salt  water,  buckets  entirely 
of  brass  were  found  necessary ;  and  we  have  seen  some  taken  out  of 
old  boats,  which,  from  their  weight,  seemed  to  have  been  cast  off  pat- 
terns originally  made  for  a  land  engine.  In  large  buckets,  the  weight 
in  the  valves  caused  them  to  strike  hard ;  and  the  evil  was  increased 
when  a  higher  speed  of  engine  was  introduced.  The  most  obvious 
remedy  was  to  diminish  their  weight,  by  dividing  them  into  a  number 
of  smaller  ones.  This  was  done  by  Mr.  Spiller,  of  Battersea,  by  filling 
up  the  available  area  with  a  number  of  small  circular  valves,  free  to  rise 
and  fall  independent  of  each  other,  which  divided  the  water  into  nume- 
rous small  streams.  Another  plan,  introduced  by  Messrs.  Maudslay  and 
Field,  was  to  divide  the  bucket  into  annular  rings,  with  valves  of  a  cor- 


responding shape.  An  object  gained  by  this  arrangement  was  an 
economy  in  construction,  arising  from  the  facility  gained  for  doing  all 
the  work  in  the  lathe,  the  cheapest  mode  of  getting  up  metallic  surfaces. 
The  disadvantage  appears  to  be  that,  the  rings  being  only  steadied  by 
ribs  on  their  internal  circumference,  will  not  rise  and  fall  steadily. 
This  will  be  understood  from  the  manner  in  which  a  half-crown  falls, 
when  allowed  to  roll  on  a  table  and  fall  on  its  face.  We  have  not  seen 
any  satifactory  plan  for  guiding  more  than  one  ring ;  but  that  may  be 
readily  done,  as  in  the  accompanying  sketch,  which,  it  will  be  seen,  is 


Scale  1^  in.  to  a  foot; 
only  the  "  pot-lid"  valve,  with  an  opening  in  the  centre,  which  gives  an 
additional  area  for  the  passage  of  the  water,  and  reduces  the  weight  of 
the  valve.  It  is  simple  and  effective  for  buckets  of  a  moderate  size,  and 
can  be  entirely  fitted  up  in  the  lathe.  The  boss  is  made  of  adequate 
depth,  to  give  steadiness,  and  is  lightened  out,  as  are  also  the  feathers ; 
the  object  being  not  only  to  save  brass,  but  to  diminish  the  concussion 
by  reducing  the  weight.  The  guard  attached  to  the  rod,  to  prevent  the 
valve  rising  too  high,  is  made  of  a  piece  of  steel,  bent  round  so  as  to 
form  a  spring. 

The  concussion  on  the  closing  of  the  valve  has  been  removed  by  some 
engineers,  by  forming  a  recess,  out  of  which  the  valve  has  to  force  the 
water  before  it  can  close.  A  neat  plan  for  this  is  wanted,  although  it 
may  be  done  with  a  separate  valve,  on  the  "  dash-pot"  plan,  as  used  in 
America  (see  p.  182,  vol.  1850.)  The  necessity  for  this  expedient  is 
now,  however,  removed  by  the  use  of  a  different  material.  A  patent 
was  taken  out  by  Mr.  Humphries  (formerly  of  Messrs.  Rennie's  estab- 
lishment), for  a  pump-bucket,  divided  into  a  number  of  radial  openings, 
which  were  closed  by  valves  made  of  thin  strips  of  metal,  held  down  at 
their  inner  ends  by  metal  screws,  and  the  elasticity  of  which  kept  them 


22 


The  Irish  Difficulty,  and  its  Solution. 


[February, 


closed.  These  were  designed,  we  believe,  for  screw-engines,  and  the 
facility  with  which  a  valve  could  be  taken  out  and  replaced,  in  case  of 
accident,  was  considered  a  recommendation.  Whatever  advantages 
further  experience  of  their  use  might  have  shown  them  to  possess,  they 
were  speedily  abandoned  in  favour  of  a  new  material,  vulcanized  india- 
rubber,  the  application  of  which  an  eminent  practical  authority  has  pro- 
nounced to  be  the  most  important  improvement  made  in  the  steam- 
engine,  since  Watt's  invention  of  the  separate  condenser. 

Without  going  quite  so  far  as  that,  we  may  admire  the  fortunate  dis- 
covery of  such  a  useful  material,  just  at  the  time  when  an  increase  of 
speed  demanded  some  such  an  invention.  Vulcanised  india-rubber  is 
now  used,  not  only  for  the  air  pumps,  but  also  for  the  feed  and  bilge 
pumps,  the  absence  of  noise  in  working  being  a  great  convenience, 
even  if  it  possess  no  other  advantage. 

THE  IRISH  DIFFICULTY  AND  ITS  SOLUTION. 

FLAX,  COTTON  AND  BEET  ROOT  SUGAR.* 

(Continued  from  page  i.) 


This  falling  off  in  the  quantity  of  flax  grown  in  Ireland  is  the  more 
extraordinary,  as  its  cultivation  has  been  encouraged  with  no  ordinary 
degree  of  vigour  by  the  Royal  Flax  Society,  by  disseminating  informa- 
tion on  the  various  processes,  both  by  popular  publications  and  by 
lectures.  Indeed,  so  important  was  the  question  felt  to  be,  that  the 
Society  was  encouraged  by  the  patronage  of  the  Government,  and  by 
annual  grants  of  public  money.  The  case  was  certainly  very  plausible. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  importation  of  foreign  flax  is  of  the  following 
values:— Fibre,  .€5,000,000;  seed  for  crushing  and  sowing,  ,£2,000,000; 
oil  cake,  £600,000 ;  making  a  total  of  £7,600,000,  all  of  which  might 
be  supplied  by  our  own  farmers.  With  such  a  demand,  there  must  be 
some  good  reason  for  the  apathy  with  which  both  Irish  and  English 
farmers  suffered  themselves  to  be  supplanted  in  their  own  markets. 
There  are  two  questions  to  be  answered : — first,  Can  a  remunerating 
price  be  obtained  by  the  British  grower?  and,  secondly,  Can  the 
market  be  readily  reached  ? 

On  the  first  of  these  questions,  we  may  of  course  get  statements  of 
every  shade  of  variety.  This  is  to  be  expected  in  a  crop,  the  cultiva- 
tion of  which  is  the  exception,  rather  than  the  rule.  With  the  necessary 
data,  some  opinion  may  be  formed  of  the  profit  on  a  crop  of  wheat, 
because  the  average  of  a  district  cannot  be  far  wrong ;  but  with  flax, 
the  question  is  more  complicated.  One  writer  states,  that  on  eight 
acres  of  land  in  Ireland,  sown  with  flax,  he  had  a  clear  profit  of  £16 
per  acre,  although  he  did  not  save  the  seed.  Mr.  Druce,  of  Ensham, 
in  Oxfordshire,  in  a  statement  made  to  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
gives  the  following  as  the  balance  of  expenses  and  profit  on  his  farm, 
which  is  on  the  Oxford  clay  formation,  the  piece  of  ground  on  which 
the  flax  was  grown  consisting  of  deep  red  loam. 

"1. — Expenses  op  Cultivation. 
One  ploughing  at  10s.  per  acre 
Sowing  and  harrowing,  at  Is.  6c?.  per  acre 
Weeding,  at  2s.  per  acre     . . 
Flax-seed,  13 \  bushels,  at  9s. 
Rent  of  land,  at  48s.  per  acre 
Taxes,  at  6s.  per  acre 
Pulling  flax,  at  14s.  per  acre 
Carting  and  stacking  at  4s.  per  aci 
Thrashing 
Winnowing  .. 


Total  expenses 


£2 

17 

3 

0 

8 

7 

0 

11 

5 

6 

1 

6 

13 

14 

9 

1 

14 

4 

4 

0 

1 

1 

2 

10 

5 

7 

1 

0 

12 

6 

36   10     4 


2. — Sale  op  Produce. 
Sale  of  flax  seed,   20j  bushels  per   acre — 116j 

bushels,  at  8s £46  10     0 

Sale  of  flax  straw,  12  tons  2  cwt.  2  qrs.,  at  £3  per 

ton ..     36     7     6 

Sale  of  chaff,  at  5s.  per  acre  . .  . .         . .        18     7 


Total  receipts £84     6     1 

"  Leaving  a  net  profit  of  £47  15s.  9d.  on  the  5^  2r.  36p.,  being  equal  to 
£8  6s.  2d.  per  acre  of  land  employed  in  this  trial  of  flax  cultivation. 

Mr.  Druce  expressed  his  opinion,  at  all  events,  that  it  would  be  found  a 
good  thing  for  every  farmer  to  grow  some  flax  on  his  farm,  if  only  for  the 
purpose  of  working  up  his  inferior  hay,  with  a  paste  of  beans  and  flax  seed, 
as  food  for  his  cattle." 

The  information  which,  it  will  be  perceived,  is  wanting  to  make  this 
statement  complete,  is  the  quantity  and  cost  of  the  manure  necessary 
to  restore  to  the  land  those  constituents  of  which  the  flax  has  deprived 
it.  This  would  diminish  the  net  profit,  although  to  what  extent  we  find 
no  definite  evidence.  Mr.  Claussen  himself  says  (ante  p.  3),  "The  cap- 
sules of  the  seeds,  the  husks  of  the  capsules,  and  the  seeds,  contain  a  very 
large  proportion  of  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  may  consequently 
be  advantageously  employed  for  the  purposes  of  manure  or  for  the  feeding 
of  cattle."  And  again : — ''  In  cases  where,  in  the  course  of  preparation 
of  the  flax,  the  seed  and  the  whole  of  those  portions  of  the  plant  which 
have  absorbed  the  nutritive  matters  from  the  soil,  are  destroyed  by 
steeping,  and  where  nothing  is  left  to  be  returned  to  the  soil,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  crop  is  an  exceedingly  exhaustive  one."  Now,  it 
will  be  observed,  that  in  the  preceding  estimate,  credit  is  taken  for  the 
whole  of  the  seed,  the  straw,  and  the  chaff — in  fact,  the  whole  crop ; 
and  if  the  seed  alone  were  returned  to  the  land  as  manure,  it  would 
reduce  the  receipts  more  than  one  half,  and  render  the  profit  nothing. 
In  practice,-  we  presume,  the  seed  would  be  applied  to  fattening  cattle, 
the  manure  from  which,  added  to  their  increased  value,  would  assist  in 
improving  the  balance  sheet,  though  not  to  the  extent  for  which  Mr. 
Claussen  takes  credit. 

Mr.  Seymour  goes  still  further,  and  gives  the  following  estimate  of  a 
wheat  crop,  communicated  to  him  by  a  Norfolk  farmer : — 


WHEAT. 

Dr.  £     s. 

To  8  acres  of  land,  at  26s. 

9d. 10  14 

120   loads    farm-yard 

manure,  at  4s 24     0 

Drawing  ditto  3     0 

Spreading      1     4 

Ploughing 3     0 

Harrowing  and  rolling     0  12 
80  pecks  of  seed  ....      516 

Drilling 1     0 

Rolling  and  harrowing    0    8 

Hoeing    1 

Watching 0 

Reaping    2 

Carting 2 

Thrashing     5 

Tithe 1 

Poor  rates 0  16 

Church    and     survey 

rates 0  12 

Balance  or  profit  ....    13     6 


12 


12 
12 


WHEAT. 

Cr.  £    s.  d. 

By  224  bushels,  at  5s.  6d.  61  12  0 

Straw    16  16  0 


*  How  to  Employ  Capital  in  Western  Ireland,  by  W.  D.  Seymour.  London,  Hearne. 
The  Flux  Movement,  by  the  Chevalier  Claussen.    London,  Effingham  Wilson.  - 


£78     8     0  £78     8     0 

With  this  is  compared  the  statement  of  a  farmer  in  Ireland,  who  says 
"  I  calculate,  after  making  a  liberal  allowance  for  expenses,  I  had  more 
than  £16  per  acre  clear  profit."  And  as  this  was  without  saving  the  seed, 
another  £9  per  acre  ought  to  be  added  on  that  score,  and  another  £6 
or  £8  for  the  improved  method  of  managing  the  crop,  making  a  total 
of  say  £31  per  acre  profit !  As  we  remarked  before,  this  only  shows 
how  vague  any  estimate  must  be,  unless  based  on  the  experience  of  a 


1852.] 


The  Irish  Difficulty,  and  its  Solution. 


23 


whole  district.  But  the  lowest  estimate,  £8  6s.  2d.,  would  admit  of  a 
reduction  to  pay  for  manure,  and  then  leave  a  good  profit. 

Taking  the  whole  bod)'  of  evidence,  we  think  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  cultivation  of  flax,  with  the  ordinary  market  prices,  would  prove 
remunerative  to  the  farmer,  whether  in  England  or  Ireland.  It  only 
remains,  therefore,  to  consider  the  second  question,  how  the  market  is 
to  be  reached. 

On  this,  which  we  may  call  the  mechanical  part  of  the  subject,  there 
is  ample  room  for  improvement.  What  should  we  think  if  foreign 
farmers  were  to  send  shiploads  of  wheat  to  this  country,  in  the  ear, 
unthrashed  ?  And  yet  this  is  precisely  what  our  flax  growers  have  been 
doing,  and  then  they  complain  that  the  cost  of  carriage  absorbs  all  the 
profits  !  At  page  149,  vol.  ix,  in  an  article  on  flax  machinery,  will  be 
found  a  description  of  various  processes  of  "  retting  "  or  rotting  the  flax 
to  prepare  it  for  market,  and  which  we  need  not  here  repeat.  This 
process  is  equivalent  to  thrashing,  and  the  reasons  assigned  for  not 
carrying  out  this  process  on  the  spot  where  the  flax  is  grown  are  nu- 
merous and  appear  cogent.  They  are  thus  laid  down  by  Mr.  Claussen  : — 

Dew  Retting. — Under  the  system  of  preparing  the  flax  hitherto,  four 
modes  of  steeping  or  retting  the  plant  are  resorted  to.  The  first  consists  of 
the  plan  of  "  dew  retting,"  or  allowing  the  flax  to  remain  exposed  on  grass 
land  for  a  considerable  number  of  days  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  rain, 
dews,  and  atmosphere.  The  plan,  however,  is  one  which,  from  its  obvious 
inconveniences,  is  not  calculated  to  meet  with  general  approval  in  the  pre- 
sent advanced  state  of  agriculture,  and  is,  indeed,  very  rarely  adopted. 

Steeping  in  Streams. — Probably  the  best  mode  of  steeping  the  flax  is 
that  of  placing  it  in  running  streams,  according  to  the  mode  adopted  in 
Courtrai,  the  principal  flax-growing  district  in  Belgium.  The  flax  so  pre- 
pared generally  realizes  a  much  higher  price  than  any  other  description. 
There  are,  however,  certain  peculiarities  in  the  water  of  the  river  Lys  which 
makes  it  admirably  adapted  for  steeping  purposes,  and  which  are  not  pos- 
sessed by  any  of  the  streams  in  this  country.  Independent  of  the  peculiarities 
of  the  water,  the  steeping  of  flax  in  running  streams  cannot  be  made  generally 
available  in  this  country,  as  they  are  mostly  too  rapid  in  their  character. 

Steeping  in  Pits. — In  the  absence  of  suitable  streams,  recourse  is  had  to 
a  mode  of  steeping  in  pits  or  pools  sunk  in  the  ground.  But  so  many  favour- 
able conditions  are  required  to  be  obtained,  and  so  many  unfavourable  ones 
to  be  avoided,  in  the  selection  of  the  site  for  the  pool,  and  the  supply  of  water 
required,  that  it  is  probable  that  a  desirable  or  perfect  steep-pool  could  not 
be  formed  in  any  part  of  the  country.  The  soil  forming  the  bottom  and  sides 
of  the  pit  will  have  an  influence  on  the  colour  of  the  fibre;  clay,  gravel, 
alluvial  and  peaty  soil,  will  each  impart  some  peculiar  dye  to  the  material, 
which  more  or  less  affects  its  value.  The  water  used  in  the  pit  or  pool  must 
not  be  spring  water,  and  it  must  not  have  flowed  over  any  soil  containing 
metallic  deposits;  and  rain  water  is  not  well  calculated  for  the  purpose. 
But  in  addition  to  all  these  difficulties,  attendant  upon  obtaining  the  requisite 
means,  the  grower  of  flax  has  to  contend  against  all  the  uncertainties  and 
risk  of  either  over  or  under-steeping  his  flax.  "  One  sultry  night,"  says  one 
of  the  reports  of  the  Boyal  Flax  Society,  "  while  it  is  in  the  steep,  and  nearly 
rotted  sufficiently,  is  enough  to  carry  the  fermentation  beyond  the  safe  point. 
So  much  is  this  feared  by  farmers,  that  almost  all  flax  is  underwatered ;  and 
although  much  of  it  is  afterwards  mannered  on  the  grass,  yet  the  great  pro- 
portion of  it  is  brought  to  market  with  the  shoves  still  unseparated  in  bits  on 
the  fibre."  But  while  the  sultry  nights  of  summer  are  unfavourable  to  the 
steeping  of  flax,  and  inconvenient  to  the  farmer,  inasmuch  as  his  labourers 
are  at  that  season  generally  otherwise  employed,  it  is  also  obvious  that  during 
the  winter,  when  comparatively  little  farm  labour  is  carried  on,  the  process 
of  steeping  must  be  discontinued  altogether,  in  consequence  of  the  tem- 
perature. 

Schenck's  System. — A  fourth  process  has,  within  the  last  few  years,  been 
very  strenuously  advocated  by  the  Royal  Flax  Society  in  Ireland,  which  con- 
sists in  steeping  the  flax  in  hot  water.  This  mode,  although  doubtless  an 
improvement  upon  any  of  the  existing  plans,  still  does  not  afford  the  means 
of  obtaining  that  complete  separation  of  the  fibres  which  it  is  desirable  to 
obtain. 


This  plan  is  more  favourably  described  by  Mr.  Seymour,  who  says — 
"  This  mode  of  hot-water  steeping  is,  doubtless  a  very  great  improve- 
ment, and  has  been  found  by  Messrs.  Marshall,  of  Leeds,  and  other 
eminent  manufacturers,  to  be  most  efficacious  in  effecting  a  perfect 
separation  of  the  fibre.  But  to  its  adoption  by  the  farmer  there  are 
two  great  obstacles,  viz.,  the  necessity,  first  of  superior  skill,  and 
secondly,  of  a  considerable  outlay." 

At  pp.  33-5,  vol.  ix,  the  advantages  of  Schenck's  process  are  described 
by  Professor  Calvert,  who  shows  that  its  rapidity  and  certainty  afford 
an  important  economy.  The  objection  as  to  the  outlay  required  to 
erect  the  hot  water  tanks  and  apparatus  is  met  by  the  Flax  Society  by  a 
proposition  to  employ  middlemen  (known  as  "factors"  on  the  con- 
tinent), of  which  there  will  be  one  in  each  district,  who  would  erect 
the  necessary  apparatus,  and  purchase  from  the  farmers  the  raw  material 
which  he  would  prepare  for  market.  On  this  plan  Mr.  Seymour  ex- 
pends a  vast  amount  of  indignation,  although  we  do  not  think  his  logic 
by  any  means  equals  his  eloquence.  It  is  presumed  that  it  would  be 
necessary  to  give  a  "  factor  "  a  guarantee  to  supply  him  with  a  due 
quantity  of  flax,  and  Mr.  Seymour  doubts  whether  such  a  guarantee 
would  be  given  by  the  farmers,  or  whether,  when  given,  they  would 
abide  by  it.  In  his  own  words — "  to  day  or  to-morrow  large  tracts  may 
be  sown  with  flax  seed,  but  who  can  say  this  disposition  will  continue, 
that  the  farmer  may  not  tire  of  it,  that  a  thousand  causes  may  not  ren- 
der the  speculation  abortive,  and  so  the  capital  expended  on  the  build- 
ings and  machinery  be  lost?"  This  line  of  argument  does  not  agree 
with  the  .£J30  per  acre  profit,  which  the  farmer  is  to  obtain  by  growing 
flax,  and  it  may  be  fairly  inferred,  that  if  a  good  profit  can  be  made  by 
growing  it,  it  will  be  grown,  no  matter  whether  the  buyer  is  called  a 
"factor"  or  a  "manufacturer."  But  Mr.  Seymour  has  a  still  graver 
objection — "  It  creates  a  monopoly,"  "  in  aiming  to  secure  a  division 
of  labour,  it  sacrifices  competition."  And  what  is  Mr.  Seymour's  alter- 
native, do  our  readers  suppose  ?  A  company  of  manufacturers  !  Why 
one  capitalist  should  be  a  more  dangerous  monopolist  than  a  dozen 
combined  together  in  a  company,  we  cannot  conceive.  Our  experience 
of  the  working  of  companies  does  not  lead  us  to  coincide  in  the  follow- 
ing supposition  : — "  a  company  of  manufacturers,  who,  it  may  be  ob- 
served, would  be  ever  quick  to  employ  the  best  processes,  and  could 
more  readily  become  possessed  of  them,  instead  of  checking  competition, 
would,  of  necessity,  increase  it ;  their  success  would  soon  bring  other 
companies  into  the  field,  &c."  Without  a  doubt,  but  Mr.  Schenck  has 
as  much  right  to  his  patent  as  Mr.  Claussen  has  to  his,  and  we  should 
like  to  see  both  have  fair  play.  If,  as  Mr.  Seymour  so  confidently  asserts, 
Schenck's  system  is  bad,  it  will  not  bear  the  competition  of  Mr.  Claus- 
sen's  friends  ;  if  it  be  good,  it  deserves  to  succeed.  In  either  case  the 
farmer  will  benefit  by  the  competition. 

The  remedy  proposed  by  Mr.  Claussen  to  obviate  the  difficulty  of 
carriage,  is  for  the  farmer  to  roughly  dress  or  thrash  the  flax,  on  the 
spot  where  it  is  grown,  so  as  to  deprive  it  of  a  portion  of  the  woody 
part  of  the  plant.  This  will  have  the  effect  of  diminishing  its  bulk,  and 
so  of  saving  carriage,  and  will  also  return  an  additional  quantity  of 
manure  to  the  soil. 

Presuming,  then,  that  the  market  can  be  economically  reached,  we 
are  brought  to  the  grand  point, — Can  a  permanent  extension  of  the 
demand  for  flax  be  relied  on?  Should  Mr.  Claussen's  flax  cotton 
fulfil  but  a  part  only  of  the  sanguine  anticipations  which  are  formed 
regarding  it,  it  will  prove  of  immense  importance  to  our  manufactur- 
ing interest.  Its  application  to  cotton  machinery  would  at  once  en- 
large the  field  from  which  Lancashire  draws  its  supplies  of  the  raw 
material ;  but  of  this  more  anon.  For  the  present,  we  will  only  quote 
the  Chevalier's  process  for  making  flax-cotton. 

Preparation  op  Flax  Cotton. — The  principle  of  the  invention  by 
which  flax  is  adapted  for  spinning  upon  cotton,  wool,  and  silk,  independent 


24 


Cotton  and  its  Manufacturing  Mechanism. 


[February, 


of  flax  machinery,  consists  in  destroying  the  cylindrical  or  tubular  character 
of  the  fibre,  by  means  of  carbonic  or  other  gas,  the  action  of  which  splits  the 
tubes  into  a  number  of  ribbon-like  filaments,  solid  in  character  and  of  a 
gravity  less  than  cotton,  the  upper  and  under  surfaces  of  which  are  seg- 
ments of  circles,  and  the  sides  of  which  are  ragged  and  serrated.  In  order 
to  explain  the  nature  of  the  process  by  which  this  change  is  effected,  it  is 
necessary  first  to  explain  the  structure  of  the  flax  plant.  The  stem  of  the 
plant  consists  of  three  parts ;  the  shove  or  wood,  the  pure  fibre,  and  the  gum 
resin  or  glutinous  matter  which  causes  the  fibres  to  adhere  together.  In  the 
preparation  of  the  plant  for  any  purpose  of  fine  manufacture,  it  is  necessary 
first  to  separate  from  the  pure  fibre  both  the  woody  part  and  the  glutinous 
substance.  The  former  of  these  may  be  removed  by  mechanical  means,  pre- 
viously referred  to,  almost  as  simple  as  those  employed  in  the  threshing  of 
wheat.  In  order,  however,  to  remove  the  glutinous  substance  from  the 
fibre,  recourse  must  be  had  either  to  the  fermentation  produced  in  the  steep- 
ing process  or  to  some  other  chemical  agent.  The  present  system  of  steep- 
ing in  water,  whether  cold  or  hot,  is,  however,  ineffectual  for  the  complete 
removal  of  the  glutinous  substances  adhering  to  the  fibres,  a  large  per 
centage  of  which  is  insoluble  in  water.  The  first  process,  therefore,  which 
it  is  necessary  to  adopt  in  the  preparation  of  flax  cotton,  is  to  obtain  a 
perfect  and  complete  disintegration  of  the  fibres  from  each  other,  by  the 
entire  removal  of  the  substance  which  binds  them  together. 

This  is  effected  by  boiling  the  flax  for  about  three  hours,  either  in  the 
state  in  which  it  comes  from  the  field,  or  in  a  partially  cleaned  condition, 
in  water  containing  about  one  half  per  cent,  of  caustic  soda.  After  under- 
going this  process,  the  flax  is  placed  in  water,  slightly  acidulated  with 
sulphuric  acid;  the  proportions  of  acid  used  being  1  to  500  of  water.  Any 
objections  urged  against  the  employment  of  such  substances,  even  in  the 
small  proportions  above  stated,  are  at  once  met  by  the  fact,  that  the  soda 
present  in  the  straw,  after  the  first  process,  neutralizes  the  whole  of  the  acid, 
and  forms  a  neutral  salt,  known  as  sulphate  of  soda.  This  process,  produ- 
cing as  it  does  a  complete  separation  of  the  integral  fibres  from  each  other, 
is  equally  adapted  for  the  preparation  of  long  fibre  for  the  linen,  or  of  short 
fibre  for  the  other  branches  of  textile  manufacture.  When  required  to  be 
prepared  for  linen,  all  that  is  necessary  after  the  above  process,  is  to  dry  and 
scutch  it  in  the  ordinary  modes.  The  advantages  which  this  mode  of  pre- 
paration possesses  over  any  other  mode  in  use,  are  stated  in  the  official 
report  of  the  proceedings  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  to  be  the 
following  : — 

"  1.  That  the  preparation  of  long  fibre  for  scutching  is  effected  in  less 
than  one  day,  and  is  always  uniform  in  strength,  and  entirely  free  from 
colour,  much  facilitating  the  after-process  of  bleaching,  either  in  yarns  or  in 
cloth. 

"  2.  That  it  can  be  also  bleached  in  the  straw  at  very  little  additional 
expense  of  time  or  money. 

"3.  That  the  former  tedious  and  uncertain  modes  of  steeping  are  super- 
seded by  one  perfectly  certain  with  ordinary  care. 

"  4.  That  in  consequence  of  a  more  complete  severance  of  the  fibres  from 
each  other,  and  also  from  the  bark  and  boon,  the  process  of  scutching  is 
effected  with  half  the  labour  employed." 

Complete,  however,  as  may  be  the  separation  produced  by  this  mode  of 
treatment,  the  fibres,  from  their  tubular  and  cylindrical  character,  are  still 
adapted  only  for  the  linen  or  present  flax  manufactures,  as  their  compara- 
tively harsh  and  elastic  character  unfits  them  for  spinning  on  the  ordinary 
cotton  or  woollen  machinery.  At  this  stage,  therefore,  it  is  that  the  most 
important  part  of  the  invention  is  brought  into  operation.  The  flax,  either 
before  or  after  undergoing  the  processes  required  for  the  severance  of  the 
fibres,  is  cut  by  a  suitable  machine  into  the  required  lengths,  and  saturated 
in  a  solution  of  sesqui-carbonate  of  soda  (common  soda)  a  sufficient  length 
of  time  to  allow  of  the  liquid  entering  into  and  permeating  by  capillary 
attraction  every  part  of  the  small  tubes.  When  sufficiently  saturated,  the 
fibres  are  taken  out,  immersed  in  a  solution  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  of  the 
strength  of  about  one  part  to  two  hundred  parts  of  water.  The  action  of  the 
acid  on  the  soda  contained  in  the  tube,  liberates  the  carbonic  gas  which  it 
contains  ;  the  expansive  power  of  which  causes  the  fibres  to  split,  and  pro- 
duces the  result  above  described.  The  fibre  is  then  bleached,  and  after 
having  been  dried,  and  carded  in  the  same  manner  as  cotton,  is  fit  for  being 
spun  upon  the  ordinary  cotton  or  woollen  machinery. 
(To  be  continued.) 


COTTON  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURING  MECHANISM. 
By  Robert  Scott  Burn,  M.E.,  Mem.  S.A. 

(Continued  from  page  278,  Vol.  IX.) 

The  cotton  plants  are  of  the  order  Malvaceae,  the  common  mallow 
being  the  type  of  the  order.  The  genus  Gossypium  is  that  which 
produces  cotton ;  it  comprises,  according  to  Linnaeus  five,  Lamarck 
eight,  and  Cavanilles  and  Wildenow  ten  species ;  they  are  all  natives  of 
intertropical  climates,  and  are  indigenous  in  India  and  America.  The 
species  have  numerous  varieties,  these  depending  chiefly  on  the  various 
systems  of  cultivation,  but  are  also  occasioned  by  variations  in  the 
climate,  soil,  or  locality.  The  great  distinctions  of  the  species  are 
Herbaceous  cotton,  Shrub  cotton,  Tree  cotton.  The  first  of  these 
being  the  most  useful,  we  shall  alone  notice.  It  is  the  most  generally 
cultivated ;  its  botanical  name  is  Gossypium  herbaceum.  The  plant  is 
annual,  its  average  height  being  twenty  inches ;  the  leaves  are  of  a 
darkish  green,  having  their  surface  marked  with  brown  veins ;  each 
leaf  is  divided  into  five  lobes.  The  flower  is  of  a  pale  yellow  colour, 
resembling  that  of  the  mallow ;  it  has  five  petals,  and  each  marked 
with  a  purple  spot  at  the  base.  A  capsular  pod  appears  on  the  flower 
falling  off,  and  is  supported  by  three  triangular  leaves,  with  deep  in- 
dentations at  their  edges;  the  pod  itself  is  somewhat  triangular  in  shape, 
divided  into  three  cells,  and  of  the  size  of  a  walnut.  The  wool  ex- 
panding as  the  pod  ripens,  causes  it  to  burst,  when  it  is  exposed  to  view, 
a  ball  of  either  yellowish  or  snow-white  down.  This  ball  of  down  is 
formed  of  three  locks,  one  to  each  cell,  enclosing  and  adhering  to  the 
seeds;  these  are  like  the  seeds  of  grapes,  but  of  much  larger  size.  "A 
field  of  cotton  at  the  gathering  season,  when  the  globes  of  snowy  wool 
are  seen  among  the  glossy  dark  green  leaves,  is  singularly  beautiful, 
and  in  the  hottest  countries,  where  the  yellow  blossom  or  flower 
and  the  ripened  fruit  are  seen  at  the  same  time,  the  beauty  of  the 
plantation  is  of  course  still  more  remarkable."  Forbes  thus  describes 
the  appearance  of  the  cotton  plantation  in  Guzzerat  (see  his  "  Oriental 
Memoirs  ") : — "  The  cotton  bushes  put  forth  a  beautiful  yellow  flower, 
with  a  crimson  eye  in  each  petal ;  this  is  succeeded  by  a  green  pod, 
filled  with  a  white  stringy  pulp ;  the  pod  turns  brown  and  hard  as  it 
ripens,  and  then  separates  into  two  or  three  divisions,  containing  the 
cotton.  A  luxuriant  field,  exhibiting  at  the  same  time  the  expanding 
blossom,  the  bursting  capsule,  and  the  snowy  flakes  of  ripe  cotton,  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  objects  in  the  agriculture  of  Hindostan." 
The  most  valuable  cotton  is  that  called  "Sea  Island;"  it  is  chiefly 
cultivated  on  the  low  sandy  islands  and  plains  near  the  coast  of  Georgia 
and  South  Carolina ;  the  islands  consist  of  salt  marsh  and  land  of  a 
gray  rich  soil.  The  cotton  produced  is  of  a  superior  quality,  and  is  in 
much  demand.  The  high  price  obtained  for  this  quality  of  cotton  has 
caused  the  Americans  for  many  years  to  pay  great  attention  to  its 
cultivation.  The  staple  of  sea  island  cotton  is  strong  and  silky,  and 
much  longer  in  the  fibre  than  that  of  any  other  description.  The  short 
stapled  cotton  of  America,  known  as  Bowed,  or  Upland  Georgia,  is 
produced  in  immense  quantities.  Cotton  has  long  been  imported  from 
the  East  Indies,  and  jit  is  only  the  want  of  roads  and  internal  com- 
munication that  has  prevented  our  having  an  adequate  supply  from 
that  source.  The  subject  of  developing  the  resources  of  India  by 
constructing  roads  and  introducing  steam  navigation,  has  been  so  fully 
investigated  in  this  Journal,  that  we  need  only  now  refer  our  readers  to 
the  articles  under  this  head.  The  ensuing  session  will  witness  a  dis- 
cussion on  the  fruits  of  our  Indian  policy  in  reference  to  the  renewal 
of  the  East  India  Company's  charter,  which  cannot  fail  to  awaken 
public  attention. 

Cotton  of  an  excellent  quality  began  to  be  imported  from  Egypt 
about  1823,  when  its  cultivation  was  commenced  by  the  celebrated 
Mehemet  Ali.     The  cotton  from  the  West  Indies  has  long  been  imported 


1852.] 


Cotton  and  its  Manufacturing  Mechanism. 


25 


into  this  country  in  large  quantities ;  in  the  eighteenth  century  the 
largest  supplies  came  from  there  and  from  South  America.  Brazilian 
cotton  was  first  imported  in  1781  from  Maranham;  the  Pernambuco 
was  found  shortly  afterwards  to  be  of  finer  quality  than  that  of  Demerara ; 
it  was  consequently  much  in  demand,  and,  generally,  it  fetches  a  price 
only  inferior  to  that  of  sea  island  cotton. 

The  value  of  cotton  for  manufacturing  purposes  depends  on  the  quality 
of  its  fibre,  or,  to  use  the  technical  expression  of  the  trade,  the  "  staple." 
This  depends  on  its  length,  strength,  and  fineness.  The  two  distinc- 
tions in  the  trade  as  regards  the  various  kinds  of  cotton  used  are  "  the 
long  stapled,"  comprising  under  this  the  Sea  island,  Brazilian,  West 
Indian,  and  Egyptian  cottons ;  and  "  the  short  stapled,"  those  cottons 
so  called  being  the  upland  or  bowed  cotton  of  America,  Orleans,  Mobile, 
and  the  Surat.  It  was  formerly  the  practice  to  use  a  certain  kind  of 
cotton  for  a  particular  species  of  "  fine  counts  "  manufacture.  This  is 
rarely  ever  done  now,  excepting  in  the  case  of  mixing  a  portion  of  one 
kind  with  that  of  another.  The  manufacturer  may  prepare  a  mixture 
for  spinning,  which  will  serve  for  a  substitute  of  any  kind  of  cotton  with 
the  exception  of  the  most  superior  quality.  In  a  cotton  manufacturing 
district,  it  is  no  rare  thing  to  hear  the  complaints  of  the  operatives  as 
to  the  "  mixing  "  department  of  certain  mills,  in  which  reference  is 
made  to  the  credit  of  the  manufacturer  in  preparing  a  mixture  which  is 
more  remarkable  for  its  ingenious  composition  of  "  poor  stuffs,"  than 
for  its  capability  of  being  easily  worked  up  by  the  machines  into  good 
materials. 

The  operation  of  gathering  the  cotton  is  one  which  demands  con- 
siderable care  and  attention.  The  pods  are  not  all  sufficiently  ripened 
at  the  same  time,  to  admit  of  the  plants  being  reaped  at  once ;  several 
visits  to  a  cotton  field  are  thus  necessitated.  The  best  time  for  picking 
the  cotton  is  in  fine  weather,  a  few  days  after  the  pod  has  opened ;  wet 
and  damp  weather  for  gathering  is  carefully  to  be  avoided,  as  the  cotton 
would  become  mouldy,  and  the  oil  of  the  seed  spread  and  discolour  the 
wool.  In  order  that  the  wool,  as  it  is  termed,  be  thoroughly  dried,  it  is 
spread  out  in  the  sun  on  a  platform  of  tiles,  and  allowed  to  remain  for 
several  days ;  the  wool  and  seeds  becoming  then  very  dry,  the  latter  are 
more  easily  separated  from  the  former. 

The  next  operation  is  one  of  some  difficulty,  namely,  separating  the 
seeds  from  the  wool.  In  India  this  is  effected  in  some  instances  in  a 
very  rude  manner,  thus  ;  the  cotton  and  seeds  are  placed 
upon  a  smooth  stone,  an  iron  roller  is  placed  upon  the 
cotton,  and  worked  backwards  and  forwards  by  the  wooden 
soles  of  the  women  who  are  employed  in  the  operation. 
The  "  roller  gin  "  is  a  simple  machine,  thus  constructed  : 
two  rollers  are  placed  parallel  to  each  other,  revolving 
in  different  directions ;  in  some  cases  two  persons  are 
employed  in  working  the  rollers,  one  at  each  ;  in  others 
they  are  actuated  by  cranks  and  treddles;  the  rollers 
are  fluted  in  their  peripheries,  and  revolve  at  a  little 
distance  from  each  other.  The  cotton  seeds  are  supplied 
at  one  side  of  the  rollers,  the  wool  passes  through,  drawn 
between  the  rollers  by  their  rotation,  but  the  seeds  being 
larger  cannot  pass  through,  they  are,  therefore,  separated 
and  fall  down.  An  expert  operator  cannot  clear  much 
more  than  fifty  pounds  a  day  by  this  machine.  The  in- 
vention of  the  "  saw  gin,"  as  it  is  termed,  by  Mr.  Eli 
Whitney,  of  Massachusetts,  United  States,  in  1793,  intro- 
duced a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  cotton  trade;  without 
this  expeditious  machine  it  has  been  remarked  that  the 
'cotton  Manufacture  could  not  have  attained  its  pre- 
sent extension."  The  following  diagram  and  description 
will  illustrate  the  principle  of  action  of  the  "  saw  gin." 


/.4#%^ 


Fig.  1. 


The  cotton  is  put  into  a  receiver  or 
hopper,  a,  fig.  1 ;  the  side  on  which 
the  cotton  rests  is  composed  of  a 
series  of  iron  bars  or  rods,  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  apart,  and 
running  longitudinally;  beneath 
this  grating,  a  wooden  roller,  b,  re- 
volves ;  circular  saws  are  placed  on 
the  axis  of  this,  and  are  separated 
by  a  wooden  packing,  about  one 
inch  and  a  half  thick ;  a  series  of 
projecting  saws,  one  inch  and  a  half 
apart,  are  thus  presented  along  the 


wooden  roller,  the  teeth  of  these  are  allowed  to  project  within  the  hopper 
or  receiver,  between  the  bars  of  the  grating  as  shown  at  d.  On  the  roller, 
b,  being  turned  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow,  the  teeth  of  the  saws  take 
hold  of  the  cotton  wool  and  drag  it  through  from  between  the  bars ;  but 
the  seeds,  from  their  greater  size,  are  prevented  from  following,  and  are 
therefore  projected  down  the  hopper,  and  passed  out  at  e ;  the  cotton  ad- 
hering to  the  teeth  of  the  saw  is  taken  off  by  the  brush,  c,  rotating  in  the 
direction  shown  by  the  arrow.  The  British  saw  gin,  wholly  composed  of 
iron,  with  the  exception  of  the  front  board,  is  considered  an  improvement 
on  the  American  machine.  "  Its  entire  weight  is  about  20  cwt.,  the 
heavest  section  being  about  150  lbs.  It  may  be  worked  by  two  or 
more  horses  or  bullocks.  The  space  which  it  occupies  is  about  6  feet 
square.  If  worked  by  four  horses  or  bullocks  during  18  hours  (say 
each  pair  for  9  hours),  it  is  stated  to  clean  fully  20  cwt. ;  but  if  we 
reckon  3%  lbs.  of  seed  cotton  per  saw  per  hour,  60  saws  will  clean 
nearly  200  lbs.  per  hour,  or  we  may  estimate  3,000  to  3,500  lbs.,  if 
worked  continually  for  18  hours,  yielding  from  20  to  30  per  cent,  of 
clean  cotton  according  to  quality."  With  reference  to  the  per  centage 
of  clean  cotton  obtained  from  the  pods  of  various  kinds,  it  is  stated 
that  American  will  produce  30  per  cent.,  East  India  from  20  to  25  per 
cent. 

As  before  noticed,  the  cotton  of  India,  and  its  more  extended  cultiva- 
tion for  the  supply  of  our  home  market,  has  of  late  attracted  much  at- 
tention in  high  quarters.  With  a  view  of  practically  assisting  the  native 
cultivators  in  preparing  clean  and  good  cotton  for  export  to  this  comi- 


ng. 2. 


28 


Self-Inking  Stamping  Press. 


[February, 


try,  the  East  India  Company  have  sent  out  considerable  numbers  of 
a  cheap,  simple,  and  efficacious  modification  of  the  "  saw  gin."  It  is 
termed  the  "  cottage  saw  gin,"  and  was,  we  believe,  introduced  to  the 
notice  of  the  Hon.  East  Indian  Company  by  the  Manchester  Com- 
mercial Association,  the  gentlemen  composing  which,  have  all  along 
taken  a  great  interest  in  everything  likely  to  improve  the  export  trade 
of  Indian  cotton. 

In  fig  2  we  give  a  sectional  diagram  of  the  machine,  a  a  is  the 
receiver  into  which  the  cotton  seed  and  wool  are  placed;  b,  the  saw;  c, 
the  rotating  brush,  which  takes  off  the  wool  from  the  teeth  of  the  saw, 
and  delivers  it  to  d ;  the  seeds,  when  separated  from  the  wool,  pass 
down  the  shoot  to  e.  There  appears  to  be  no  doubt  whatever  on  the 
point,  that  the  introduction  of  cheap  and  efficient  cotton -cleaning 
machines  into  India  will  confer  a  vast  benefit  on  native  cultivators,  and 
will  do  much  to  increase — and  this  very  rapidly — the  export  of  cotton 
wool  from  that  country.  With  reference  to  the  American  trade,  it  has 
been  truly  remarked,  "  that  the  secret  regarding  the  rapid  extension  of 
the  cotton  cultivation  of  America  lies  in  the  early  introduction  and 
extensive  use  of  her  cleaning  machinery.  Without  the  saw  gin,  the 
southern  States  of  America,  notwithstanding  their  millions  of  slaves, 
would  at  the  present  moment  be  unable  to  find  labour  to  clean  their 
yearly  crop  of  cotton.  Whitney's  invention  has  been  to  America  what 
Arkwright's  was  to  this  country.  The  saw  gin  is  now  taking  firm  root 
in  India ;  and  the  successful  introduction  of  it  there  may  be  looked 
upon  as  one  of  the  most  hopeful  movements  towards  an  improved 
quality  and  increased  importation  from  that  country."  It  may  be 
interesting  to  note  the  effect  which  the  introduction  of  Whitney's  saw 
gin  into  practice,  had  upon  the  extension  of  the  cotton  export  trade 
from  that  country.  The  exports  of  American  grown  cotton  in  1770 
amounted  to  only  "7  bags  and  3  barrels;"  from  1785  to  1790,  the 
average  yearly  export  was  240  bales;  in  1794,  the  year  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  saw  gin,  the  export  had  increased  to  5,340  bales;  in  1807, 
this  amount  had  increased  to  137,018  bales;  and  the  last  year,  to 
nearly  two  millions  and  a  half  bales.  Cotton  cleaned  by  the  saw  gin  is 
of  greater  marketable  value  than  that  cleaned  by  the  roller  gin ;  never- 
theless, the  former  is  possessed  of  some  disadvantages  which  may  be 
briefly  noticed  here.  The  action  of  the  teeth  of  the  saw  gin  is  rather 
a  violent  one,  roughly  tearing  the  fibres  from  the  seeds ;  the  quality 
of  the  fibre  is  thus  in  some  measure  deteriorated.  Again,  the  teeth 
in  some  cases  detach  motes  from  the  seeds,  which,  passing  through  the 
grating,  mix  with  the  wool,  thus  necessitating  additional  future  labour 
in  the  factory,  to  render  it  fit  in  every  respect  for  drawing  and  opening 
into  thread  for  weaving  purposes.  The  teeth  of  the  saw,  moreover,  are 
apt  to  get  speedily  out  of  repair,  from  coming  in  contact  with  sand, 
stones,  and  other  extraneous  matter  which  is  generally  found  in  cotton, 
being  allowed  through  carelessness  to  become  mixed  therewith ;  the 
teeth  thus  rendered  torn  or  jagged,  increase  the  tearing  action  of  the 
machine,  and  still  further  tend  to  destroy  the  staple  of  the  cotton 
wool.  Such  are  said  to  be  the  disadvantages  of  the  "  saw  gin  "  by 
the  inventor  of  the  "  patent  cotton  gin,"  Mr.  F.  A.  Calvert,  of  Cannon- 
street,  Manchester — a  machine  which  is  very  highly  spoken  of,  and 
likely  to  become  generally  used.  The  principal  feature  of  this  machine 
is  the  employment  of  a  roller,  having  serrated  steel  blades,  recessed  or 
let  into  its  surface.  The  action  of  this  roller,  in  conjunction  with  other 
simple  appliances  shortly  to  be  noticed,  is  that  of  a  gentle  combing, 
rather  than  a  sawing  or  tearing  roughly  asunder  of  the  cotton  from  the 
seed,  as  in  the  saw  gin. 

(To  lie  continued.) 

SELF-INKING  STAMPING  PRESS, 

BY    M.    GUILLAUME. 

Illustrated  by  Plate  3. 

In  various  departments  of  public  business,  as  well  as  in  the  count- 
ing-houses of  private  firms,  it  is  customary  to  employ  ink  stamps  for 
stamping  papers,  for  various  purposes.  Amongst  these  may  be  enu- 
merated the  obliterating  stamps  upon  the  postage  "  Queen's  heads," 


and  identifying  'stamps  on  the  letters  themselves.  A  still  greater 
demand  has  sprung  up  from  the  increasing  use  of  adhesive  envelopeSj 
on  which  the  old-fashioned  seal  or  wafer  is  replaced  by  a  medallion 
containing  the  name  and  address  of  the  firm  by  whom  it  is  sent.  Or, 
if  the  wafer  or  seal  be  still  preferred  for  security,  the  same  end  may  be 
attained  by  a  stamp  in  the  corner  of  the  envelope.  These  systems 
have  the  advantage  of  identifying  the  letters  and  facilitating  business ; 
as,  for  example,  in  the  absence  of  a  principal,  instructions  may  be 
left,  "all  letters  from  Messrs.  A.  B.  are  to  be  opened — those  from  B.  C. 
are  to  be  forwarded,"  &c.  The  post-office  authorities  also  find  it  a 
great  saving  of  trouble,  so  much  so,  as  to  consider  it  worthy  of  a 
special  regulation;  for,  as  an  almost  incredible  number  of  letters 
containing  a  still  more  incredible  quantity  of  money  and  other  valua- 
bles are  annually  returned  to  the  senders  through  the  dead-letter  office, 
owing  to  the  inability  of  the  postmen  to  discover  the  persons  to  whom 
they  are  addressed,  the  trouble  of  opening  and  re-directing  all  these 
letters  is  saved  to  the  post-office  by  this  system,  the  identifying  stamp 
being  a  sufficient  re-direction. 

The  stamping  apparatus  usually  employed  consists  of  a  stamp,  fur- 
nished with  a  handle,  and  a  small  inking  table,  on  which  the  stamp  is 
pressed  before  being  applied  to  the  paper.  This  process  is  both  slow  and 
imperfect,  as  the  ink  is  rarely  evenly  spread,  nor  can  the  blow  be  given 
by  hand  with  the  requisite  precision.  Various  machines  have  been 
designed  to  effect  the  desired  end,  which  we  propose  to  notice,  and 
the  most  complete  we  have  yet  seen  is  that  constructed  by  M.  Guill- 
aume,  machine-maker,  of  Paris,  of  which  we  have  given  an  engraving. 

The  machine  is  fixed  upon  a  table  at  a  convenient  height,  at  which 
the  operator  sits,  and  which  serves  to  contain  the  letters  and  papers 
to  be  stamped.  Motion  is  communicated  to  the  machine  by  a  pedal, 
worked  by  the  foot  of  the  operator,  and  the  ink  is  supplied  by  inking 
rollers,  as  in  the  ordinary  printing  machine. 

Fig.  1  is  an  elevation,  and  fig.  2  a  plan — both  in  section. 

a  a,  is  the  table  forming  the  base  of  the  machine,  to  which  are 
fixed  the  four  columns  carrying  the  top  frame,  b.  This  frame  supports 
the  bearings  of  the  beam,  c,  one  end  of  which  is  connected  by  links  to 
the  stamping  plunger,  d,  working  in  guides  fixed  to  the  front  pair  of 
columns,  whilst  the  other  end  is  connected  through  the  link,  e,  to  the 
lever,//,  working  on  the  fixed  centre,  g.  At  the  other  end  of  the 
lever,  //,  is  the  rod,  h,  connected  to  the  pedal,  fixed  in  the  frame  of 
the  table  below,  which  gives  motion  to  the  machine. 

When  the  foot  of  the  operator  depresses  the  pedal  and  the  rod  h,  the 
plunger  d,  and  the  stamp  i,  will  descend  on  the  paper  placed  to  receive 
it.  Its  ascent  is  provided  for  by  the  spring  k,  which  is  fixed  at  one  end 
to  the  lever  /,  and  at  the  other  to  a  link  m,  suspended  from  a  fixed 
point  above.  This  spring  is  bent  when  the  pedal  is  depressed,  and  its 
reaction,  when  the  operator's  foot  is  removed,  brings  the  machine  back 
to  the  position  shown  in  the  drawing.  Its  rigidity  can  be  adjusted  by 
means  of  a  screw  at  the  extremity. 

We  have  now  to  see  how  the  ink  is  supplied  to  the  stamp.  The  beam 
e,  has  an  arm  n,  carrying  at  its  lower  extremity,  a  frame  o,  adjustable 
in  height,  and  fixed  by  means  of  set  screws.  This  frame  carries  the 
plates  of  steel  p,  p,  which  are  bent  over  at  each  extremity,  and  clip  the 
spindles  of  the  inking  rollers^  r,  r,  and  s.  These  rollers  thus  move  in 
the  arc  of  a  circle  described  by  the  arm  n,  as  shown  by  the  dotted 
lines,  and  roll  on  the  inking  table  t,  which  is  formed  of  a  corresponding 
curves  u  is  the  ductor  roller,  which  revolves  in  contact  with  the  reser- 
voir of  ink  v.  The  roller  r,  in  its  motion  backwards,  passes  over  the 
ductor  v,  and  receives  from  it  a  portion  of  ink,  which  it  distributes  over 
the  table  tj  the  distribution  is  assisted  by  the  roller  r,  and  finally  the 
ink  is  taken  off  the  table  by  the  inking  roller  s,  which,  when  the  stamp 
i,  rises,  passes  under  it  and  inks  it,  ready  for  its  descent  upon  the 
paper. 


1852.] 


Freiburg  Suspension  Bridge. 


27 


The  plates,  p,  p,  from  their  construction,  give  the  inking  rollers  the 
due  elasticity  to  enable  them  to  spread  the  ink  perfectly. 

The  ink  reservoir,  v,  moves  on  a  centre  and  is  kept  up  to  the  ductor 
roller  by  means  of  two  set  screws  at  the  back,  x,  x.  The  ductor  roller 
itself  is  moved  by  means  of  a  ratchet  wheel  at  one  end  of  the.  spindle, 
to  which  motion  is  communicated  by  the  link  y,  and  the  pall  z,  at  every 
stroke  of  the  lever  f. 

From  this  description  our  readers  will  have  no  difficulty  in  following 
the  motion  of  the  machine.  When  the  operator  releases  the  pedal,  the 
stamp  rises  and  the  ink  rollers  come  forward,  and  the  stamp  is  inked. 
The  paper  is  then  placed  under  the  stamp,  the  pedal  depressed,  aad  the 
rollers  return  for  a  fresh  supply  of  ink.  In  the  engraving  two  ink  re- 
servoirs are  shown,  and  the  rollers  are  divided  longitudinally,  so  that 
two  different  inks,  such  as  red  and  black,  might  be  simultaneously 
used,  one  for  one  side,  and  the  other  for  the  other  side  of  the  paper,  if 
desired. 


EREIBUBG  SUSPENSION  BRIDGE.* 

With  respect  to  proportions,  this  is  the  bridge  of  the  greatest  span 
hitherto  erected;  it  is  suspended  highest  in  the  air,  occupied  a 
moderate  time  in  erecting,  and  incurred  but  a  small  expense.  It  was 
built  in  consequence  of  the  natural  difficulties  which  prevented  the  town 
of  Freiburg  receiving  many  visits,  commercial  and  otherwise,  which  it 
has  done  since  this  means  of  communication  was  formed.  Freiburg- 
stands  on  the  sloping  side  of  a  hill,  which  is  separated  from  its  neigh- 
bouring height  by  an  intervening  valley  between  two  and  three  hundred 
feet  deep,  and  called,  because  of  the  little  river  which  winds  through  it, 
the  valley  of  the  Sarine ;  across  this  valley  lay  the  road  connecting 
Freiburg  with  the  German  frontier,  and  the  ascent  of  the  hill  was  made 
by  a  twisting  and  difficult  way,  presenting  some  very  steep  inclines.  In 
1830,  a  French  engineer,  M.  Chaley,  proposed  to  erect  a  wire  cable 
bridge  reaching  from  one  hill  to  the  other,  a  distance  of  nearly  900  feet 
at  the  spot  pointed  out.  After  pecuniary  agreements,  this  engineer 
proceeded  with  the  work  on  the  plan  he  offered,  which  was  to  erect  a 
bridge  capable  of  bearing  passenger  and  goods  traffic ;  two  towers  were 
to  be  built  on  each  hill  side,  at  a  distance  from  each  other  of  8/0  feet, 
between  which  four  wire  cables,  two  on  each  side  of  the  roadway,  were 
to  be  stretched,  giving  a  curve  63  feet  deep  in  the  middle,  suspending 
the  roadway  167  feet  above  the  level  of  the  river. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  bridge  may  be  conjectured  from  the 
accompanying  figure,  and  the  details  of  its  construction  will  receive 
illustration  from  the  partial  diagrams ;  a  description  of  such  a  4 
structure  must  necessarily  be  somewhat  long,  but  it  is  very  - 
instructive,  since  the  bridge  is  a  model  of  its  kind ;  to  give  it 
as  clearly  as  we  may,  it  will  be  advisable  to  divide  the  ex-  * 
planation  according  to  the  several  parts  constituting  the 
bridge.  1st.  The  main  cables  and  the  manufacture.  2nd. 
The  mooring  cables.  3rd.  The  masonry  above  and  below 
ground.  4th.  Raising  and  fixing  the  cables,  and  arrangement 
of  the  roadway. 

The  main  Suspension  Cables. — These  most  important  elements  of  the 
bridge  are  composed  of  iron  wire  0.12,  or  little  more  than  one-tenth  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  a  lineal  yard  of  which  weighs  nearly  two  ounces. 
Each  cable  (made  up  of  1,056  lines  of  wire),  is  5|  inches  in  diameter, 
and  1,228  feet  long,  being  bound  up  into  a  cylindrical  form  by  iron  wire 
at  every  second  foot  of  its  length.  The  wire  was  supplied  in  coils  of 
18  or  20  lbs.  each,  and  if  found  to  be  good,  passed  through  an  introduc- 
tory process  of  boiling  in  a  mixture  of  linseed  oil,  litharge,  and  soot ; 


the  wire  was  then  hung  up  to  dry.  This  was  intended  to  preserve 
the  wire  from  rusting.  The  lengths  of  wire,  after  the  preceding  treat- 
ment, were  rolled  on  reels  above  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  when  one  length 
had  been  wound  on,  the  workman  twisted  the  remaining  end  with  the 
extremity  of  another  length,  tightly  binding  the  two  with  annealed  wire  ; 
so  well  was  this  junction  effected  that  on  testing  the  part  it  never  gave 
way  before  some  other  part  of  the  wire  broke.  On  account  of  the  great 
weight  of  a  complete  cable,  and  the  difficulty  of  raising  it  to  so  great  an 
elevation,  it  was  made  in  parts  called  strands,  which  could  be  separately 
raised :  they  were  twenty  in  number  for  each  cable,  and  themselves  con- 
sisted, twelve  of  them  of  56  wires  each  and  eight  of  48  wires.  To 
manufacture  one  strand,  a  walk  or  level  line  was  chosen  614  feet  long 
for  want  of  a  longer,  which  being  just  half  the  length  of  the  strand  the 
wires  had  to  be  carried  twice  along  the  walk.  At  one  end  were  firmly 
fixed  two  blocks  of  oak,  to  which  were  hooked  iron  stirrups ;  an  end  of 
wire  on  the  reel  being  fastened  to  one  block,  was  passed  round  the 
stirrup,  and  the  reel  carried  to  the  other  end  of  the  walk,  where  the 
wire  was  tried  by  a  weight  of  220  lbs.,  and  sustaining  the  proof,  it  was 
passed  round  a  semi-cylindrical  block  also  firmly  fixed  and  then  borne 
to  the  point  whence  it  started,  and  was  placed  round  the  second  stirrup; 
this  length  was  also  tried  by  the  test  weight  and  the  movement  con- 
tinued until  one  strand,  or  56  threads,  had  been  unwound  from  the 
reels,  when  the  end  thus  arrived  at  and  the  end  at  first  fixed  to  the 
block  were  bound  together ;  the  whole  bundle  was  also  bound  at  each 
end  and  every  three  or  four  feet  of  length.  A  coating  of  the  preserva- 
tive mixture  before  mentioned  was  now  applied  and  the  prepared  strand 
laid  aside.  Five  of  these  strands  were  made  in  a  week  by  as  many 
workmen. 

Mooring  Cables. — These  were  intended  to  take  the  ends  of  each 
suspension  cable,  when  it  passed  through  the  sloping  gallery,  G  (fig  2), 
and  constitute  the  final  attachment  to  the  heavy  masonry.  They  were 
made  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  former,  but  thicker,  and  when  taken 
off  the  stirrups  on  which  they  had  been  wound,  in  consequence  of 
elastic  force,  they  -twisted  and  curled  up  like  a  corkscrew ;  to  obviate 
this  difficulty,  series  of  laths  were  bound  round  the  cable  before  loosing 
it,  and  little  of  the  former  effect  followed.  Great  care  was  taken  to 
bring  all  wires  composing  these  cables  into  equal  tension.  They  were 
each  four  inches  in  diameter,  and  composed  of  528  wires. 

The  Masonry. — Each  pier  is  founded  on  the  rock,  is  66^  feet  high 
above  the  road  level,  and  gracefully  arranged  as  a  Doric  portico.  They 
present  an  arched  opening  43  feet  high  to  the  passenger,  each  of  the 
sides  bearing  three  pilasters  and  an  entablature.  Jura  limestone  faces 
the  basement  courses,  but  the  interior  and  upper  parts  are  sandstone, 


*  From  Warr's  Dynamics,  &c.   London  :  R.  Baldwin. 


finely  dressed,  so  as  to  allow  of  no  vacant  spaces  in  the  stone-work.  The 
latter  material  was  readily  obtained,  as  it  constitutes  the  mountain 
masses  on  each  side  of  the  valley ;  when  first  quarried,  it  was  found  to 
be  easy  in  working,  but  afterwards  dried  and  became  hard.  On  proving 
its  strength  by  an  hydrostatic  press,  it  bore  555  lbs.  per  square  inch  of 
surface  without  injury.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  piers,  apparatus  was 
placed  for  accommodating  the  chains;  it  consists  of  three  rollers,  giving 
as  many  points  of  support  to  the  cable,  A,  which  is  allowed  to  spread  out 
and  form  a  band  at  these  points.  Every  facility  is  afforded  by  these 
friction  rollers  for  slight  movements  of  the  cables  in  consequence  of 


28 


Conical  Flour  Mill. 


[February, 


Fig.  2. 


changing  temperature  or  similarly  acting  agents,  while,  by  their  dis- 
position, the  cables  are  not  damaged  by  sudden  bends. 

Those  portions  of  the  masonry  which  may  be  called  underground, 
are  the  sloping  galleries,  G,  through  which  the  cables  pass,  and  are 
connected  with  the  mooring  chains  and  the  vertical  mooring  shafts,  H ; 
the  former  were  excavations  six  and  a  half  feet  square,  roofed  with  lime- 
stone arches.  The  mooring  shafts,  H,  commence  at  the  lower  extremity 
6.  of  the  galleries,  and  are  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  R, 
to  a  depth  of  52  J  feet;  they  are  also  10  feet 
broad,  3  feet  3  inches  wide,  and  four  in  number. 
In  them  was  fitted  the  masonry,  M,  intended  to 
bear  all  the  weight  from  the  cable,  and  for  this 
all  important  purpose  it  was  admirably  arranged. 
Angular  incisions  were  made  in  the  rock  at 
three  places,  which  were  subsequently  filled 
with  stone-work  of  a  dovetail  form,  and  having 
all  the  peculiar  excellency  of  that  description  of 
joint;  the  mooring  cables,  B,  which  were  carried 
through  this  filling  in,  had  thus  a  most  secure 
abutment  at  the  lower  part.  A  small  passage, 
P,  about  six  feet  high,  extends  under  the  cable 
fastenings,  to  facilitate  their  inspection,  com" 
municating  with  the  ground  surface  by  an 
horizontal  gallery,  cut  from  the  hill  side — a 
distance  of  nearly  350  feet.  Limestone  sup- 
plied the  material  for  these  mooring  shafts,  and 
was  obtained  from  the  quarries  of  Neuville  and 
Lengnau,  situated  on  an  inferior  branch  of  the 
Jura  mountain  chain,  about  30  miles  from  Freiburg ;  on  being  tried 
similarly  to  the  sandstone,  it  was  found  to  be  capable  of  bearing  3,307 
lbs.  on  the  superficial  square  inch  without  injury. 

Raising  the  Cables. — When  every  preliminary  arrangement  had  been 
made,  and  all  the  stone  work  secure,  two  windlasses  were  placed  on 
each  tower,  one  at  each  point ;  two  midway  between  them  down  in  the 
valley,  and  one  in  each  sloping  gallery.  Round  No.  5  a  hempen  rope, 
an  inch  in  diameter,  was  wound,  thence  it  passed  twice  round  the  axles 
of  the  windlasses  No.  3,  on  the  tower,  and  descended  towards  the  valley, 
being  joined  to  another  smaller  rope,  which  reached  windlass  No.  2, 
the  same  being  done  on  the  other  side.  A  drum,  six  feet  and  a-half  in 
diameter,  bearing  one  strand,  wound  not  as  usual,  but  beginning  from 
the  middle,  so  as  to  leave  both  ends  on  the  same  side,  was  then  placed 
between  the  windlasses  1  and  2,  and  an  end  of  the  strand  attached  to 
each  rope ;  this  was  followed  by  a  working  of  the  windlasses  3  and  4  at 
both  piers,  and  the  small  cable  gradually  unwound  and  rose  in  the 
air  towards  its  intended  location ;  when  the  ends  had  reached  the 
towers,  one  side  ceased  to  work,  while  the  workmen  on  the  other  side 
drew  their  end  over  temporary  rollers  on  the  top  of  the  pier,  and 
attached  it  to  a  rope  from  windlass  No.  6,  in  the  sloping  gallery,  which, 
on  being  worked,  drew  the  strand  over  permanent  friction  rollers  on 
the  pier,  and  brought  its  end  into  the  sloping  gallery.  Workmen  at 
the  other  end  of  the  bridge  wrought  similarly,  and  brought  up  this  first 
strand  to  a  proper  curvature.  To  determine  this  properly,  two  logs  or 
bench-marks  had  been  fixed  at  each  side  against  the  piers,  the  line  of 
sight  between  which  formed  the  appointed  level  for  the  roadway,  and 
at  it  was  intended  that  the  cables  should  descend  to  this  level,  it  was 
determined  with  tolerable  accuracy  by  drawing  the  strand  until  the 
lowest  point  of  its  curve  touched  this  line  of  sight.  Mooring  cables 
were  now  brought  down  the  galleries,  and  drawn  down  the  shaft  through 
its  small  opening  by  a  windlass  worked  rope.  When  this  cable  was 
secured,  in  the  manner  shown  in  fig.  2,  it  was  ready  to  take  hold  of 
the  suspended  strand ;  but  the  latter  was  not  attached  until  another 


Fig.  3. 


strand  was  raised,  when  one  of  them  was  placed  on  each  side  of  the 
mooring  cable,  and  a  connecting  bolt  passed 
through  the  stirrups  attached  to  them.  This 
process  was  continued  until  forty  strands  were 
drawn  up  on  each  side  of  the  bridge,  forming  a 
pair  of  bands,  each  above  two  and  a-half  feet 
broad,  and  about  30J  feet  apart;  they  were 
divided  each  into  two  bundles,  A  A  (fig.  3.), 
of  20  strands,  and  bound  up  in  a  cylindrical 
shape  by  iron  wire,  leaving  those  parts  which 
rest  on  the  pier  friction  rollers  as  a  band.  The 
work  of  attaching  the  suspension  cords,  S,  now 
followed;  they  are  composed  of  30  wires,  mak- 
ing a  diameter  of  one  inch ;  their  greatest  length 
is  about  54  feet,  and  least  6  inches ;  each  end 
is  bent  round  a  stirrup,  *  s,  to  afford  means  for 
suspension,  in  a  manner  shown  by  the  diagram; 
a  hook-loop  catches  the  lower  stirrup,  and 
takes  in  its  loop  one  end  of  a  road-beam,  D ; 
the  upper  stirrup  embraces  a  saddle,  e,  which 
also  embraces  the  pair  of  cables,  A  A.  A  dis- 
tance of  4  feet  1 1  inches  separates  the  suspen- 
sion ropes. 

When  these  had  been  distributed  on  each  side  of  the  bridge,  and  the 
suspended^eams  placed  between;them,  longitudinal  planking  was  laid  on 
the  cross-beams  D,  with  another  layer  of  cross-planks,  which  form  the 
carriage-way.  The  footpaths  are  raised  about  7  inches  above  the  car- 
riage-way, and  are  very  narrow,  being  not  more  than  2  feet  9J  inches 
wide,  while  the  carriage-way  takes  up  15  feet  5  inches,  making  the 
total  width  between  the  railings  21  feet.  The  total  deflection  of  the 
bridge,  when  completed,  was  63J  feet,  and  its  length  870£  feet,  which 
gives  the  proportion  for  the  deflection  l-13|ths  greater  than  the  most 
advantageous  ratio,  which  has  been  stated  to  be  about  l-15th.  The 
platform  hangs  167^  feet  above  the  river  Sarine,  immediately  below  it. 
The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  dimensions  of  its  principal  parts  :— 

Ft.     Inches. 

Length  of  suspended  roadway  (E,  F,  Fig.  1.) 

Deflection  of  the  main  cables 

Height  of  roadway  above  the  river  Sarine 

Rise  of  platform  in  middle 

Main  cables  of  1,056  threads  each,  diameter. . 

Iron  wire,  diameter 

Width  of  roadway 

Total  suspended  weight 

Altogether,  Freiburg  suspension  bridge  must  be  considered  as  a  noble 
specimen  of  its  kind ;  its  elegant  simplicity  accords  with  the  locality 
and  scenery ;  its  great  span  and  comparative  lightness  are  most  striking 
to  the  eye  and  reason ;  and  its  scientific  disposition  is  very  instructive. 
The  cost  of  this  bridge  was  i?24,000,  or  one-fifth  the  expense  of  the 
Menai  bridge,  which  is  300  feet  less  in  span. 


..     807 

0 

63 

3 

..      167 

4 

1 

8 

5.5 

0.12 

..       21 

0 

296  tons. 

FRENCH    VERSUS   ENGLISH    FLOUR    MILLS.  —  WESTRUP'S 

PATENT  CONICAL  FLOUR  MILL. 

Illustrated  by  Plate  3. 

In  our  last  number  we  made  some  remarks  on  the  superiority  of 

French  over  English  flour,  which  appeared  to  warrant  the  assertion 

that  the  French  machinery  was  superior  to  that  of  our  own  engineers. 

There  is,  however,  another  cause  which  we  then  omitted  to  mention, 

which  will  help  to  account  for  the  difference  between  French  and 

English  bread.     In  France  only  two  qualities  of  bread  are  made,  the 

white  and  the  brown,  so  that  the  miller's  object  there  is  only  to  produce 

a  small  auantitvof  the  verv  finest  flour,  without  respect  to  any  "seconds" 


1852.] 


Conical  Flour  Mill. 


29 


flour.  This  would  not  pay  the  English  miller,  because  the  very  slight 
increase  of  price  which  he  would  obtain  for  the  fine  flour,  would  not 
compensate  him  for  the  loss  on  the  "seconds."  As  regards  the  me- 
chanical part  of  the  question,  there  is  an  important  difference  between 
the  French  and  English  systems,  the  former  making  a  pair  of  stones  do 
only  half  the  work  of  the  latter  in  a  given  time,  a  system  under  which 
the  English  miller  would  only  turn  out  half  the  work  he  now  does, 
were  he  inclined  to  try  the  experiment.  The  French  system  may  be 
described  as  gently  rubbing  off  the  skin  of  the  wheat,  whilst  the 
English  system  cuts  up  the  bran  into  fine  particles,  which  cannot 
afterwards  be  perfectly  separated  froni  the  fine  flour. 

Having  premised  thus  much,  we  will  endeavour  to  show  in  what 
respects  the  mechanical  construction  of  the  ordinary  grinding  appara- 
tus is  defective.  The  object  is  to  burst  the  skin  of  the  wheat,  to  rub 
the  bran  clean  of  flour,  and  then  to  deliver  it  from  the  stones,  to 
make  room  for  a  fresh  supply  of  wheat.  The  two  first  operations  are 
performed  efficiently  by  an  ordinary  pair  of  stones,  but  the  imperfect 
manner  in  which  they  perform  the  third  operation,  the  getting  rid  of 
the  flour,  causes  serious  evils.  Taking  the  case  of  a  pair  of  four  feet 
stones,  it  is  obvious  that  all  the  flour  ground  within  a  radius  of  15 
inches,  is  re-ground  whilst  passing  over  the  remaining  9,  which  are 
moving  at  an  accelerated  velocity.  As  the  greater  part  of  the  wheat 
is  ground  within  the  smaller  radius,  there  is  not  only  a  great  loss  of 
power  in  forcing  the  flour  through  the  remaining  distance,  but  the 
quality  of  the  flour  is  deteriorated  by  the  friction  and  consequent 
heating  to  which  it  is  subject. 

One  method  of  removing  this  evil  has  been  in  use  on  the  continent 
for  some  time,  and  more  lately,  also,  in  England,  that  of  blowing  air 
in  at  the  eye  or  centre  of  the  upper  stone,  which  has  the  effect  of 
assisting  the  delivery  of  the  flour,  and  also  of  keeping  it  cool.  This 
plan  is  about  to  be  carried  out  on  a  large  scale  in  London,  and  we 
6hall  detail  it  at  some  future  time.  At  present  we  shall  describe 
another  alternative,  the  invention  of  Mr.  Westrup,  a  practical  miller, 
who  has  entirely  remodelled  the  grinding  apparatus,  which  has  retained 
its  primitive  form  for  so  many  centuries. 

In  Mr.  Westrup' s  system,  the  grinding  surfaces  are  converted  from 
flats  into  cones,  so  that  the  force  of  gravity  is  added  to  the  centrifugal 
force,  to  assist  in  getting  rid  of  the  flour.  Taking  the  view  also,  that 
the  "  real  grinding "  is  effected  near  the  centre  of  the  stones,  Mr. 
Westrup  removes  the  outer  edge  (which,  as  we  have  seen,  only  re- 
grinds  the  flour),  and  so  reduces  the  diameter  from  four  feet  to  two 
feet  six  inches.  But  as  a  portion  of  the  wheat  escapes  grinding,  from 
the  short  time  it  is  retained  between  the  stones,  that  portion  is  passed 
through  another  pair  of  stones,  whilst  the  flour  is  carried  off  by  the 
means  described  below,  and  thus  escapes  re-grinding. 

From  experiments  made  on  this  mill  by  H.  Smith,  Esq.,  C.E.,  it  is 
estimated  that  the  two  pairs  of  stones,  arranged  as  described,  will  do 
twice  as  much  work  per  hour  as  one  pair  of  four  feet  stones,  and 
require  only  the  same  power,  thus  reducing  the  cost  of  steam  power 
50  per  cent.     The  report  is  as  follows  : — 

"  From  these  experiments  I  draw  the  following  conclusions  in  favour 
of  the  Conical  Flour  Mill.  First,  as  regards  the  produce ;  second,  as 
regards  the  power  required ;  third,  as  regards  the  advantages. 

First,  the  loss  in  grinding  is  less,  and  the  produce  of  the  more  valu- 
able portions  of  the  wheat  is  increased ;  that  is,  the  husk  of  the  clavel 
is  more  thoroughly  deprived  of  the  flour  by  the  patent  than  by  the 
ordinary  method.  The  quality  of  the  flour  is  also  materially  better  by 
the  patent  plan,  and  being  stronger,  it  makes  a  greater  quantity  of  bread. 

The  Conical  Mill  also  produces  a  flour  from  some  of  the  cheaper 
wheats  as  strong  as  can  be  obtained  from  many  of  the  dear  foreign 
wheats,  which  is  also  a  source  of  economy. 

The  bran  is  produced  perfectly  open  and  clean,  and  so  much  larger 


as  to  show  that  it,  and  consequently  the  flour,  has  not  been  so  much 
destroyed  by  constant  grinding  as  in  the  ordinary  process. 

Second,  as  regards  the  power.  The  ordinary  work  of  a  pair  of 
4  feet  French  stones  is  3£  bushels  per  hour,  and  the  power  required 
is  4  horses  power. 

But  the  Conical  Flour  Mill  will  grind  nearly  7  bushels  per  hour, 
with  only  four  horses  power,  so  that  there  is  a  saving  of  nearly  one- 
half  of  the  cost  of  the  steam  power,  fuel,  and  labour,  usually  employed ; 
besides  making  a  better  article. 

Third,  as  regards  the  advantages  of  the  Conical  Mill,  independent 
of  its  economy. 

The  meal  leaves  the  stones  so  cool,  that  it  may  be  dressed  at  once, 
instead  of  waiting  to  become  cool,  as  in  the  usual  plan ;  an  advantage 
of  great  value  in  practice. 

The  stones  being  only  2  feet  6  in  diameter,  and  not  weighing  more 
than  6  cwt.,  and  the  ordinary  pair  of  stones  weighing  28  cwt.,  and 
being  4  feet  in  diameter,  the  new  mill  is  more  portable  for  country  or 
export  mills. 

The  arrangements  for  adjusting  the  relative  distance  of  the  stones 
from  each  other  are  much  more  complete  than  the  usual  mode,  ad- 
mitting of  a  nicety  hitherto  unknown. 

The  feed  likewise  is  on  a  new  and  improved  plan ;  being  self-acting, 
it  is  easily  adjusted,  and  cannot  stop  off:  and  the  whole  gear  and 
tackle  may  be  much  lighter  than  on  the  old  plan. 

It  is  proper  to  say,  in  conclusion,  that  I  consider  the  Patent  Mill 
was  severely  tested  by  my  trying  it  against  one  of  the  best  ordinary 
mills  I  could  find, — the  Anchor  Steam  Flour  Mils  of  Messrs.  Pavitt, 
at  Wapping,  which  are  noted  for  their  excellence.  They  are  certainly 
superior  to  the  average,  and  were  in  excellent  working  order ;  and 
the  best  pair  of  stones  they  had  was  chosen. 

The  power  of  the  engines  was  taken  by  indicator  diagrams  in  the 
usual  way,  and  the  most  scrupulous  care  was  observed  in  every  stage 
of  the  process.  Hjsnkt  Smith,  C.E." 

The  plate  represents  a  section  of  Mr.  Westrup's  mill,  which  we 
have  inspected  at  his  establishment,  and  which  was  constructed  by 
Mr.  Middleton,  of  Southwark.  a  a  is  a  hollow  vertical  spindle,  to 
which  motion  is  communicated  in  the  ordinary  manner  from  the  steam 
engine,  by  bevil  gearing.  To  this  shaft  are  fixed  the  upper  and  lower 
runners,  b  and  c.  The  stationary  stones,  d  and  e,  are  fixed  in  cast- 
iron  bed  plates,  which  are  fitted  accurately  to  cast-iron  curb  plates, 
g  g  and  h  h,  bolted  to  the  framing.  This  arrangement  is  designed  to 
facilitate  the  adjustment  of  the  stones,  which  is  effected  in  the  following 
manner  : — At  four  opposite  points  on  the  circumference  of  each  curb 
are  cast  four  short  inclined  planes,  say  six  or  seven  inches  in  length,  and 
similar  inclines  are  cast  on  the  cast-iron  bed  plate  of  the  stone.  If 
then  the  stone  be  turned  round  on  its  centre,  it  is  obvious  that  it  will 
either  rise  or  fall,  according  to  the  direction  in  which  it  is  turned. 
On  a  small  portion  of  each  curb  a  worm  wheel  is  cast,  into  which 
takes  a  worm  on  each  spindle,  s  s,  to  which  motion  is  given  by  means 
of  the  hand  wheels,  i  i,  and  the  bevel  wheels  and  spindles,  as  shown. 
In  this  manner,  the  distance  between  the  stones  can  be  adjusted  to 
the  utmost  nicety,  and  their  perfect  concentric  position  maintained. 

The  feed  is  introduced,  as  shown  by  the  arrows,  through  the  feed 
pipe,  m,  and  is  adjusted  in  the  following  manner : — n  is  a  tube,  sliding 
over  the  feed  pipe,  and  adjusted  in  height  by  the  hand  wheel,  o  ;  on 
the  distance  at  which  it  stands  from  the  revolving  cup,  jj,  depends  the 
quantity  of  grain  which  is  allowed  to  escape.  Motion  is  given  to  p  by 
means  of  the  pulleys,  r  r,  and  the  grain,  from  its  centrifugal  force, 
flies  off,  and  passes,  as  shown  by  the  arrows,  between  the  upper  pair 
of  stones,  b,  d. 

The  product  of  the  upper  pair  of  stones  then  passes  into  the  receiver, 
1 1,  which  is  covered  with  wire  cloth,  and  provided  with  revolving 

5 


30 


The  Smoke  Question. 


[February, 


brushes,  and  thus  forms  a  sort  of  dressing  machine.  The  fine  flour  is 
dressed  through  the  wire,  and  falls  down  outside,  whilst  the  larger 
particles,  not  yet  perfectly  ground,  pass  through  the  lower  pair  of 
stones,  c,  e,  into  the  receiver,  x,  to  which  a  spout  is  attached.  The 
flour  from  the  dressing  machine  also  falls  through  openings  outside 
the  curb,  h  h,  into  the  same  receiver.  A  revolving  scraper,  y,  sweeps 
off  the  flour  as  it  accumulates,  and  causes  it  to  issue  from  the  spout ; 
after  which  it  undergoes  the  usual  process  of  dressing.  The  chamber 
containing  the  wire-gauze  is  surrounded  with  wooden  shutters,  z,  z, 
to  keep  in  the  flour. 

Mr.  Westrup  also  proposes  to  use  an  air  blast,  which  enters  through 
a  pipe  at  the  top  of  the  shaft,  a,  and  through  openings  made  in  the 
shaft,  into  the  annular  space  round  the  shaft,  in  the  centre  of  the  stones, 
b  and  c.  Passages  are  cut  in  each  stone,  as  shown,  through  which 
the  air  escapes  at  their  grinding  surfaces. 


THE  SMOKE  QUESTION. 

(Continued  from  p.  2.) 

OF   ARRANGEMENTS    FOR   COUNTERACTING   THE   IRREGULARITY    OF 
HAND-FIRING. 

It  has  been  pointed  out,  that  the  carbonaceous  particles  forming 
opaque  smoke  may  be  inflamed  by  contact  with  red-hot  fuel,  or  with 
any  substance,  such  as  fire-brick,  at  a  sufficiently  high  temperature. 
Hence  we  have  a  number  of  plans  for  furnaces,  which,  though  they 
may  not  entirely  prevent  the  emission  of  smoke,  yet  do  so  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  in  proportion  to  the  skill  displayed  in  their  construc- 
tion. From  the  simplicity,  economy,  and  non-liability  to  derangement 
of  the  plans  based  on  this  principle,  they  deserve  careful  attention, 
although  their  application  in  practice  is  attended  with  some  difficulty, 
every  case  requiring  some  special  arrangement  to  suit  the  requirements 
of  various  fuels,  draughts,  &c.  Such  matters  are  usually  left  to  the 
discretion  of  the  bricklayer,  whose  only  aim  is  to  get  draught  enough, 
or,  in  other  words,  steam  enough. 

Fire-brick,  from  its  heat-resisting  qualities,  forms  the  most  con- 
venient material  for  lining  furnaces ;  and  its  operation,  as  a  smoke 
consumer,  resembles  that  of  a  fly-wheel,  as  an  equalizer  of  power. 
The  fire-brick  absorbs  heat  (as  the  fly-wheel  absorbs  power),  and  gives 
it  out  when  it  is  wanted,  to  assist  in  raising  the  temperature  of  the 
smoke  to  the  burning  point.  To  describe  any  one  method  of  arranging 
fire-brick  work  to  attain  the  desired  result,  would  only  be  misleading 
the  reader,  for  it  can  only  be  acquired  by  experience. 

One  broad  principle,  however,  remains  to  be  stated,  which  will 
exercise  a  more  important  influence  on  the  question  of  smoke  con- 
sumption generally,  than  any  other  which  experience  has  yet  suggested. 
And  this  simply  because  it  depends  for  success  upon  the  exercise  of 
an  intelligence  of  the  lowest  possible  order.  In  principle,  it  is  founded 
on  the  old  maxim,  "  Divide  and  conquer."  We  have  already  shown, 
that  it  is  to  regularity  of  combustion  that  we  must  look  for  smoke 
prevention,  and  the  problem  is,  to  counteract  the  irregularity  of  hand- 
firing.  This  is  effected  by  dividing  the  ordinary  furnace  lengthwise, 
&nd  firing  each  half  alternately.  Thus  only  half  the  fire  is  damped  at 
a  time  by  the  charge  of  coal,  and  the  high  temperature  of  the  other 
half  ensures  the  combustion  of  the  smoke.  The  fireman  has  merely 
to  keep  the  bars  free  from  clinker,  and  take  care  to  fire  one  furnace 
whilst  the  other  is  perfectly  free  from  smoke.  There  are  no  valves  to 
regulate,  and  no  moveable  parts  to  wear  or  get  out  of  order.  It  is 
obvious  that  this  principle  may  be  worked  out  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
several  of  which  have  been  lately  patented ;  but  the  system  which 
appears  to  us  to  combine  the  two-fold  advantages  of  good  evaporative 
as  well  as  smoke  preventive  powers,  is  that  of 


Messrs  W.  and  J.  Galloway's  Patent  Boilers — These  boilers  consist 
of  a  cylindrical  shell  or  outer  case,  containing  two  cylindrical  tubes 
forming  the  furnaces.  These  two  tubes  unite  behind  the  fire-bars  in  a 
single  chamber,  and  it  is  in  this  union  that  their  virtue  as  smoke  con- 
sumers consists.  The  ordinary  double-furnaced  boilers  in  use  in  the 
manufacturing  districts  are  defective  smoke  consumers,  inasmuch  as 
the  two  furnace  tubes  extend  the  whole  length  of  the  boiler,  so  that 
the  products  of  combustion  do  not  meet  until  their  temperature  has 
been  reduced  below  the  point  of  ignition.  Extended  experience  proves 
that,  as  economic  evaporators,  Messrs.  Galloway's  boilers  hold  a  high 
rank,  but  this  is  a  subject  which  we  need  not  now  discuss.  It  is  suf- 
ficient for  our  present  purpose  that  they  are  not  inferior  to  any  other 
class  of  boilers,  and  that  efficiency  need  not  be  sacrificed  in  complying 
with  the  smoke  prevention  clauses  of  a  sanitary  act  of  parliament. 

WORKING   OF   THE    SMOKE    ACT   IN    GLASGOW. 

Our  next  chapter  was  proposed  to  be  a  summary  of  the  facts  we 
have  thus  briefly  laid  down,  but  we  have  just  received  a  copy  of  a 
report  on  the  subject,  which  deserves  ample  notice  at  our  hands.  It 
is  entitled  "ft  Report  on  the  state  of  Engine  and  other  Furnaces  used  in 
manufacturing  and  other  establishments  in  Glasgow,  and  on  the  means  to 
prevent  nuisance  arising  from  Smoke.  Presented  to  the  Municipal, 
Police,  and  Statute  Labour  Committee,  by  G.  W.  Muir.     1851." 

The  act  of  parliament  referred  to  is  the  act  7  and  8,  Geo.  TV.,  cap. 
43,  entitled  "  An  Act  for  forming  a  carriage  road  or  drive  round  the 
park  or  public  green  of  Glasgow ;  and  for  the  better  regulation  of  the 
fire-places  and  chimneys  of  steam  engines  and  other  works  in  the  city 
and  suburbs."     We  quote  the  following  details  of  its  provisions. 

The  limits  within  which  it  is  applicable  are,  "the  Royalty  of  Glasgow,  or 
within  two  miles  of  the  cross." 

The  parties  subject  to  it  are  (section  21)  "the  proprietors  or  occupiers  of 
all  steam  engines,  or  of  works  of  which  the  machinery  is  moved  by  steam." 
and  "the  proprietors  or  occupiers  of  all  other  works,  the  fires  used  in  which 
emit  or  discharge  large  quantities  of  smoke  or  flame."  In  the  22nd  section, 
this  language  is  varied  only  by  the  substitution  of  "  proprietors  and  occu- 
piers," for  "  proprietors  or  occupiers."  It  may  appear  hard  to  place  such  a 
responsibility  upon  the  occupiers  of  works;  but  when  it  is  recollected  that 
the  owners  do  not  always  reside  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Court,  the 
sound  policy  of  making  occupiers  liable  is  self-evident.  Besides,  if  works 
were  not  tenanted,  there  would  not  be  any  nuisance  from  smoke.  It  is, 
therefore,  the  tenants  who  cause  the  nuisance. 

The  Court  in  which  proceedings  under  the  Act  may  be  conducted,  is  the 
"Dean  of  Guild  Court,"  or  any  other  competent  Court  within  the  limits  pre- 
scribed by  the  Act.  (By  the  Municipal  Amalgamation  Act  it  is  competent 
for  the  magistrates  to  try  offences  under  any  statute,  the  penalty  for  which 
does  not  exceed  £10.) 

The  parties  by  whom  an  action  may  be  raised  are,  the  Procurator  Piscal. 
or  any  five  householders  resident  in  the  vicinity  of  the  works  complained  of. 
Either  of  these  parties  may  act  independently  of  each  other.  The  Procurator 
Eiscal  may  act  independently  of  five  householders,  and  no  five  householders 
need  wait  upon  the  Fiscal. 

The  machinery  provided  for  the  purposes  of  the  Act  is  somewhat  cumbrous, 
but  appears  to  have  been  well  considered  by  its  framers  ;  and  upon  the  whole, 
if  worked  in  good  faith,  should  effectually  suppress  the  nuisauce. 

Its  most  important  and  valuable  provisions  consist  in,  first,  the  making  the 
emission  or  discharge  of  large  quantities  of  smoke  or  flame  a  nuisance.  The 
fact  of  such  emission  or  discharge  being  proved,  the  nuisance  is  established. 
And,  second,  that  the  proprietors  or  (and)  occupiers  are  bound,  under  a 
penalty  of  forty  shillings  per  week,  to  adopt  the  most  approved  plans  known 
at  the  time  for  the  prevention  of  the  nuisance,  as  may  be  ordered  by  the 
Court,  on  the  report  of  at  least  "  three  engineers,  or  other  persons  of  skill  in 
such  matters."  The  great  practical  difficulty  in  the  way  of  the  Court,  and 
the  Procurator  Fiscal,  has  been  to  get  three  such  parties  to  act  in  the  spirit 
of  the  law.  Generally  speaking,  the  parties  selected,  being  themselves  smoke 


1852.] 


The  Smoke  Question. 


31 


producers,  have  been  averse  to  enforcing  the  law,  and  have,  therefore,  allowed 
themselves  to  be  satisfied  with  the  most  frivolous  excuses  and  promises  on 
the  part  of  those  complained  of.  It  is  to  be  hoped  the  important  duty  of 
judicial  inspection  will  in  future  be  more  faithfully  performed. 

The  means  by  which  the  nuisance  caused  by  the  unavoidable  emission  or 
discharge  of  large  quantities  of  smoke  or  flame  may  be  reduced  to  as  small 
a  compass  as  possible,  is,  evidently,  to  diffuse  the  smoke  or  flame  before  it 
comes  into  contact  with  person  or  property.  This  is  the  means  contemplated 
by  the  21st  section  of  the  Act,  by  which  it  is  provided  that  all  steam  engine 
furnaces  shall  not  be  less  in  height,  according  to  the  open  space  or  inside 
capacity  at  the  top,  than  the  heights  mentioned  in  the  Act,  viz.  : — 
Chimney  stalks  not  exceeding  in  inside  capacity  at  the  top  196  square  inches 

(14  X14),  shall  not  be  less  than  55  feet  in  height. 
Above  196  and  not  exceeding  in  inside  capacity  at  the  top  324  square  inches 

(18  X  18),  shall  not  be  less  than  65  feet  in  height. 
Above  324  and  not  exceeding  in  inside  capacity  at  the  top  576  square  inches 

(24  X  24),  shall  not  be  less  than  85  feet  in  height. 
Above  576,  shall  not  be  less  than  90  feet  in  height. 

That  the  cones  of  all  glass  works  shall  not  be  less  than  100  feet  in  height; 
and  that  the  chimneys  of  all  calcining  works  shall  not  be  under  50  feet  in 
height.  '  But,  while  these  are  the  least  heights  of  the  three  descriptions  of 
works  just  named,  it  is  further  provided,  that  the  chimneys  of  all  other 
works,  the  fires  used  in  which  emit  or  discharge  large  quantities  of  smoke  or 
flame,  shall  be  constructed  of  such  heights,  dimensions,  and  form,  as  shall  be 
ascertained  to  be  necessary  and  proper,  for  the  prevention,  as  much  as  may 
be,  of  nuisance  to  the  neighbourhood.  Toil  are  aware  that  I  have  reported 
to  you  the  names  of  the  owners  or  occupiers  of  1 15  places  in  which  the  stalks 
are  under  the  heights  prescribed  by  the  Act;  and  that,  in  compliance  with 
your  directions,  notices  have  been  sent  to  those  parties.  The  result  of  the 
sending  of  these  notices  confirms  me  in  the  opinion,  that  it  will  be  necessary  to 
adopt  legal  means  with  the  great  majority  of  these  parties.  The  circulars  have 
had  little  effect.  In  fact,  the  parties  have  been  "  circulared  "  into  the  notion 
that  nothing  more  formidable  will  ever  be  sent  to  them.  A  few  summonses 
would  have  a  good  effect.  It  would  be  something  like  the  difference  between 
blank  and  ball  cartridge. 

It  is  provided  by  the  22nd  section,  that  "  the  proprietors  or  occupiers  shall 
construct,  or  cause  to  be  constructed,  the  fire-places  or  furnaces  and  chimneys 
of  such  steam  engines  and  other  works,  of  such  form  and  relative  dimen- 
sions, and  particularly  of  such  proportion  between  the  dimensions  of  the  fur- 
nace and  boiler,  and  of  the  boiler  and  cylinder  of  the  engine"  in  such  man- 
ner as  will  most  effectually  prevent  nuisance  to  the  neighbourhood;  and 
they  are  further  required  to  cause  the  workmen  to  supply  the  furnaces  with 
fuel  "  in  such  manner  as  may  most  completely  secure  the  burning  and 
consumption  of  the  said  smoke."  From  this  it  will  be  seen,  that  not  only 
must  the  furnaces  be  properly  constructed,  but  they  must  also  be  properly 
worked. 

Mr.  Muir  gives  a  rather  amusing  account  of  the  treatment  he  ex- 
perienced in  his  inspection  at  the  hands  of  gentlemen,  who,  although 
"  they  would  feel  disgraced  by  appearing  on  the  Royal  Exchange  in 
other  attire  than  linen  of  the  purest  white,  feel  no  sense  of  shame  from 
being  the  owners  of  chimney  stalks  that  send  forth  vast  volumes  of 
black  smoke  that  destroys  many  a  washing."  "  Generally  speaking  I 
have  been  received  by  the  parties  more  favourably  than  a  commercial 
traveller  in  quest  of  orders  would  have  been  (!).  In  a  great  many  cases 
I  was  welcomed  as  a  friend.  In  a  very  few,  not  over  three  or  four, 
did  the  parties  show  decided  incivility ;  and  in  one  case  only  was 
language  used  unfit  for  publication." 

Everybody  thinks  somebody  else's  smoke  more  deserving  of  punish- 
ment than  their  own.  Thus  a  large  factory  owner,  on  being  remon- 
strated with,  remarked  that  a  small  washing  and  bathing  establishment 
near  to  his  house  was  a  greater  nuisance  than  his  own.  The  bath 
keeper  said  "  What  would  be  the  use  of  my  laying  out  money  to  pre- 
vent smoke,  so  long  as  these  steam  boats  throw  out  so  much  upon  my 
works." 

The  effect  of  any  attempt  at  persuasion  may  be  judged  from  the 


fact,  that  not  one  in  ten  of  the  factory  owners  would  take  the  trouble 
to  go  and  look  at  any  of  those  places  where  smoke-consuming  plans 
were  in  operation.  As  Mr.  Muir  says,  they  want  a  few  "  ball  car- 
tridges," in  the  shape  of  fines,  to  arouse  them  from  their  apathy. 

The  report  recommends  that  the  patent  right  of  one  of  the  plana 
for  smoke  prevention  be  purchased,  and  the  gratuitous  use  of  it 
allowed,  in  order  to  remove  all  ground  of  excuse  on  the  part  of 
factory  owners.  We  cannot  coincide  with  this  recommendation, 
because  it  would  interfere  with  the  progress  of  invention,  and  would 
tax  the  community  at  large,  to  cover  the  sins  of  a  few.  We  may  be 
sure  that  if  any  plan  can  be  used  gratis,  no  other,  however  meritorious, 
will  stand  any  chance,  and  the  office  of  selection  would  be  a  most 
invidious  one.  Moreover,  as  we  have  so  strongly  urged,  it  is  absurd 
to  ask,  "  Which  is  the  best  smoke-consuming  furnace  ?  "  when  it  is  a 
question  of  circumstances,  and  the  peculiarities  of  trade  operations. 
Messrs.  Surmon  and  Co.  agreed  to  sell  their  patent  right  in  Juckes' 
furnace  for  £1,000,  half  of  which  was  to  be  raised  by  subscription, 
and  the  other  half  to  be  paid  by  the  corporation.  The  attempt  to 
raise  money  by  subscription  has  failed  so  far,  "  though,  amongst  those 
who  declined  to  subscribe,  there  are  parties  who  should  have  been 
most  ready,  both  on  account  of  their  social  position,  their  wealth,  and 
the  immense  quantity  of  smoke  discharged  from  their  works." 

Mr.  Muir  gives  what  we  believe  to  be  an  impartial  report  on  the 
merits  of  the  different  plans  in  use  in  Glasgow.  His  experience,  how- 
ever, is  limited,  both  as  regards  duration  and  locality.  Juckes's 
furnace,  from  its  automaton  regularity  and  neatness,  stands  first  on 
the  list.  B.  P.  M'Callum,  Esq.,  of  Govan  Croft  dye  works,  Glasgow, 
states  that  he  has  had  it  at  work  for  ten  months.  "  It  has  not  cost  a 
farthing  since  put  up,  nor  does  it  show  symptoms  of  decay."  Mr.  D. 
N.  Chambers,  of  Edinburgh,  says  its  original  cost  was  =£95 ;  the  yearly 
expense  of  maintenance  is  24s.,  which  is  for  repairs  to  the  door. 
Width  of  bars,  22^  inches,  and  six  feet  long  from  door  to  bridge ; 
boiler,  25  feet  long,  and  3|-  feet  diameter;  consumption  5^  tons  of  dross 
(small)  weekly.  The  machine  has  been  two  years  in  use,  and  the  bars 
are  in  as  good  condition  as  the  day  they  were  first  put  in  operation, 
and  not  the  least  sign  of  being  in  any  way  the  worse  for  wear. 

The  prices  of  Juckes'  furnaces  are  as  follows ;  but  by  constructing 
them  in  Glasgow,  there  is  no  doubt  the  first  cost  could  be  reduced  :— 

LONDON  PRICES  OF  JUCKES'  PATENT  EUBNACE. 


Superficial  Feet  of  Fire 

Royalty  upon  each 

Price  of  each  Furnace 

Bar 

in  each  Furnace. 

Furnace. 

in  London. 

6  Feet  0  Inches. 

£6 

0 

£56 

10 

7 

j) 

0 

?J 

7 

0 

65 

10 

8 

» 

0 

)) 

8 

0 

69 

10 

10 

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0 

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0 

76 

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6 

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12 

10 

89 

5 

15 

» 

0 

„ 

15 

0 

100 

10 

17 

»» 

6 

j) 

17 

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112 

0 

20 

)9 

0 

jj 

20 

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126 

10 

24 

JJ 

0 

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27 

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0 

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164 

0 

Messrs.  Gott  and  Son,  of  Leeds,  send  a  report  by  their  engineer, 
Mr.  Harrison,  on  the  use  of  an  arrangement  of  fire-brick  bridges, 
which,  aided  by  an  apparatus  for  admitting  air,  consumes  "  fully  nine- 
tenths  of  the  smoke,"  and  saves  14  per  cent,  of  fuel.  At  the  back  of 
the  ordinary  bridge,  an  inverted  bridge  is  placed  at  the  distance  of  a 
few  inches,  so  that  the  smoke  is  compelled  to  descend  to  the  bottom 
of  the  inverted  bridge,  before  it  can  pursue  its  course  along  the  boiler 
bottom.  The  drawing  is  not  very  clear,  but  the  air  appears  to  be  ad- 
mitted through  the  first  bridge,  under  the  fire  bars,  into  the  space 
between  the  two  bridges.  It  is  evident  that,  this  plan  owes  its  smoke 
consuming  powers  to  the  extent  of  surface  of  heated  fire  brick  over 
which  the  smoke  is  compelled  to  pass. 


32 


Notes  by  a  Practical  Chemist. 


[February, 


Bedington's  plan  is  so  similar  to  this,  that  it  is  needless  to  describe 
it.  The  arrangement  of  the  bridges  is  not  so  judicious  as  Mr.  Harri- 
son's plan.  The  admission  of  the  air  is  specified  in  Bedington's 
patent,  but  it  is  stated  that,  "  having  once  regulated  the  size  of  the 
opening,  so  that  the  furnace  works  well,  I  have  not  found  it  necessary 
afterwards  to  alter  the  opening  for  supplying  of  air."  Extended  ex- 
j>erience,  however,  has  rendered  the  patentee  wiser,  for  he  does  now 
use  an  apparatus  which  gradually  closes  the  air  valve  by  means  of 
clockwork,  after  the  coal  has  been  thrown  on.  Mr.  Harrison  had 
already  done  this  by  means  of  a  water  cylinder  or  cataract,  and  still 
earlier  than  either  of  these  gentlemen,  we  believe  that  Matthew  Mur- 
ray, of  Leeds,  had  attached  an  air  ane  to  retard  the  closing  of  the 
valve  for  the  same  purpose. 

Mr.  McGavin's  plan  is  identical  with  Messrs.  Galloway's  original 
double  furnaced  boiler.  Messrs.  Mitchell  and  Wallace  have  a  similar 
plan,  in  which  the  two  furnaces  unite  in  a  single  circular  flue,  whilst 
more  furnace  and  ash-pit  room  is  obtained  by  making  the  adjacent 
sides  of  the  two  furnaces  flat,  with  stays  between.  The  extreme  sides 
are  also  made  to  the  same  curve  as  the  boiler,  and  stayed.  These  fur- 
naces want  more  stays  to  render  them  safe  under  high  pressure 
steam.  Drawings  of  Messrs.  Galloway's  boilers  are  also  given  with 
the  report. 

If  the  Glasgow  authorities  take  our  advice,  they  will  purchase  no 
patent.  Mill  owners,  like  other  folk,  set  no  value  upon  that  which 
costs  them  nothing,  and  if  through  the  ignorance  and  perverseness  of 
those  in  their  employ,  any  difficulty  arises  in  the  application  of  the 
particular  plan  placed  gratuitously  at  their  service,  they  will  inevit- 
ably throw  all  the  blame  on  the  authorities.  To  the  contumacious 
smoke  producers,  our  advice  is,  briefly,  JRespice  fine  ''em! 
(To  be  continued). 

NOTES    BY   A    PRACTICAL    CHEMIST. 


Test  for  minute  traces  of  Iodine,  and  Method  of  sepa- 
rating Iodine  from  Bromine  and  Bromides. — According  to 
M.  Grange,  the  presence  of  iodine  can  be  easily  found  in  any  colourless 
liquid  containing  five-millionths  of  its  weight  of  iodide  of  potassium.  A 
few  grammes  of  the  liquid  are  poured  into  a  test-glass,  a  few  drops  of 
starch  mucilage  added,  and  a  few  bubbles  of  fuming  hyponitric  acid 
passed  through  it.  The  liquid,  if  containing  iodine  in  the  above-men- 
tioned proportions,  at  once  acquires  a  pale  rose  colour,  bordering  on 
violet.  If  the  liquid  contain  one  hundred-thousandth  of  iodide,  it  be- 
comes a  bright  blue.  Alkaline  salts,  if  present,  do  not  interfere.  Salts 
of  lime,  especially  the  chloride  and  sulphate,  slightly  alter  the  re-action; 
the  liquid  becoming  paler  and  more  violet.  If  the  re-action  is  not  dis- 
tinct, the  liquid  should  be  let  stand  a  few  minutes,  when  iodide  of 
starch  is  deposited. 

If  the  liquid  contains  only  one-millionth  or  under,  hyponitric  acid 
is  passed  through  it,  and  the  whole  is  then  well  shaken  with  a  small 
quantity  of  chloroform,  which  dissolves  the  liberated  iodine,  and  acquires 
its  characteristic  rose  colour.  Hyponitric  acid  not  being  capable  of  de- 
composing bromides,  the  smallest  trace  of  iodine  may  thus  be  separated 
from  waters  or  solutions  containing  bromides.  In  a  similar  manner, 
the  iodide  of  potassium  may  be  used  as  a  test  for  nitrites,  by  means  of  a 
solution  of  starch,  and  a  little  very  dilute  hydrochloric  acid.  In  exa- 
mining organic  substances,  or  liquids  coloured  with  organic  matter,  they 
must  first  be  reduced  to  ashes  in  contact  with  caustic  potassa,  and  the 
residue  lixiviated  with  a  little  water. 

Sulphate  of  Zinc  as  an  Antiseptic. — According  to  Falconet, 
animal  matter,  such  as  brain,  intestines,  and  other  parts  difficult  of  pre- 
servation, may  be  kept  without  any  alteration  in  a  solution  of  the  sul- 
phate of  zinc,  and  without  the  contraction  caused  by  alcohol. 


Animal  Phosphorescence. — Mr.  T.  J.  Herapath,  in  a  paper  read 
before  the  Chemical  Society,  combats  the  view  that  animal  phosphores- 
cence is  owing  to  the  slow  combustion  of  phosphorus.  Having  made 
experiments  with  glow-worms,  which  were  kept  in  glass  vessels  whilst 
emitting  light,  he  found  that  no  ozone  was  produced.  Hence  it  was 
concluded  that  the  phosphorescence  of  the  glow-worm  is  not  caused  by 
phosphorus.  The  author  ascribes  the  phenomena  in  question  to  carbon 
in  some  allotropic  condition,  not  as  yet  understood.  This  subject  is  the 
more  interesting  as  bearing  on  the  question  at  issue  between  Liebig  and 
Mulder,  as  to  whether  phosphorus  occurs  in  the  animal  frame  merely  as 
phosphoric  acid,  or  in  other  non-oxygenated  compounds,  such  as  phos- 
phamide.  If  it  can  be  shown  that  the  luminous  phenomena  occasionally 
witnessed  in  the  sweat  and  urine  of  living  animals,  and  in  the  putrescent 
flesh  of  such  as  are  dead,  are  not  due  to  phosphorus,  the  existence  of 
non-oxygenated  phosphorus  compounds  in  the  body  will  be  rendered 
highly  doubtful. 

Spontaneous  Decomposition  of  Gun  Cotton. — Dr.  Gladstone 
has  found  that  the  different  explosive  bodies  prepared  by  the  action  of 
nitric  acid  upon  woody  fibre,  starch,  sugar,  &c,  suffer,  in  course  of 
time,  either  entire  or  partial  decomposition. 

Test  for  Gums. — Arabine,  the  leading  constituent  of  gum-arabie 
and  Senegal,  is  soluble  in  cold  water,  whilst  cerasine,  which  preponderates 
in  cherry-gum  and  gum  tragacanth,  is  insoluble  therein.  The  former 
is  precipitated  from  its  solutions  as  a  yellowish,  gelatinous,  transparent 
mass,  by  persulphate  of  iron.  Thus  we  may  distinguish  arabine  from 
dextrine,  and  other  gum-like  vegetable  bodies,  upon  which  sulphate  of 
iron  has  no  effect.  The  presence  of  sugar  does  not  at  all  interfere  with 
the  test.  The  soluble  portion  of  gum  tragacanth  is,  indeed,  precipitated 
by  sulphate  of  iron,  but  it  gives,  with  tribasic  acetate  of  lead,  a  trans- 
parent gelatinous  precipitate,  whilst  that  produced  by  arabine  with  the 
same  re-agent  is  white,  flocculent,  opaque,  and  curdy. 
Formula  for  Marking  Ink. — No.  1 — 

Nitrate  of  silver  ..  ..      11  parts. 

Distilled  water     . .  . .      85     „ 

Powdered  gum  arabic  . .  20  „ 
Subcarbonate  of  soda  . .  22  „ 
Liquid  ammonia  . .  . .      20     „ 

Dissolve  the  soda  in  the  water,  put  the  gum  in  a  mortar,  and  add  by 
degrees  the  solution  of  soda,  rubbing  well  with  the  pestle.  Then  dis- 
solve the  silver  in  the  ammonia,  and  mix  the  solutions.  Heat  the  whole 
in  a  flask  till  it  reaches  the  boiling  point,  when  it  turns  a  deep  colour, 
and  sufficiently  liquid  to  flow  from  the  pen. 

No.  2. — Nitrate  of  silver        . .     5  parts. 

"Water 12     ., 

Gum   . .         . .         . .      5     „ 

Subcarbonate  of  soda        7     „ 
Ammonia        ..  . .    10     ,, 

Mix  as  above,  and  evaporate  in  a  flask  until  the  whole  has  acquired  a 
deep  brown  tint.  This  ink  forms  black  characters,  and  is  well  adapted 
for  stamping. 

No.  3. — Nitrate  of  silver       . .      17  parts. 
Water  ..  ..      85     „ 

Gum 20     „ 

Subcarbonate  of  soda      22     „ 
Ammonia      . .  . .      42     „ 

Sulphate  of  copper  . .  33  „ 
Dissolve  the  soda  in  25  parts  of  water,  and  the  silver  in  the  ammonia. 
Put  the  gum  in  a  mortar  with  the  remainder  of  the  water,  constantly 
stirring;  pour  in  the  solution  of  soda,  and  finally  put  the  whole  is  to 
the  solution  of  silver.  Lastly,  add  the  copper.  This  ink  has  a  blue  tint. 
In  using  it,  a  hot  iron  should  be  passed  over  the  characters  formed. 


1852] 


Messrs.  Easum and  Browns  Patent  Rope. 


33 


Ancient  Mural  Paintings. — According  to  the  researches  of 
MM.  Dumas  and  Persoz,  the  red  and  violet  colours  employed  in  these 
paintings  were  prepared  from  certain  common  sea-shells,  such  as  Tellina 
fragilis  and  Neretina  fiuviatilis. 

ANSWERS   TO  CORRESPONDENTS. 

*"  Q.  A.,  Walsall."  The  sample  you  forwarded  is  perfectly  pure.  The 
difficulty  you  find  in  disposing  of  it  arises  simply  from  the  unfortunate 
circumstance  that  many  parties,  unable  to  analyze  a  sample  themselves, 
and  unwilling  to  employ  a  professional  man,  prefer  to  be  guided  by 
certain  fallacious  outward  signs.  Thus  an  inferior  article  obtains  the 
preference,  and  the  honest  and  talented  manufacturer  is  too  often  driven 
out  of  the  market. 

"  Chernicaster."  Soaps  are  formed  by  the  combination  of  the  fatty 
acids  with  alkalies  (potash,  soda,  magnesia.)  Plasters  are  formed  by  the 
same  acids  with  heavy  metallic  oxides,  such  as  those  of  lead,  zinc,  &c. 

S. 

MESSES.  EASUM  AND  BROWN'S  PATENT  ROPE. 
Messrs.  Easum  and  Brown,  of  Commercial-road,  Stepney,  have 
recently  patented  an  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  rope,  which, 
if  it  answers  the  expectations  formed  of  it,  will  present  a  singular 
instance  of  the  upsetting  of  an  old  and  apparently  very  simple  system 
of  manufacture.  The  strength  acquired  by  a  filament  of  hemp,  after 
being  twisted,  is  apparent  to  the  most  casual  observer ;  but  Messrs. 
Easum  and  Brown  contend  that  we  have  been  in  the  habit  of  twisting 
too  rigidly.  On  their  system,  the  hemp  is  made  into  slivers,  and  in- 
stead of  twisting  them  into  yarns  and  then  uniting  them  to  form  a 
strand,  the  slivers  are  at  once  made  into  a  strand,  without  being  first 
made  into  yarns.  By  this  means,  the  fibre  lies  more  nearly  in  a  line 
with  the  length  of  the  rope,  which  is  found  to  be  stronger  than  rope 
made  in  the  ordinary  manner.  The  ropes  may  also  be  made  very 
flexible  in  this  manner,  so  as  to  be  admirably  adapted  for  cranes,  blocks, 
&c.  As  regards  durability,  of  course  it  is  rather  early  to  speak  as 
yet ;  but  Messrs.  Easum  and  Brown  have  had  one  driving  their  rope 
machinery  for  several  months,  and  it  appears  likely  to  wear  out  two 
ordinary  ropes  at  that  work,  which  is  a  very  severe  test.  The  1^  inch 
Manilla  rope,  or  point  line,  carried  25  cwt.,  and  broke  by  a  slight 
increase  of  weight.  The  Government  test  is  14J  cwt.,  and  they  pass 
any  rope  that  will  stand  that  weight.    See  the  following  table  : — 

Government  Test.         Easum  and  Brown's  rope  bore 
T.      C.    qrs.  lbs.  T.      C.    qrs.  lbs. 

4  in.  rope    ...     4      0     0     0  7    15     0     0 

3  „       „      ...     2      5     0     0  4      10     0 

2  „       „      ...     1      0     1     0  1     15     0    0 

1£„      „      ...     0    14     2     0  15     0     0 

The  ordinary  rope  is  probably  somewhat  stronger  than  the  Govern- 
ment test  to  insure  its  being  passed ;  and  Messrs.  Easum  and  Brown 
state  their  rope  to  be  from  30  to  60  per  cent,  stronger  than  rope  made 
of  the  same  materials  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

Parcels  of  it  are  now  out  on  trial  in  several  ships,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses. 

The  following  extract  from  the  specification  (drawn  by  C.  Cowper, 
Esq.,  C.E.,  of  Southampton-buildings,  Chancery-lane),  will  give  a 
correct  idea  of  the  process  of  rope-making  generally. 

Now  know  ye,  that  in  compliance  with  the  said  proviso,  I,  the  said  Robert 
Hayes  Easum,  do  hereby  declare  that  the  nature  of  my  invention,  and  the 
manner  in  which  the  same  is  to  be  performed,  are  particularly  described  and 
ascertained  in  and  by  the  following  statement  thereof;  reference  being  had  to 
the  drawings  hereunto  annexed,  and  to  the  figures  and  letters  marked  therein, 
that  is  to  say  : — 

And  in  order  more  fully  to  explain  the  nature  of  my  invention,  and  in  what 
respects  the  same  differs  from  the  ordinary  modes  of  making  rope,  I  will 
first  proceed  to  describe  some  of  the  ordinary  modes  now  employed  for  that 
purpose. 


In  one  of  these  modes,  the  workman  takes  up  a  quantity  of  hemp,  and 
places  it  round  his  body.  He  pulls  out  a  portion,  and  attaches  it  to  a  hook  at 
the  end  of  a  spindle,  which  is  caused  to  revolve  by  strap,  or  wheehvork,  or 
otherwise.  The  workman  then  walks  backwards,  away  from  the  spindle,  and 
at  the  same  time  he  feeds  out  the  hemp  with  his  hands,  in  as  regular  a  manner 
as  possible,  from  the  mass  which  he  carries  with  him.  He  thus  proceeds  down 
the  rope-walk,  until  he  has  obtained  a  "  yarn"  of  sufficient  length.  A  num- 
ber of  "  yarns"  thus  made,  are  laid  together,  and  twisted  into  a  "  strand,"  or 
"  ready."  For  this  purpose,  the  "  yarns,"  are  passed  through  separate  holes  in 
a  perforated  plate,  and  unite  and  then  pass  through  a  tube,  or  a  cylindrical  hole 
in  a  block  of  metal,  and  are  then  attached  to  a  hook  on  a  revolving  spindle, 
mounted  on  a  carriage,  which  is  made  to  travel  down  the  rope-walk  by  means 
of  machinery.  By  this  means  the  yarns,  which  have  been  each  separately 
twisted,  as  above  mentioned,  are  twisted  together  to  form  the  "strand,"  or 
"  ready."  Three  or  more  of  these  "  strands,"  or  "  readies,"  are  then  twisted  to- 
gether to  form  a  "  rope,"  and  three  or  more  "  ropes"  may  be  twisted  together  to 
form  a  "  cable."  The  different  stages  may  therefore  be  expressed  as  the  hemp, 
the  yarn,  the  strand  or  ready,  the  rope,  and  the  cable.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  hemp,  in  this  process,  is  formed  into  a  "  yarn"  directly. 

By  another  process  or  mode  of  manufacture,  also  in  use  heretofore,  another 
stage  is  introduced  before  the  conversion  of  the  hemp  into  yarn,  by  means  of 
which  the  process  of  hand-spinning  above-mentioned  is  avoided,  and  the 
operations  of  converting  the  hemp  into  yarn  are  performed  by  machinery. 
In  this  process,  the  hemp  is  laid  by  hand  upon  a  table,  from  which  it  is  con- 
veyed by  a  pair  of  rollers  into  a  machine  consisting  of  an  endless  web  or 
chain  of  spikes,  over  which  the  hemp  passes,  and  is  conveyed  by  another  pair 
of  rollers  into  a  cylindrical  can.  These  last  rollers  move  at  a  greater  velocity 
than  the  endless  chain  of  spikes,  and  the  hemp  is  thus  drawn  out  into  the 
form  of  a  long  narrow  band  or  "  sliver,"  which  is  loosely  coiled  up  in  the 
can.  Several  slivers  thus  made,  are  passed  together  through  a  second  similar 
machine,  and  this  operation  is  repeated  until  the  irregularities  of  the  sliver 
are  sufficiently  equalized.  By  this  means  is  obtained  a  long  narrow  sliver  or 
band,  consisting  of  parallel  fibres  of  hemp,  lying  side  by  side,  without  twist. 
To  convert  the  "  sliver"  into  "  yarn,"  a  cylindrical  can,  full  of  sliver,  is  placed 
in  a  vertical  position  in  a  machine  where  it  is  caused  to  revolve  with  immense 
rapidity  on  its  axis,  while  at  the  same  time  the  sliver  is  drawn  gradually  out 
of  the  can,  through  a  tube  revolving  at  the  same  speed  as  the  can.  By  this 
means  the  "sliver"  is  twisted  into  a  "yarn,"  which  is  wound  up  upon  a  reel. 
The  "yarns"  thus  made,  are  twisted  into  "strands,"  or  "readies,"  and  the 
strands  into  ropes,  and  the  ropes  into  cables,  in  the  manner  above-mentioned. 
In  both  these  processes,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  rope  or  cable  consists  of 
an  assemblage  of  small  twisted  yarns,  each  of  which  has  been  separately 
twisted  ;  and  such  yarns  frequently  have  twelve  twists  or  turns  in  a  length 
of  one  foot. 

Now,  in  making  rope  according  to  my  invention,  I  first  convert  the  hemp 
into  "  slivers,"  as  above  mentioned,  and  I  then  twist  a  number  of  these 
slivers  together  to  form  a  "  strand  "  or  "  ready,"  without  first  twisting  each 
sliver  separately  as  in  the  old  method  above  mentioned.  The  strands  or 
readies  thus  made  are  laid  together  to  form  ropes,  and  the  ropes  may  be  laid 
together  to  form  cables  if  desired.  The  fibres  of  the  hemp  are  thus  laid 
more  nearly  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  rope,  than  is  the  case  in. 
ropes  made  in  the  ordinary  manner,  and  I  have  found  that  ropes  thus  made 
according  to  my  invention,  possess  greater  strength  than  ropes  of  equal 
weight  made  in  the  ordinary  modes.  They  also  admit  of  being  made  very 
flexible. 

In  lieu  of  using  the  slivers  entirely  without  twist,  they  may  be  slightly 
twisted,  but  in  no  case  is  such  amount  of  twist  to  exceed  four  turns  in  a 
length  of  one  foot.  At  the  same  time  I  would  remark  that  I  prefer  to 
employ  the  slivers  entirely  without  twist  as  above  described. 

PROGRESS  OF  AMERICAN  INVENTION. 

Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  United  States.    Part  1,  Arts 
and  Manufactures.  Part  2,  Agriculture.  1850-1.  Washington,  U.S. 
After  the  bungling  attempt  at  legislation  on  the  patent  laws  per- 
petrated last  session,  and  with  the  prospect  of  the  ensuing  session  being 


34 


Progress  of  American  Invention. 


[February, 


devoted  to  party  warfare,  to  the  exclusion  of  any  useful  reform,  we 
are  afraid  to  venture  any  hope  on  the  possibility  of  an  English  Com- 
missioner of  Patents  ever  having  it  in  his  power  to  return  the  compli- 
ment which  Mr.  Ewbank  has  paid  us,  by  forwarding  us  copies  of  his 
reports  made  to  the  House  of  Representatives.  They  contain  a  vast 
amount  of  valuable  information ;  and  the  public  money  would  be  well 
applied,  if  a  small  portion  of  the  sums  spent  in  building  ships  and 
pulling  them  to  pieces  were  expended  in  reprinting  these  volumes, 
and  presenting  a  copy  to  every  Mechanics'  Institute  in  the  kingdom. 
With  the  patents  we  have  already  attempted  to  deal,  by  selecting  the 
most  intelligible  of  the  "  claims  "  as  they  appear  periodically  in  the 
Franklin  'Journal.  And  here  we  may  take  occasion  to  remark  on  the 
loss  which  the  scientific  of  Europe  sustain  from  the  incompleteness  of  the 
method  adopted  in  reporting  the  patent  specifications ;  merely  the  claims 
are  given,  and  the  small  number  we  are  able  to  extract  with  any  hope 
of  their  being  understood,  shows  the  evil  which  arises  from  such  a 
Procrustean  system.  As  it  is,  we  feel  sure  that  most  of  our  readers 
get  a  very  inadequate  notion  of  even  those  which  we  do  select ;  and 
although  we,  as  Englishmen,  have  least  right  to  complain,  we  trust 
that  our  friendly  remonstrance  may  be  seconded  by  some  of  our  readers, 
of  whom  we  have  not  a  few,  in  the  States.  If  they  are  to  be  published 
at  all,  no  useful  end  is  to  be  attained  by  doing  it  imperfectly.  Indeed 
we  see  no  reason  why  illustrations  should  not  be  given  of  a  portion,  at 
least,  of  the  inventions,  and  such  a  task  could  be  performed  more  satis- 
factorily by  the  official  examiners  than  by  the  irregular  efforts  of  an 
irresponsible  journalist. 

In  addition  to  the  patents  and  designs  of  which  analytical  indexes 
are  given,  there  are  the  statistics,  from  which  we  learn  that  the  number 
of  patents  lying  unexamined  in  January,  1850,  were  nine,  which  added 
to  the  total  applications  during  the  year,  amounted  to  2,202.  Of  this 
number,  995  were  granted,  169  remained  unexamined,  and  1,038  re- 
mained suspended,  or  entirely  rejected.  The  amount  of  money 
received  during  1850  was  ^86,927.05,  and  the  expenses  4^80,100.95, 
leaving  a  balance  in  favour  of  the  office  of  =8*6,826.10. 

It  is  curious  to  remark  the  subjects  upon  which  American  inven- 
tive genius  delights  to  dwell;  of  the  883  patents  here  specified,  48 
are  for  stoves  and  cooking  ranges;  29  for  mortising  machines  and 
saw  mills  (seeming  thereby  to  justify  Sam  Slick's  reflection  on  those 
who  "strain  at  a  gate  and  swallow  a  saw  mill").  Steam  engines 
and  boilers  are  the  next  favourites,  standing  30  on  the  list.  The 
machinery  connected  with  textile  fabrics  is  scarcely  susceptible  of 
analysation,  it  numbers  about  51.  There  are  21  for  seed  planters, 
15  for  churns,  and  12  for  ploughs.  The  rest  include  every  variety 
and  shade  of  invention,  from  "alloys  for  the  points  of  lightning 
rods "  to  "  submarine  telescopes,"  and  a  "  kettle  for  manufacturing 
comfits."  We  must  take  the  opportunity  of  analysing  those  which 
have  escaped  our  notice. 

One  is  for  applying  vulcanised  India  rubber,  or  other  similar  elastic 
mateiial,  interposed  in  the  joints  of  connecting  rods,  and  similar  appli- 
ances for  converting  rectilineal  into  circular  motion,  in  order  to  diminish 
concussion.  Another  is  curious,  but  its  utility  seems  very  doubtful. 
We  give  it  in  the  inventor's  words, — "  What  I  claim  as  my  invention 
is,  the  running  the  exhaust  pipe  into  the  main  steam  pipe,  curving  it, 
and  providing  it  with  an  aperture  and  valve,  by  which  the  current  of 
steam  from  the  boiler  has  a  tendency  to  open  the  valve  at  intervals, 
and  draw  into  the  steam  pipe  a  portion  of  the  exhaust  steam."  In  one 
of  our  early  numbers  will  be  found  an  instance  of  the  power  of  a 
current  of  steam,  shown  in  the  collapsing  of  an  exhaust  pipe  of  a  steam 
engine,  the  air  being  so  completely  expelled  by  the  jet  of  steam,  that 
the  effect  of  the  external  pressure  of  the  air  was  unresisted.  We  hope 
that  we  are  not  hinting  at  an  object  too  undignified,  but  we  can  con- 
scientiously recommend  "  Mr.  Eliphalet  S.  Scripture  "  to  exhibit  his 


invention  at  the  next  "  World's  Pair  "  (at  Greenwich),  where  it  could 
not  fail  to  prove  a  good  speculation.  We  must  quote  verbatim 
his  claim  for  an  "  improvement  in  flying  horses,"  for  fear  we  should 
do  the  inventor  any  injustice, — "  What  I  claim  is,  the  combination  and 
arrangement  of  the  undulating  cams  with  the  levers,  and  these  with 
the  flexible  connections  to  the  front  part  of  the  horses,  for  the  pur- 
pose of,  and  by  which  I  produce  the  rising  and  falling  motion,  which 
I  term  the  galloping  motion,  as  hereinbefore  described  and  repre- 
sented." 

Another  scheme  of  a  more  utilitarian  character  is,  that  of  Mr.  DuflE 
Green,  who  proposes  to  form  embankments,  or  "  levees,"  as  they  are 
termed,  by  constructing  "filtering  dams,"  and  turning  into  these 
dams  a  stream  of  water  from  a  higher  level,  which,  in  its  course,  will 
bring  with  it  the  soil  which  it  detaches  from  its  bed,  or  which  may 
be  designedly  thrown  into  it,  and  which  will  be  deposited  in  a  con- 
crete mass  inside  the  dam,  whilst  the  water  filters  off  through  the  in- 
terstices. 

Another  inventor  proposes  to  employ  large  washers,  under  the 
heads  of  carpet  tacks,  for  the  purpose,  we  presume,  of  fastening 
down  the  carpet  more  uniformly,  and  preventing  the  head  cutting 
through.  A  simpler  plan  would  appear  to  be,  to  make  a  large  head 
to  the  tack  at  once,  but  this  might  not  suit  the  tack-making  machine 
so  well. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  eagerness  with  which  any  plan  for  dis- 
pensing with  manual  labour  is  taken  up.  Thus,  in  this  country 
where  labour  is  a  drug,  we  set  paupers  to  mend  the  roads,  in  sheer 
despair  of  finding  them  anything  better  to  do.  On  the  other  side  of 
the  Atlantic  (the  "  ferry  toll"  is  only  five  pounds),  Mr.  N.  Potters  in- 
vents a  "  machine  for  repairing  roads,"  and  says  "  what  I  claim  is, 
hanging  the  cutters  for  cutting  off  the  ridges  a;  the  sides  of  the  ruts, 
the  scrapers  for  scraping  the  dirt  into  the  ruts,  and  the  roller  for 
pressing  and  smoothing  the  road,  upon  the  same  frame." 

We  observe  some  "  notions,"  hitl  erto  uncultivated  by  any  of  our 
inventors,  having  for  their  object  the  safety  and  removal  of  articles 
from  shops,  in  case  of  fire.  The  counters  are  made  thief-proof,  and 
are  also  arranged  so  that  they  can  be  wheeled  out  of  suitable  openings, 
in  case  of  the  shop  takiDg  fire.  Mr.  Porter,  in  his  "  Statistics  of 
Self-imposed  Taxation,"  forgot  to  tell  us  how  much  we  annually  pay 
the  Insurance  Offices  for  the  privilege  of  playing  at  the  game  of 
squirting  water  over  our  houses,  when  they  take  fire.  We  hope  that 
the  next  generation  will  see  this  expensive  farce  abolished. 

A  "  composition  for  covering  hams "  is  thus  described  by  Horace 
Billings:  "What  I  claim  is,  the  formation  of  a  preserving  composition 
for  coating  meats,  fruits,  vegetables,  &c,  by  the  union  of  resin,  shellac, 
and  linseed-oil. 

The  following  is  graphic, — "  What  we  claim  as  our  invention  is, 
the  method  of  hanging  a  mill  saw  from  guides  hi  advance  of  its  front 
edge,  which  sustains  the  whole  pressure  caused  by  the  advancement 
of  the  wood  on  the  carriage  against  the  saw  teeth,  the  plate  of  the  saw 
swinging  on  the  advanced  guide?,  as  pivots,  so  that  when  cutting  it  is 
kept  running  in  a  plane,  passing  through  the  guides,  in  the  direction 
in  which  the  carriage  moves,  as  a  vane  is  kept  by  the  wind  in  the 
direction  in  which  it  blows." 

We  are  indebted  to  America  for  various  plans  for  coupling  pipes, 
none  of  which,  as  far  as  we  are  aware,  have  found  much  favour  in  this 
country.  The  principle  on  which  some  of  them  act,  is  expressed  in 
the  following  claim, — "I  claim  the  fastening  together  the  abutting 
ends  of  two  pipes,  by  forcing  a  sleeve  (socket)  of  some  hard  substance 
over  a  belt  of  a  softer  substance,  which  envelopes  the  seam,  and  is  thus 
compressed  between  the  sleeve  and  the  pipes." 

The  use  of  wood  as  fuel  in  locomotives  is  attended  with  some  incon- 
veniences, from  the  torrent  of  ignited  particles  which  issue  from  the 


1852.] 


Progress  of  American  Invention. 


35 


chimney  when  the  fire  is  stirred,  and  which  find  their  way  in  at  the 
open  windows  of  the  carriages.  This  is  proposed  to  be  obviated  by 
Messrs.  Bradford  and  Morris,  by  carrying  an  air-pipe,  projecting  be- 
yond the  chimney,  over  or  under  the  carriages,  through  which  a  sup- 
ply of  air  is  forced  by  the  motion  of  the  train  and  supplied  to  the 
carriages.  If  an  outward  current  of  air  can  thus  be  effected  at  the 
windows,  it  is  probable  that  the  entrance  of  sparks,  smoke,  and  dust 
can  be  prevented. 

A  cheap  method  of  forging  hollow  wrought-iron  shafts  is  a  desider- 
atum in  mechanics.  It  would  give  us  increased  rigidity,  with  dimin- 
ished weight.  Mr.  Charles  Fisher  proposes  to  do  this  by  connecting 
together  (how,  the  claim  does  not  inform  us  unfortunately)  short 
cylinders  of  plate  iron,  the  reduction  of  the  length,  of  course,  facilita- 
ting the  welding  of  them. 

We  are  not  very  clear  about  an  alleged  improvement  in  the  manu- 
facture of  gun  barrels  out  of  two  bars,  rolled  into  a  semi-cylindrical 
form,  thus  necessitating  two  welds  the  whole  length  of  the  barrel. 

Lead  pipe  is  now  made  by  pressure  (treating  it  as  if  it  were  clay), 
and  we  find  claimed,  "A  method  of  setting  or  cooling  the  inside  of  the 
mass  of  metal  within  and  throughout  the  length  of  the  cylinder,  and 
before,  or  preparatory  to  pressing  out  the  pipe,  by  passing  a  cooling 
fluid  into  or  through  a  long  core  or  coreholder,  extending  through 
the  length  of  the  cylinder,  the  said  method  having  the  effect  at  the 
same  time,  to  keep  the  said  core  or  coreholder  cool  and  stiff." 

We  find  a  claim  for  the  use  of  lime  in  the  preparation  of  gutta 
percha,  in  order  to  neutralize  the  acids  which  it  contains  in  its  natural 
state.  It  is  also  stated  to  preserve  it  "wholly  or  in  part"  (a  useful 
form  of  saving  clause,  worth  noting)  from  deterioration  from  the 
atmosphere  or  heat.  A  still  more  extraordinary  idea  seems  to  be  "the 
application  of  an  acidulous  composition  to  wheat,"  the  composition 
being  chiefly  vinegar,  or  vinegar  and  sulphuric  acid,  for  what  purpose 
"  deponent  sayeth  not." 

Among  the  improvements  in  tools,  are  a  method  of  fixing  handles  in 
augers,  "  by  means  of  a  tube  attached  to  the  inner  half  of  one  part, 
and  an  eccentric  attached  to  the  inner  half  of  the  other  part  of  the 
handle,  the  eccentric  part  passing  into  the  tube,  and  the  eccentric 
fitting  into  the  dovetailed  grooved  slot  of  the  shank."  Another  plan  is, 
making  the  handle  in  halves,  one  piece  screwing  into  the  other,  and  the 
eye  of  the  auger  being  clipped  between  the  two  shoulders.  Also,  a 
method  of  constructing  spring  callipers,  by  placing  a  circular  spring  in 
the  joint,  as  common  snuffers  springs  are  made.  An  improved  hay  fork 
is  described,  each  tine  of  which  is  fixed  in  a  socket  so  that  one  or 
either  can  be  replaced,  as  they  become  worn  or  injured.  In  another 
fork,  the  position  of  the  tines  can  be  varied,  so  as  to  make  it  a  two,  or 
three-tined  fork,  at  pleasure. 

M.  Soyer  may  take  a  hint  from  Mr.  T.  G.  Stagg,  who  proposes  to 
' "  masticate "  his  steaks  before  cooking,  by  passing  them  between 
toothed  rollers,  to  render  them  more  tender,  we  presume. 

The  effect  of  corrugating  metal  is  well  known ;  we  believe  that  the 
credit  of  suggesting  the  use  of  corrugated  iron  for  boiler  furnaces  is 
due  to  Mr.  R.  Montgomery. 

A  new  process  for  hardening  fats  and  oils,  without  separating  the 
stearine  from  the  oleine,  is  described  by  Mr.  C.  W.  Schindler;  it 
consists  in  the  addition  of  cera  japonica  and  gum  elemi,  which  raises 
the  point  of  fusion  to  135  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Mr.  Warner  claims  a 
new  method  of  fastening  hooks  and  eyes  on  paper,  the  points  of  the 
hooks  being  upon  one  side  of  the  paper,  whilst  the  eyes  are  upon  the 
other,  whereby  the  latter  are  prevented  from  falling  off. 

A  method  of  elevating  and  cooling  flour  at  the  same  operation, 
by  means  of  a  blast,  is  described.  This  resembles  Adcock's  spray 
pump,  in  which  the  water  was  to  be  "  rained  upwards." 


The  following  are  extracts  from  the  "  Summings-up"  of  the  Ex- 
aminers in  the  various  branches  of  the  Arts : — 

Under  class  8,  there  have  been  some  very  interesting  improvements,  espe- 
cially in  the  matter  of  telegraphs.  Letters  patent  have  been  granted  for  a 
thermal  telegraph,  the  principal  feature  of  which  is  the  use  of  a  platinum 
wire,  heated  by  the  current,  for  burning  marks  upon  a  fillet  of  paper.  The 
platinum  wire  is  bent  to  an  acute  angle,  which  touches  with  its  apex  slightly 
upon  the  travelling  fillet  of  paper.  Each  time  the  current  passes  in  the  wire, 
the  heat  generated  makes  a  mark  upon  the  paper.  A  new  species  of  electro- 
chemical telegraph  has  been  patented,  in  which  marks  are  made  upon  a  me- 
tallic plate,  instead  of  paper.  A  small  glass  tube,  holding  some  acidulated 
solution,  rests  upon  a  large  metallic  disk,  and  as  the  disk  revolves,  the  point 
of  the  tube,  which  is  slightly  perforated,  traverses  a  spiral  line  in  which  the 
marks  or  impressions  conveying  the  intelligence  are  to  be  made.  A  platinum 
wire  is  inserted  in  a  glass  tube,  and  whenever  the  galvanic  circuit  is  com- 
pleted through  the  platinum  wire,  acid,  and  plate,  a  black  mark  is  made  upon 
the  plate,  which  is  of  brass.  These  marks  are  strong  and  well-defined,  and 
after  the  communication  is  read  off,  they  are  easily  effaced  from  the  brass 
disk.  The  perforation  in  the  point  of  the  tube  is  sufficiently  small  to  prevent 
the  acidulated  water  from  running  out,  though  sufficient  escapes  for  electro- 
lytic action. 

Electro-magnetic  Enunciator. — An  invention  with  this  title  has  been  pa- 
tented, as  a  substitute  for  the  usual  bell-ringing  apparatus  in  hotels  and  other 
places.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  species  of  electro-magnetic  indicating  telegraph,  and 
ingenious  in  its  construction  and  mode  of  operation. 

Electro-magnetic  Repeater. — This  invention,  but  recently  patented,  is  one 
of  considerable  novelty  and  beauty,  and  is  designed  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
peating or  recording  a  communication  in  several  places  at  once,  along  a 
line  of  electro-magnetic  telegraph,  and  at  the  same  time  allowing  the  galvanic 
circuit  to  remain  open  when  the  line  is  not  in  use,  which  is  an  important 
condition  to  be  preserved.  Another  instrument,  for  a  similar  purpose,  was 
patented  about  the  same  time  ;  the  operation  of  which  requires  the  circuit  to 
be  kept  closed. 

Telegraph  Manipulator. — A  very  ingenious,  though  complicated  machine, 
for  communicating  signals  in  telegraphs  where  they  are  recorded  in  dots  and 
lines.  Ordinarily  these  are  made  by  striking  a  lever  or  key  with  the  finger, 
but  by  this  instrument,  any  combination  of  dots  and  lines  representing  a 
letter,  is  at  once  made  and  recorded,  by  simply  depressing  a  key  having  the 
desired  letter  marked  upon  it.  It  requires  but  one  motion  of  the  finger,  in- 
stead of  the  great  number  required  for  some  of  the  letters  in  the  ordinary 
way.  If  the  machinery  is  made  accurate,  it  will  prevent  many  mistakes  from 
being  made  by  telegraphic  operators. 

Electro-magnetic  Engines. — Two  engines  of  this  class  have  been  patented  ; 
one  of  them  having  for  its  principal  feature  the  employment  of  the  secondary 
current  produced  by  one  magnet  to  charge  an  auxiliary  magnet.  The  feature 
patented  in  the  other  engine  is  a  novelty  in  the  cut-off.  The  cut-off  is  the 
contrivance  by  which  the  galvanic  current  is  conveyed  to,  and  intercepted 
from  the  electro-magnets,  and  is  usually  made  to  operate  by  the  pressure  of 
conducting  metallic  springs  upon  metallic  disks  ;  either  the  springs  or  disks 
being  made  to  revolve,  according  to  circumstances.  In  the  present  case,  re- 
volving metallic  points  are  brought  successively  into  contact  with  the  surface 
of  a  metallic  roller,  which  is  pressed  against  the  points  by  means  of  a  spring. 

Fine  Akts. — Daguerreotype  Plate -holder.- — It  has  long  been  an  object  to  ob- 
tain some  means  for  holding  daguerreotype  plates  in  such  a  manner  while 
cleaning  and  polishing  them,  that  the  plates  should  not  be  handled,  and  that 
they  should  present  smooth  edges  to  the  buff  stick  or  polishing  wheel,  and  at 
the  same  time  that  the  plates,  when  cleaned  and  polished,  could  be  readily 
removed  from  the  plate-holder.  Various  kinds  of  clamps  have  been  tried, 
and  the  plates  have  been  cemented  to  blocks,  &c,  but  no  plan  seems  to  have 
combined  the  advantages  possessed  by  the  one  before  us.  The  edges  of  the 
plate  are  turned  down  to  a  right  angle  or  more,  by  means  of  a  burnisher  or 
other  tool  specially  designed,  and  the  block  upon  which  the  plate  is  secured, 
is  an  expansible  block,  the  edges  of  which  press  against  the  turned  edges  of 
the  plate,  and  thus  hold  it  in  place.  The  expansion  of  the  block  is  to  be 
produced  by  springs,  wedges,  screws,  cams,  or  other  means. 

Electrotyping. — An  ingenious  device  in  this  art  has  been  patented  for  pre- 


36 


Progress  of  American  Invention. 


[February, 


venting  the  electrotype  cast  from  adhering  to  the  original  plate.  Many  ways 
have  been  tried  to  obviate  this  difficulty,  but  the  present  is  a  decided  im- 
provement upon  them.  It  consists  in  acting  chemically  upon  the  surface  of 
the  copper  plate,  to  so  slight  an  extent  as  not  to  injure  the  impression,  nor 
interfere  with  the  electric  deposit.  The  inventor  prefers,  in  his  operations, 
to  iodize  slightly  the  surface  of  the  plate,  and  then  to  submit  it  for  some  time 
to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

Mills. — About  twenty-four  patents  have  been  granted  during  the  past 
year  for  improvements  belonging  to  this  class,  thirteen  of  which  are  for  im- 
provements in  mills  for  grinding  and  crushing.  So  much  has  heretofore 
been  done  in  this  class,  coming  home  as  it  does  to  the  wants  of  man,  even  in 
a  barbarous  state,  and  having  exercised  the  genius  of  the  inventor  from  the 
earliest  ages  to  the  present  time,  that  little  of  a  radical  character  can  be  ex- 
pected ;  and  accordingly,  the  improvements  patented  during  the  past  year 
consist  of  slight  modifications  of  what  was  previously  known.  One  of  these 
patents  is  for  a  mode  of  steaming  grain  as  it  passes  from  the  hopper  to  the 
stones,  for  the  purpose  of  softening  the  outer  coating  of  the  grain  to  prevent 
its  being  ground  so  fine  as  to  mingle  with  the  flour  in  such  a  manner  as  not 
to  be  separated  from  it  by  the  bolt.  The  idea  of  steaming  preparatory  to 
grinding  is  not  new,  but  the  patent  was  granted  for  the  inventor's  convenient 
mode  of  applying  the  steam.  Another  of  these  mills  consists  of  two  or  more 
hollow  cylinders  or  rollers,  the  smaller  being  placed  within  the  larger,  and 
being  free  to  revolve,  so  that  when  the  outer  cylinder  revolves,  the  inner  one 
will  also  revolve  by  its  weight,  and  crush  whatever  substance  may  be  placed 
in  the  outer  cylinder.  Up  to  this  point  the  mill  is  old,  but  in  addition,  it  com- 
prehends an  arrangement  by  which  the  inner  cylinder,  in  addition  to  its  weight 
in  rolling,  is  caused  to  give  a  series  of  blows  to  the  mass,  for  the  purpose  of 
breaking  the  more  refractory  parts,  and  freeing  others  from  their  adhesion  to 
the  sides  of  the  mill.  Another  pulverizes  sugar  or  other  materials,  in  a 
series  of  mortars  in  which  the  beaters  work  in  succession,  while  the  range  of 
mortars  revolves  in  such  a  manner  as  to  bring  them  to  the  feeding-point,  and 
to  the  discharge  aperture,  as  the  material  in  each  becomes  sufficiently  pul- 
verized. In  another  of  the  mills,  a  very  firm  elastic  substance  is  placed 
in  the  spindle,  under  the  cock -head,  to  prevent  abrasion,  and  to  relieve 
concussions.  In  another  of  the  mills,  the  crushing  is  effected  by  a  series  of 
rollers,  between  which  the  grain  passes  without  being  rubbed,  and  the 
crushed  particles  then  fall  upon  a  toothed  roller  working  in  a  concave,  when 
they  are  opened  and  afterwards  the  flour  is  separated  from  the  bran.  Several 
other  patents  for  improvements  in  grinding  have  been  granted,  but  it  is  not 
deemed  necessary  to  give  further  details.  Several  patents  have  also  been 
granted  for  improvements  in  bolting  and  dusting  bran,  which  will  not  be 
described,  but  will  be  understood  by  a  peruser  of  the  claims. 

Horse  Powers. — But  one  j>atent  has  been  granted  within  the  past  year  for 
improvements  in  horse  powers.  The  subject  seems  to  be  nearly  exhausted, 
and  until  some  new  track  is  discovered,  very  few  patents  can  be  expected  in 
this  plethoric  branch  of  machinery.  The  patent  above  mentioned  is  for  an 
improvement  by  which  the  master  wheel  is  held  in  position,  or  allowed  to 
cant  over,  for  admitting  the  horse. 

Letters  patent  have  been  granted  for  an  improvement  in  the  friction  clutch, 
adapted  to  various  resistances.  It  is  so  arranged  that,  as  the  pulley  revolves 
upon  the  shaft,  the  friction  of  the  clutch  will  constantly  increase,  until  it  be- 
comes sufficient  to  cany  the  shaft,  at  which  point  the  pressure  becomes  con- 
stant; but  if  the  shaft  becomes  loaded  in  such  a  manner  that  the  friction  is 
insufficient  to  carry  it,  the  friction  will  immediately  ke  increased  to  the  re- 
quisite degree  by  the  action  of  the  machinery.  The  device  appears  to  pos- 
sess much  merit. 

Metallukgy. — In  this  large  and  important  class,  about  ninety  patents 
have  been  granted,  which  are  divided  among  the  various  sub-divisions  of 
this  class,  much  in  the  same  ratio  that  they  were  during  the  preceding  year, 
with  the  exception  of  those  which  have  for  their  object  the  separation  of  the 
precious  metals  from  the  impurities  with  which  they  are  found  mechanically 
mixed.  These  ore  washers,  or  gold  separaters,  are  not  so  numerous  in  pro- 
portion, as  during  the  year  1849.  The  field  of  invention  has  been,  to  a 
great  extent,  covered  by  the  machines  of  the  previous  year,  and  there  is  more 
difficulty  in  discovering  novelties,  either  in  the  application  of  principles,  or 
in  the  adaptation  of  mechanical  devices  for  bringing  such  principles  into 
more  successful  action.      Moreover,  the  market  is  filled  with  the  machinery 


already  manufactured,  the  demand  and  the  profit  are  both  more  limited? 
and  there  is  less  inducement  for  the  inventor  to  rack  his  brains,  and  concen- 
trate his  abilities  for  the  improvement  of  this  class  of  machines. 

But  five  patents  have  been  granted  for  snch  machines,  and  only  two  of 
these  differ  in  any  great  degree,  from  those  previously  existing.  In  one  of 
these  the  finely  pulverized  ore  and  water  is  introduced  into  a  revolving  basin, 
the  cavity  of  which  is  deepest  near  the  edges.  From  the  bottom  of  the 
deepest  part  of  the  basin,  and  attached  to  it,  descend  tubes  largest  in  their 
bore  at  the  upper  ends.  As  the  basin  revolves,  the  lower  ends  of  these  tubes, 
which  are  all  on  the  same  level,  pass  in  succession  over  the  surface  of 
mercury  contained  in  a  ring  shaped  trough;  their  length  being  sufficient 
to  give  the  stream  of  ore  and  water  passing  through  them  such  an  impetus 
as  will  drive  it  to  the  bottom  of  this  trough.  The  water  and  the  impurities 
rise,  by  virtue  of  their  greater  levity,  to  the  surface  of  the  quicksilver,  and 
run  to  waste  over  the  sides  of  the  trough.  A  portion  of  the  gold  is 
amalgamated  and  retained  by  the  mercury,  other  portions  of  it  rise  to  the 
surface,  but  as  they  rise  are  met,  and  again  forced  under  by  the  stream  of 
fluid,  proceeding  from  the  next  succeeding  tube.  The  gold  is  thus  immersed 
and  re-immersed  continually,  until  it  is  kept  so  Jong  in  contact  with  the  mer- 
cury, as  to  be  amalgamated  and  retained. 

The  machine  is  said  to  save  nearly  all  the  precious  metal,  and  to  be  work- 
ing to  advantage  on  the  Virginia  ores,  which  yield  but  a  small  per  centage 
of  gold.  In  the  other  machine  referred  to,  a  species  of  oscillating  and  shock- 
ing motion  in  two  directions,  in  planes  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  is  com- 
municated to  the  same  pan.  It  is  not  known  that  this  machine  has  come 
into  use,  but  its  peculiarities  appear  to  be  such  as  would  render  its  action 
successful  upon  ores  in  which  the  gold  is  found  in  large  particles. 

A  process  for  making  steel  from  cast-iron  has  been  patented,  the  novelty 
in  which  consists  in  decarbonizing  cast  iron,  in  the  shape  of  thin  plates,  and 
piled  in  layers,  with  strata  of  pulverized  oxide  of  iron.  The  materials  thus 
arranged,  are  exposed  to  the  action  of  heat  for  several  days,  in  an  oven,  such 
as  is  employed  for  making  blistered  steel,  care  being  taken  not  to  raise  the 
heat  sufficiently  high  to  melt  the  mixed  mass.  Samples  are  from  time  to 
time  withdrawn,  to  ascertain  the  degree  to  which  decarbonization  has  pro- 
ceeded. When  the  operator  judges  that  the  proper  extent  has  been  reached, 
the  thin  plates  are  withdrawn  and  treated  in  a  crucible,  much  in  the  same 
manner  as  blistered  steel  is,  when  converting  it  into  cast  steeL  Good  steel  is 
produced  by  this  process,  and  works  for  carrying  it  on  are  now  in  successful 
operation. 

A  patent  has  been  granted  for  improvements  in  well  known  processes  for 
obtaining  wrought  iron  directly  from  the  ore;  the  novelty  consisting  in  ar- 
ranging the  deoxydizing  chamber,  which  is  heated  by  the  waste  heat,  in  such 
a  manner  that  its  contents  shall  not  be  exposed  directly  to  the  flame;  while 
at  the  same  time  they  can  be  permitted,  at  pleasure,  to  descend  upon  the 
working  bottom  below,  without  being  exposed  to  a  current  of  unburnt  at- 
mospheric air. 

Patents  have  been  granted  for  several  tuyers,  and  for  an  improved  arrange- 
ment of  a  steam  boiler,  in  connection  with  a  cupola  furnace. 

A  patent  has  been  granted  for  an  improvement  in  steam  hammers,  the 
novelty  consisting  in  attaching  the  hammer  to  the  cylinder,  instead  of  to 
the  piston  rod.  The  piston  stands  at  rest,  while  the  cylinder  rises  and 
falls ;  the  advantages  of  the  arrangement  are  obvious,  and  the  inventor 
proved  that  his  discovery  was  prior  to  an  English  publication  of  the  same 
apparatus. 

A  patent  has  been  granted  for  certain  very  ingenious  improvements  in  the 
blacksmith's  striker,  which  is  worked  by  the  foot  of  the  smith.  An  intelligent 
description  of  them,  without  a  drawing,  would  be  difficult. 

Two  patents  have  been  granted  for  devices  for  giving  a  rotary  motion  to 
the  fluid  iron  from  which  chilled  rolls  are  cast,  and  one  for  a  plan  by  which 
large  kettles  can  be  cast  with  facility  in  metallic  flasks,  which  are  in  shape 
nearly  similar  to  the  kettle  to  be  produced.  The  process  consists  in  applying 
a  stream  of  cold  water  to  the  inner  half  of  the  flask  or  lautern  which  supports 
the  core,  at  a  time  when  the  melted  metal  enclosed,  is  arrived  nearly  at  a 
solid  state.  The  inner  part  of  the  flask  is  thus  caused  to  contract  rapidly, 
and,  when  contracted  in  diameter,  it  can  easily  be  withdrawn,  both  from  the 
kettle  and  from  the  exterior  half  of  the  flask. 

Another  plan  for  accomplishing  the  same  result,  has  been  devised  and 


1852.] 


Notes  on  Recent  English  Patents. 


37 


patented;  it  consists  in  making  the  core  supporter,  or  inner  half  of  the  flask, 
a  flexible  iron  basket,  which,  it  is  obvious,  cannot  be  either  broken,  or  pinched 
fast  by  the  contraction  of  the  cooling  kettle. 

Patents  have  been  granted  for  an  apparatus  for  applying  water  to  the  out- 
side of  the  hubs  of  cooling  car  wheels;  for  machinery  for  forming  cores  for 
small  pipe;  and  for  improvements  in  the  composition  from  which  small  cores 
are  formed. 

A  very  ingenious  machine  has  been  patented  for  forming  the  wrought-iron 
railroad  chairs,  which  are  now  by  degrees  taking  the  place  of  the  cast  ones 
hitherto  employed.  In  this  machine,  the  iron,  in  bars  of  the  width  and  thick- 
ness of  the  intended  chair,  is  fed  by  hand  between  a  pair  of  moving  jaws ; 
which,  as  they  approach  each  other,  cut  off  the  proper  length  for  a  chair, 
punch  in  it  the  spike  holes  and  clamp  it  firmly  between  them.  While  the 
blank  is  thus  held,  a  pair  of  punches  rise  up,  make  the  necessary  slits  in  the 
chair,  and,  as  they  proceed,  bend  the  lips  at  right  angles  to  the  bed. 
These  same  punches  then  approach  each  other,  and  bend  the  lips  over  to- 
wards a  common  centre,  and  into  such  a  shape  as  shall  embrace  the  lower 
fin  of  the  rail.  The  upper  jaw  then  rises  and  separates  into  two  parts,  and 
the  finished  chair  is  thrown  from  the  machine  by  a  discharger. 

A  machine  for  making  chains,  into  which  a  wire  or  rod  is  fed  by  self-act- 
in  <r  mechanism,  and  from  which  a  finished  chain  is  discharged,  presents,  per- 
haps, the  most  curious  triumph  of  persevering  ingenuity  over  apparently 
insurmountable  difficulties,  that  has  been  brought  before  my  notice  during 
the  present  year. 

This  machine  is  not  complicated,  when  the  various  duties  that  it  has  to 
perform  are  taken  into  consideration  ;  but  its  construction  is  such,  and  its 
parts  are  so  numerous,  that  a  clear  description  of  it  without  drawings  is 
almost  impossible ;  suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  wire  is  first  presented  to  nippers 
or  shears,  which  cut  off  a  length  sufficient  for  a  single  link.  One  half  of  this 
length  is  then  bent  into  an  annular  figure,  leaving  the  other  half  still  unbent 
and  projecting  from  the  ring. 

Other  mechanism  then  approaches,  seizes  the  unbent  portion,  and  forms  it 
into  another  ring,  a  plane  passing  through  which  is  perpendicular  to  a  similar 
plane  passing  through  the  first  named  ring.  A  link,  technically  termed  a 
jack-chained  link,  is  thus  completed.  The  last  named  mechanism  then  re- 
tires, leaving  the  link  still  held  fast  by  the  first  set  of  bending  machinery, 
which  in  its  turn  moves  backwards,  carrying  and  holding  the  finished  link  in 
such  position,  that  the  succeeding  length  of  wire  is  fed  through  the  last 
formed  ring  of  the  link.  These  operations  are  repeated  in  succession,  and 
the  finished  chain  drops  in  a  stream  from  the  bed  plate  of  the  machine. 

Such  chains  are  employed  for  chain  pumps  for  household  purposes, 
and  are  furnished  so  cheaply,  that  pumps  constructed  with  them,  and  of  suffi- 
cient size  for  ordinary  wells,  are  furnished  complete  for  about  15  or  20  cents 
a  foot. 

(To  tie  continued.) 

ABSTEACTS  OF  RECENT  AMERICAN  PATENTS. 
For  an  improved  connexion  of  telescopic  masts  and  spars.     Charles  F.  Brown 

Warren,  Rhode  Island,  June  17. 

The  nature  of  my  invention  consists  in  connecting  the  tubes  together  and 
adjusting  them  by  means  of  a  screwed  rod  or  rods,  running  longitudinally 
through  them ;  each  rod  being  secured  in  one  tube,  so  as  to  be  incapable  of 
turning,  and  passing  through  a  nut  or  nuts  in  one  or  more  of  the  other 
tubes ;  the  whole  series  of  tubes  being  adjustable,  one  within  another,  by 
turning  those  in  which  are  the  nuts,  so  as  to  move  the  nuts  along  the  screw 
on  the  rod,  and  each  tube  being  capable  of  being  secured  by  set  screws,  at 
various  points  of  its  length. 

Claim. — What  I  claim  as  my  invention  is,  connecting  and  adjusting  the 
several  joints  of  masts,  yards,  and  all  spars  constructed  of  telescopic  tubes,  or 
tubes  fitting  one  within  another,  by  means  of  a  screwed  rod  or  screwed  rods, 
nuts,  and  female  screws,  and  set  screws,  or  their  equivalents;  the  whole  being 
inserted  in  and  secured  or  attached  to  the  tubes,  and  operating  in  the  manner 
substantially  as  herein  set  forth. 


For  an  improvement  in  printing  names  of  subscribers  upon  newspapers,  Sec, 
Henry  Moeser,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania,  June  24. 
Claim.    What  I  claim  as  my  invention  is,  the  arrangement  and  construc- 


tion of  a  machine  for  printing  names  of  persons  or  places,  on  newspapers 
and  other  papers,  after  the  manner  substantially  as  described,  viz. :  of  a  form 
containing  the  column  of  names  to  be  printed,  set  up  in  types,  and  being 
brought  under  the  action  of  a  stamp,  by  means  of  a  slide  moving  by  degrees ; 
together  with  the  application  of  a  slitted  plate,  allowing  the  paper  (to  be 
printed)  to  be  pressed  down  on  the  line  right  beneath  the  slit  of  the  plate,  and 
shielding  the  paper  from  the  lines  adjoining  that  under  action  of  the  stamp, 
as  hereinbefore  described. 


For  an  improvement  in  cars  for  transportation  of  coal.     Laurence  Myers, 

Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  June  24. 

The  nature  of  my  invention  consists  in  one,  two,  or  more  metallic  cylinders, 
which  are  adjusted  in  a  frame,  so  as  to  be  guided  by  it,  and  which  cylinders 
have  flanched  rims  firmly  secured  to  them,  at  such  points  upon  the  cylinders 
as  will  adapt  them  to  the  width  of  the  railroad  track  upon  which  they  are  to 
run,  and  upon  which  flanched  rims  the  cylinder  and  the  material  contained 
therein  revolve, — the  material  being  kept  in  place  whilst  the  car  is  in  motion, 
by  the  centrifugal  force,  and  prevented  from  falling,  or  rolling,  whilst  in 
the  act  of  stopping  or  starting,  by  a  partition  or  partitions  in  said  cylinder. 

Claim. — Having  thus  fully  described  my  invention,  I  wish  it  to  be  distinctly 
understood,  that  I  do  not  claim  the  use  of  cylinders  for  conveying  material 
upon  common  roads,  as  this  has  been  done  heretofore ;  but  what  I  do  claim  as 
of  my  invention  is,  the  combination  of  a  partition  or  partitions,  with  a 
metallic  cylinder  or  cylinders,  provided  with  flanched  rims,  as  herein  de- 
scribed, for  the  purpose  of  carrying  material  in  bulk,  on  rail  or  other  roads, 
where  high  velocities  are  attained,  said  material  being  held  in  place  by 
centrifugal  force  whilst  in  motion,  and  prevented  from  falling  or  rolling  in 
the  cylinder  by  the  partition  or  partitions,  whilst  in  the  act  of  stopping  or 
starting,  as  herein  fully  described  and  shown,  or  by  any  other  means  essen- 
tially the  same. 


For  an  improvement  for  making  gutta  percha  hollow  ware.     Samuel  T.  Arm- 
strong, city  of  New  York,  June  24. 

My  improved  process  is  applicable  to  the  making  of  all  kinds  of  hollow 
articles  which  can  be  formed  in  moulds,  such  as  bottles,  or  articles  which 
may  be  made  hollow  of  gutta  percha,  or  gutta  percha  compounded  with 
other  substances. 

Claim — What  I  claim  as  my  invention,  in  the  process  above  described,  is 
the  method,  substantially  as  described,  of  moulding  articles  of  gutta  percha, 
or  the  compound  of  gutta  percha  with  other  substances,  by  first  making 
the  same  in  the  form  of  a  pipe,  and  whilst  in  a  partially  heated  and  plastic 
state,  giving  to  it  the  form  required  in  a  mould  by  forcing  a  liquid  inside,  to' 
expand  the  gutta  percha  as  described. 

[The  same  idea  was  suggested  by  us  to  the  Gutta  Percha  Company,  for 
lining  large  cast-iron  pipes  with  a  thin  layer  of  gutta  percha.  It  was  pro- 
posed to  make  a  pipe  of  gutta  percha,  slightly  smaller  than  the  iron  one,  and 
having  slipped  it  inside  it,  and  closed  up  the  ends  (as  in  proving  pipes),  to 
pump  in  water  at  a  proper  temperature,  under  a  pressure  sufficient  to  create 
an  intimate  union  between  the  gutta  percha  and  the  iron.  Cold  water  would 
then  be  allowed  to  flow  in,  to  set  the  lining,  before  the  pressure  was  taken 
off. — Ed.  ArtizanJ] 

NOTES  ON  RECENT  ENGLISH  PATENTS. 
F.  J.  S.  Hepburn,  for  Improvements  in  the  manufactory  of  Carriages  and  other 

Vehicles,  dated  June  17th,  1851. 

These  improvements  consist  in  applying  a  new  method  of  ventilation  to  - 
carriages.  A  false  roof  is  constructed,  a  few  inches  below  the  ordinary  ex-  - 
ternal  roof,  composed  of  perforated  metal,  or  any  suitable  fabric.  Air-open- 
ings, provided  with  valves,  are  fixed  in  the  sides  of  the  carriages,  in  the  space 
between  the  two  roofs,  through  which  the  air  passes  ;  its  distribution  being 
effected  by  the  false  roof,  so  that  no  draught  is  felt.  The  valves  are  opened 
and  closed  at  pleasure,  by  means  of  cords  inside  the  carriage.  We  have  seen 
a  plan  applied  (although  we  are  not  aware  whether  it  is  patented  or  not),  in 
which  an  inside  lamp  was  employed  to  warm  and  ventilate  the  carriage,  the 
former  a  desideratum  in  cold  weather. 


33 


Institution  of  Civil  Engineers. 


[February, 


John  Machin, ,/br  Improvements  in  Boots  and  Shoes.  Dated  17th  June,  1851. 
These  improvements  (old  friends,  without  even  new  dresses),  consist  in  affix- 
ing revolving  heels  to  boots  and  shoes,  so  that  by  rotating  them  as  they  wear, 
a  fresh  surface  may  be  exposed.  The  objection  which,  we  understand,  applies 
to  all  the  schemes  for  revolving  heels  which  have  been  hitherto  tried,  is,  that 
the  centre-pin  becomes  bent,  so  that  the  moveable  part  becomes  jammed. 
Gutta  percha  heels  offer  such  facilities  for  welding  a  bit  on  as  they  wear, 
that  they  appear  more  deserving  of  patronage,  whilst  they  have  the  advantage 
of  being  much  cheaper. 


R.  and  F.  Crickmer,  for  Improvements  in  packing  Stuffing-boxes  and  Pistons. 

Dated  July  3rd,  1851. 

This  improved  packing  consists  of  an  elastic  material,  such  as  vulcanized 
india-rubber,  enclosed  in  canyas,  protected  from  wear  by  being  enveloped  in 
wire-cloth,  or  a  thin  perforated  plate  of  metal.  For  stuffing-boxes,  the  india- 
rubber  is  extended,  and  slipped  on  over  the  rod  ;  whilst  for  the  packing  of 
pistons,  the  india-rubber  is  compressed.  In  each  case,  its  elasticity  keeps  the 
metal  in  contact  with  the  rod  or  the  cylinder.  This,  it  will  be  seen,  is  car- 
rying out  a  plan  described  in  one  of  our  early  numbers,  in  which  a  sheet  of 
brass  is  recommended  to  be  interposed  between  the  piston-rod  and  the  hemp 
packing,  by  which  a  great  saving  of  grease  may  be  effected,  and  the  dura- 
bility of  the  hemp  packing  may  be  increased.  Some  of  our  first  engineers 
also  make  use  of  a  similar  plan  for  pistons  ;  a  thin  cast-iron  ring  being  put 
next  the  cylinder,  whilst  the  space  behind  it  is  filled  up  with  gasket  in  the  usual 
way.  We  have  seen  packings  of  this  kind  taken  out  of  a  sea-going  steamer, 
in  excellent  condition,  after  six  months  fair  wear,  under  12  lbs.  steam.  This 
supposes,  of  course,  that  it  is  carefully  done  to  begin  with. 

INSTITUTION  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS. 

January  20,  1852. 

James  Meadows  Rendell,  Esq.,  President,  in  the  chair. 

The  Paper  read  was  "  On  the  Alluvial  Formations,  and  the  Local 
Changes,  of  the  South-Eastern  Coast  of  England.  Second  section, — from 
Beachy  Head  to  Portland  :"  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Redman,  M.  Inst.  C.  E. 

Westward  of  Beachy  Head  the  effects  produced  by  local  variations  in  the 
beach  were  traced, — the  "  fulls"  tailing  across  the  outfall  of  Cuckmere  Haven, 
and  driving  the  outlet  eastward,  creating  a  barrier  of  beach  at  Seaford, — at 
an  early  period  the  outfall  of  Newhaven  Harbour, — where  an  ancient  outlet 
existed  on  the  site  of  the  present  entrance,  subsequently  projected  eastward, 
by  the  passage  of  shingle  from  the  westward,  until  rendered  permanent  by 
piers.  The  recent  degradation  of  the  shore  along  Seaford  Bay,  from  the 
shingle  being  arrested  to  the  westward,  and  the  unavailing  attempt  to  stop 
this  movement  by  blasting  the  cliff  at  Seaford  Head,  were  noticed.  The 
waste  of  the  coast  at  Rottingdean,  the  modern  changes  at  Brighton,  the 
great  variations  in  the  outlet  of  Shoreham  Harbour,  until  rendered  perma- 
nent by  artificial  works,  were  examined,  as  well  as  the  analogous  effects  on 
the  coast  generally  at  Pagham,  across  the  entrance  of  which  a  spit  had  been 
formed,  similar  to  those  at  the  ancient  harbours  of  Romney  and  Pevensey. 
The  anchorage  of  the  Park,  off  Selsey  Bill,  once  presumed  to  have  been  a 
portion  of  the  site  of  a  Bishop's  See,  prior  to  its  removal  to  Chichester,  owing 
to  the  progressive  waste  of  the  shore.  At  the  back  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  the 
peculiarities  of  the  land-locked  harbours,  and  the  protection  afforded  by  the 
shore  defences  to  Portsmouth  harbour,  so  little  altered  in  its  general  outline, 
since  the  time  of  Henry  the  Eighth,  were  described,  as  also  the  remarkable 
promontory  called  Hurst  Point,  many  of  the  characteristics  of  which  were 
similar  to  those  of  the  Chesil  Bank,  Calshot  Point,  and  other  formations, 
such  as  a  low  flat  shore  to  leeward,  (eastward)  and  a  highly  inclined  beach 
seaward,  with  a  tendency  to  curve  round  to  the  northward  and  eastward, 
and  eventually  to  enclose  a  tidal  mere,  or  estuary.  The  elevation  and  size 
of  the  pebbles  increased  towards  the  extremity  of  these  points,  and  in  places 
on  the  sea  slope  an  intermixture  of  coarse  sand  and  shingle,  which  had 
become  solid  and  homogeneous  by  age,  cropped  out  through  the  modern 
beach.  The  remaining  portion  of  the  coast  of  Hampshire,  and  that  of  Dor- 
setshire, as  far  as  Weymouth,  were  then  minutely  described,  and  the  paper 
concluded  with  a  particular  account  of  the  Chesil  Bank,  which  in  magnitude 


far  exceeded  all  other  formations  of  the  kind,  and  which  it  was  considered 
might  be  attributed  to  the  waste  of  the  great  West  Bay. 

Numerous  diagrams,  compiled  from  ancient  and  modern  maps,  together 
with  sections  and  sketches  of  the  various  alluvial  spits  along  the  coast,  were 
exhibited,  and  it  was  shown,  that  all  these  local  accumulations  had  many 
features  in  common,  and  were  subject  to  the  same  alternating  effects  of  loss 
and  gain,  and  were  the  resultant  of  causes  in  constant  operation,  the  whole 
exercising  a  most  important  influence  on  harbour  and  marine  engineering 
generally. 

In  the  discussion  which  ensued,  in  which  Sir  C.  Lyell,  Sir  E.  Belcher,  Mr. 
Rennie,  Capt.  O'Brien,  Mr.  Scott  Russell,  and  the  Author,  took  part,  the 
peculiarities  of  the  different  parts  of  the  coast  were  still  further  described, 
and  the  formation  of  the  moles  of  shingle  were  attributed,  by  some  of  the 
speakers  to  the  action  of  the  tidal  currents,  but  more  generally,  by  others,  to 
the  mechanical  power  of  the  waves  alone,  which  appeared  to  account  for  the 
apparently  anomalous  fact,  that  the  largest  pebbles  were  always  found  on  the 
summit  and  to  leeward.  Chesil,  Hurst,  and  Dungeness  beaches  were  referred 
to,  as  remarkable  instances  of  results  produced  by  such  causes  ;  and  the 
effect  of  the  severe  storm  of  November,  1824,  on  the  base  of  Hurst  Beach, 
was  alluded  to. 

A  short  account  of  Mr.  Deane's  Submarine  researches  on  the  Shambles 
Shoal,  off  the  Bill  of  Portland,  was  read,  describing  that  shoal  to  consist 
entirely  of  abed  of  small  broken  shells,  arranged  in  parallel  shelves, or  steps, 
instead  of,  as  had  been  supposed,  being  formed  of  boulders  and  pebbles. 
This  peculiar  arrangement  of  light  shells,  at  depths  varying  from  4  to  9 
fathoms,  must  be  the  result  of  the  action  of  the  currents  forming  a  spot  com- 
paratively without  motion,  and  induced  curious  speculations  as  to  the  causes 
of  the  accumulation,  and  the  effects  that  might  be  produced  on  similar  aggre- 
gations by  artificial  works. 

CORRESPONDENCE. 


WOODEN  SAILS  FOR  SHIPS. 
To  the  Editor  of  the  Artizan. 

Sir, — In  reference  to  the  letter  of  "  Inquirer,"  I  beg  to  say,  that 
more  than  a  twelvemonth  since,  and  before  the  America  was  talked  of, 
I  had  a  sail  constructed  entirely  of  thin  boards,  for  a  skiff,  about  20 
feet  long,  made  lateen  shape,  and  arranged  something  like  a  Venetian 
blind.  I  sailed  her  frequently  on  the  river,  and  was  much  pleased  with 
the  practical  proof  she  exhibited  of  going  better  to  windward,  and 
closer  than  any  other  boat  of  her  size.  She  also  reached  and  ran  well; 
for  the  foresail  and  mainsail  being  in  one  triangular  frame,  I  was  able  to 
turn  them  so  as  to  get  the  full  advantage  of  the  wind.  As  you  may 
imagine,  I  was  a  good  deal  laughed  at  before  the  experiment  was  tried, 
and  all  the  knowing  ones  predicted  that  she  would  go  "  bodily  to  lee- 
ward," but  afterwards  admitted  they  were  surprised  at  the  result. 

I  was  most  afraid  that,  from  the  additional  weight  above,  she  would 
heel  over  very  much  ;  but,  to  my  great  astonishment,  she  kept  more 
upright  than  with  her  ordinary  light  sail ;  and  this  result  was  most 
gratifying,  as  it  proved  that  the  belly  of  an  ordinary  sail  impedes  pro- 
gress by  holding  wind  instead  of  allowing  it  to  slide  off. 

As  my  object  in  this  experiment  was  to  show  that  a  flat  surface  was 
better  than  a  hollow  one  for  sails,  and  having  succeeded,  I  got  Mr. 
Gilbert  of  Limehouse,  who  has  a  patent  for  making  very  flat  sails,  to 
make  me  a  mainsail  for  a  yacht  upon  this  principle,  and  which  has 
given  me  great  satisfaction. 

I  remain,  Sir,  yours  obediently, 

Blachwall,  Jan.  15,  1852.  W.  P.  BAIN,  M.D. 

ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  FLAX  HACKLES. 

To  the  Editor  of  the  Artizan. 

Sir,  —  Being  a  reader  of  the  Artizan,  I  thought,  after  reading  your 
article  on  flax  machinery,  that  a  description  of  some  of  the  hackles  used 
might  be  useful  to  your  readers.     I  make  all  the  hackles  for  Mr.  Marsden, 


1852.] 


Steam  Navigation. 


39 


the  patentee  of  what  is  called  the  "intersecting  machine,"  which  is  the 
machine  most  in  use  for  fine  numbers  of  yarn  from  cut  line  flax.  The 
hackles  for  this  machine  are  much  finer  than  any  other  in  use.  Mr.  Plum- 
mer's  not  being  in  general  use,  I  do  not  knowjanything  of  them.  The  hackles 
for  Marsden's  machine  are  all  9  inches  in  length  by  1^-  inches  in  breadth,  the 
number  of  rows  in  each  hackle  varying  from  one  to  four;  two  and  three, 
however,  are  most  in  use.  In  most  cases  there  are  four  gradations  of 
hackles;  one,  which  is  very  common,  is  3,  6,  12,  and  24  pins  to  the  inch, 
or  27,  54,  108,  and  216  to  each  row;  the  numbers  of  wire  used  for  the  above 
pins  being  numbers  14,  16,  18,  and  23,  the  pins  all  being  If  inches  in 
length.  Latterly  some  have  been  made  only  1|-  inch  in  length.  Another 
gradation  is  26,  32,  36,  42,  and  50  pins  to  the  inch,  or  234,  288,  324,  378, 
and  450  pins  in  the  row;  only  one  firm,  however,  have  used  them  so  fine  as 
50  to  the  inch,  Messrs.  Marshall,  in  Leeds.  Formerly  the  stocks  were  made  of 
brass,  but  a  few  years  ago,  I  introduced  cross  wood,  covered  with  sheet-brass, 
which  has  been  found  to  answer  much  better.  Samples  from  12  to  64  pins 
to  the  inch,  I  sent  to  the  Exhibition,  Class  6,  No.  633;  also  two  samples  of 
hand  hackles  of  54  and  365  pins  to  the  row,  with  25  and  13  rows  in  each 
respectively.  In  the  case  of  the  64  pins  to  the  inch,  tbe  diameter  of  the  wire 
is  the  72nd  part  of  an  inch,  so  that  great  care  is  required  in  drilling,  so  that 
the  holes  are  not  run  into  each  other. 

I  am,  Sir,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

EDWAED  TAYLOR. 

Kinghorn,  Fife. 

ON  THE  USE  OF  COAL  TAR  TO  PREVENT  CORROSION  IN 

BOILERS. 

To  the  Editor  of  the  Artizan. 

Sir, — Knowing  your  readiness  to  give  publicity  in  your  advanced  and 
widely  spread  Journal  to  anything  scientific  and  useful,  I  venture  to  hope 
that  you  will  insert  the  following,  which  may  perhaps  not  be  uninteresting  to 
your  numerous  readers  connected  with  steam  engines.  I  have  been  en- 
gineer on  board  of  different  steam  vessels  for  several  years,  and  have  used 
coal  tar  in  boilers  extensively,  but  my  method  of  applying  it  is  rather  differ- 
ent to  Mr.  Ashworth's,  or  the  scientific  American.  I  use  it  as  follows  : — 
To  one  gallon  of  coal  tar  add  half  a  pint  of  spirit  of  turpentine  ;  mix  well 
together,  and  lay  on  when  the  boiler  is  empty.  I  find  a  common  flat 
whiting  brush  is  the  best  tool.  I  daub  the  boiler  inside  on  every  place  come  • 
atable  ;  this  done,  I  light  a  fire  in  each  furnace,  and  warm  the  boiler 
gently.  The  boilers  I  have  at  the  present  time  are  tubular,  with  three 
furnaces  in  each,  and  once  in  two  or  three  weeks  I  daub  the  upper  tubes  and 
end  plates  right  thick,  so  that  it  runs  down  on  to  the  lower  tubes  and  fire 
boxes.  I  then,  as  I  said  before,  light  a  fire  in  each  furnace.  Attention  is 
of  course  required,  as  the  fires  burn  up,  so  as  not  to  over-heat  the  plates. 
The  rule  I  go  by  is  this :  it  is  well  known  to  every  practical  engineer  that 
when  the  fires  are  first  lit,  a  coat  of  soot  adheres  all  over  the  fire  box  after 
the  plates  reach  a  certain  temperature  ;  on  opening  the  furnace  door,  this 
coat  of  soot  takes  fire  ;  it  is  then  time  to  draw  out  the  fire,  or  dash  on  a 
bucket  of  water,  which  is  always  at  hand  in  the  engine  room  of  a  steamer. 

By  the  warming  process,  the  tar  runs  over  the  whole  suface  of  the  tubes 
and  fire  boxes,  and  leaves  a  fine  black  japan  on  them. 

I  presume,  Sir,  that  very  few  engineers  would  try  the  process  I  have 
described  for  the  first  time  without  fear  and  trembling  for  the  safety  of  his 
boilers,  but  any  one  trying  it  will  pronounce  in  its  favour.  I  have  followed 
the  system,  as  described,  nine  years,  which  I  am  prepared  to  prove  at  any 
time. 

I  am,  Sir,  most  respectfully  yours, 

"BOLD  BUCCLEUCH." 
ADMIRALTY  FORMULA. 
Specification  of  certain  particulars  to  be  strictly  observed  in  the 
construction  of  a  pair  of  marine  steam  engines   with  paddle  wheels, 
referred  to  in  the  Admiralty  Letter  on  Her  Majesty's  Service,  1845. 

The  tenders  are  to  be  made  (in  triplicate)  on  the  accompany  in  g 
printed  forms,  every  particular  in  which  is  to  be  strictly  and  carefully 
filled  up,  and  all  drawings,  models,  and  boxes  containing  them,  are  to 
be  distinctly  marked  with  the  names  of  the  parties  transmitting  them, 


The  whole  weight  of  each  pair  of  engines,  including  the  boilers 
(with  the  water  in  them),  the  coal  boxes,  the  paddle-wheels,  the  spare 
gear,  the  floor  plates,  ladders,  guard  rails,  and  all  other  articles,  to  be 
supplied  under  the  contract,  is  not  to  exceed  190  tons. 

The  coal  boxes  (in  the  space  of  the  engine  room)  are  to  contain 
eight  days'  coal,  computed  at  8  lbs.  per  horse  power  per  hour,  and  at 
48  cubic  feet  to  the  ton.  Sufficient  details  of  the  coal  boxes  are  to  be 
shown  in  the  drawing,  to  enable  a  computation  of  their  contents  to  be 
made.  In  this  computation,  the  space  below  the  deck,  to  the  depth 
of  six  inches,  to  be  excluded,  to  allow  for  the  space  occupied  by  the 
beams,  and  for  the  difficulty  of  completely  filling  the  boxes  with  coals. 

To  avoid  the  possibility  of  mistake  in  the  dimensions  given  in  the 
drawings  furnished  to  the  respective  parties,  it  is  to  be  understood, 
that, — 


The  length  of  the  engine  room  in  the  clear  is  not  to 
exceed      . .  . .  . .         . .  . . 

Breadth  of  ditto      . .  . . 

Depth  of  ditto 

The  centre  of  the  shaft  above  the  water  line 


I 


48  ft.  Oin. 
as  shown 

in  the 
drawing. 


The  situation  of  ditto,  as  per  drawing,  or  as  near  as  can  be. 

The  holding-down  bolts  are  to  be  secured  by  nuts  let  into  the 
sleepers,  so  as  not  to  require  the  bolts  to  pass  through  the  vessel's 
bottom;  and  the  bolts  are  to  have,  at  the  lower  end  of  their  points, 
wrought  iron  washers  about  eight  inches  square,  and  one  inch  thick, 
placed  between  the  nuts  and  the  wood.  Should  this  mode  of  security 
be  inapplicable  to  the  particular  kind  of  engine  proposed,  the  en- 
gineer is  fully  to  describe  any  other  secure  mode  which  he  may  think 
the  most  advisable  to  adopt. 

The  pistons  are  to  be  fitted  with  metallic  packings. 

The  blow-off  pipes  are  to  be  not  less  than  3£  inches  in  diameter ; 
and  their  thickness  not  to  be  less  than  %  inch. 

The  thickness  of  the  steam-pipes  is  not  to  be  less  than  |  inch ;  of 
the  bilge-pipes,  not  less  than  \  inch  ;  of  the  feed-pipes,  not  less  than 
£  inch ;  of  the  waste  steam-pipes,  not  less  than  £  inch ;  and  of  the 
waste  water-pipes  (if  of  copper),  not  less  than  \  inch. 

The  cylinders  are  to  be  fitted  with  discharge  or  escape-valves  at 
the  top  and  at  the  bottom  of  each,  for  allowing  the  escape  of  water 
therefrom ;  the  valves  to  have  suitable  metallic  cases,  to  obviate  the 
danger  of  persons  being  scalded  by  any  escape  of  boiling  water.  Re- 
verse valves  are  to  be  fitted  to  the  boilers. 

Each  cylinder  is  likewise  to  be  fitted  with  a  separate  movement  and 
valve,  for  the  purpose  of  using  the  steam  expansively,  in  various  de- 
grees, as  may  from  time  to  time  be  found  eligible. 

The  air-pumps  are  to  be  lined  with  gun  metal,  of  half  an  inch  in 
thickness  when  finished. 

The  air-pump  buckets  are  to  be  of  gun  metal,  with  packing  rings. 

The  air-pump  rods  are  to  be  of  gun  metal,  of  Muntz's  metal,  or  of 
wrought  iron  cased  with  gun  metal, 

The  threads  of  all  screwed  bolts,  nuts,  and  pins,  used  in  engines 
and  boilers,  and  in  every  other  part  of  the  work  furnished  by  the  con- 
tractor, are  to  agree  with  the  threads  used  in  the  steam  department 
at  Woolwich. 

A  small  engine  is  to  be  fitted,  capable  of  working  one  of  the  pumps 
for  feeding  the  boilers. 

Pipes  to  be  fitted  for  supplying,  in  the  event  of  a  leak  in  the  vessel, 
the  requisite  quantity  of  water  from  the  bilge  to  the  condensers. 

The  hand-pump  to  be  made  capable  of  being  worked  by  the  engine 
also,  and  to  be  arranged  to  pump  into  the  boilers,  on  deck,  or  over- 
board ;  and  to  draw  water  from  the  boilers,  from  the  bilge,  or  from 
the  sea. 

The  feed  apparatus  to  be  complete,  independently  of  any  feed  from 
a  cistern  above  the  deck,  should  such  be  fitted. 


40 


Admiralty  Formula. 


[February, 


The  steam  pipes,  and  all  other  pipes,  to  be  of  copper,  and  their  re- 
spective diameters  to  be  specified  in  the  tender. 

A  separate  damper  to  be  fitted  to  every  boiler,  and  dampers  to  be 
fitted  to  the  fronts  of  the  ashpits. 

Brine  pumps,  or  some  other  equally  efficient  apparatus,  with  refri- 
gerators, to  be  fitted  to  the  boilers. 

A  small  flat  iron  vessel  to  be  fixed  in  one  of  the  paddle-boxes,  with 
two  pipes,  one  communicating  with  the  stoke  hole,  and  the  other  with 
the  boiler,  for  obtaining  a  small  supply  of  distilled  water  from  the 
boiler.  Air  tubes  to  be  fixed  in  the  coal  boxes  for  ascertaining  their 
temperature.  Particulars  will  be  furnished  to  the  contractors  on  ap- 
plication to  the  captain-superintendent,  at  Woolwich  Dockyard. 

The  boilers  are  to  be  tubular,  having  iron  tubes  of  2J  or  3  inches 
outside  diameter,  and  it  is  desirable  that  the  upper  part  should  not  be 
a  greater  distance  above  the  water  line  than  circumstances  render 
necessary.  They  are  to  be  constructed  in  three  or  more  separate 
parts,  each  of  which  may  be  used  independently  of  the  others.  Suffi- 
cient details  pf  the  boilers  are  to  be  shown,  to  enable  a  calculation  to 
be  made  of  the  area  of  fire  grate,  and  of  the  fire  and  flue  surface. 

In  the  manufacture  of  tubular  boilers,  care  is  to  be  taken  to  leave 
sufficient  room  between  the  crowns  and  the  lowest  row  of  tubes,  with 
mud  hole  doors  in  the  front  of  each  boiler,  to  admit  a  person  into 
these  parts,  both  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  them  and  of  repairing 
them,  without  taking  out  the  tubes.  All  mud  hole  doors  to  be  on  the 
inside  of  the  boilers. 

A  space  of  13  inches  wide  is  to  be  left  clear  between  the  boilers  and 
the  coal  boxes  in  every  part.  The  boilers  are  to  be  placed  on  a  bed 
of  mastic. 

The  paddle-wheels  are  to  be  of  the  common  construction,  and  to 
be  fitted  with  suitable  brakes.  Braithwaite's  disconnecting  apparatus 
is  also  to  be  applied. 

The  power  of  the  engines  is  to  be  260  horses,  calculated  at  71bs. 
effective  pressure  on  each  square  inch  ,of  the  piston  ;  and  the  speed  of 
the  piston, 

For  4  ft.  Oin.  stroke  not  to  exceed  196  ft.  per  minute. 

,,  4  6  ditto  ditto  204  „ 

„  5  0  ditto  ditto  210  „ 

„  5  6  ditto  ditto  216  „ 

„  6  0  ditto  ditto  222  „ 

„  6  6  ditto  ditto  226  „ 

„  7  0  ditto  ditto  231  „ 

„  7  6  ditto  ditto  236  „ 

„  8  0  ditto  ditto  240  „ 

All  the  necessary  ladders  for  the  engine  room,  together  with  fenders, 
guard  rails,  and  floor  plates,  are  to  be  included  in  the  tender,  and, 
likewise,  the  expense  of  trying  and  fitting  the  spare  gear. 

The  expense  of  clothing  (in  the  following  manner)  the  cylinders, 
steam  pipes,  and  boilers  is  also  to  be  included  in  the  tender. 

The  cylinders  are  to  be  covered  with  hair  felt  to  the  thickness  of 
two  inches.  The  felt  is  to  be  covered  with  thoroughly  dried  wood, 
and  bound  together  by  iron  or  brass  hoops. 

The  steam  pipes  are  to  be  clothed  with  felt,  which  is  to  be  moulded 
with  spun  yarn,  and  then  to  be  covered  with  canvass  ;  the  whole  to  be 
of  such  thickness  as  to  be  even  with  the  flanges. 

After  it  has  been  ascertained  by  trial  that  every  part  of  the  boilers 
is  perfectly  tight,  two  good  coats  of  red  lead  paint  are  to  be  then  put 
on  them,  and  felt  applied  to  the  tops,  sides,  and  ends,  to  the  thickness 
of  two  inches,  while  the  paint  is  moist.  For  the  more  convenient 
application  of  the  felt,  it  is  to  be  previously  stitched  to  canvass  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  it  together.  The  canvass  is  then  to  be  well  painted 
and  carefully  covered  with  thoroughly  dried  one  inch  deal  boards, 


having  rabetted  or  grooved  and  tongued  joints,  and  bound  up  to  the 
boilers  by  suitable  iron  straps. 

The  coating  of  felt  and  boards  on  the  top  of  the  boilers  or  steam 
chest  is  to  be  kept  at  least  18  inches  from  the  funnel,  and  the  circular 
space  between  the  coating  and  the  funnel  is  to  be  covered  with  a  three 
inch  course  of  brick,  set  in  cement,  and  surrounded  and  held  together 
by  an  iron  hoop,  or  this  space  may  be  filled  up  with  mastic. 

The  boards  and  bricks  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  boilers  are  to 
be  covered  with  sheet  lead,  4  lbs.  to  the  square  foot,  so  as  to  prevent 
any  leaks  from  the  deck  reaching  the  felt. 

N.B. — Parties  contracting  to  supply  machinery  for  her  Majesty's 
ships  and  vessels,  are  to  be  bound  in  a  penalty  of  £1,000,  to  com- 
plete their  contracts  at  the  stipulated  periods ;  and  it  is  distinctly  to 
be  understood,  that  it  is  their  lordships'  intention  to  enforce  the  bond 
in  all  cases  where  the  machinery  is  not  fixed  and  ready  for  trial  at  the 
time  specified  in  the  contract. 

The  time  required  for  completing  the  machinery,  so  as  to  be  ready 
to  be  put  on  board  the  vessel,  is  to  be  considered  as  commencing 
from  the  date  of  their  lordships'  acceptance  of  the  tender. 

And  the  period  stipulated  for  fixing  the  machinery  on  board  the 
vessel,  is  to  be  calculated  from  the  date  the  vessel  is  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  parties  for  that  purpose. 

It  is  likewise  to  be  understood,  that  if  the  weight  specified  in  the 
tender  be  exceeded,  the  contractor  is  to  forfeit  £1,000,  or  their  lord- 
ships are  to  be  at  liberty  to  reject  the  engines,  the  manufacturers  pay- 
ing £1,000  for  the  disappointment. 

It  is  to  be  understood,  that  the  practice  of  fixing  new  engines  on 
board  her  Majesty's  vessels  at  Woolwich  Dockyard,  is  to  be  entirely 
discontinued.  The  ports  to  which  their  lordships  will,  for  the  con- 
venience of  manufacturers,  allow  vessels  to  be  taken  are  those  of  Lon- 
don, Liverpool,  Greenock,  Glasgow,  and  Dundee,  provided  the  places 
at  which  the  vessels  are  to  lie  in  those  ports  shall  be  named  in  the 
tender,  and  approved  of  by  their  lordships. 

In  all  cases  of  vessels  receiving  their  engines  on  board  at  any  other 
port  than  that  of  London,  a  deduction  of  two  per  cent,  will  be  made 
from  the  price  of  the  engines  named  in  the  tender,  as  a  compensation 
for  the  expense,  wear  and  tear,  and  risk  thereby  incurred. 

No  charge  will  be  allowed  for  transporting  the  vessel  to  the  place 
where  the  engines  are  to  be  fixed  on  board ;  for  coals  in  trying  the 
engines  until  they  are  complete;  for  boats,  anchors,  men,  lighters, 
pilotage,  canal  or  dock  dues,  shipwright's  work,  or  for  any  other  ex- 
pense whatever.  The  watching  of  vessels  is  to  be  performed,  in 
future,  by  officers  and  men  in  her  Majesty's  service. — Murray  on  the 
Marine  Engine. 


ENGINES  OF  THE  "GREAT  BRITAIN,"  BY  MESSRS.  PENN 
AND  SON. 

Illustrated  by  Plate  2. 


This  noble  vessel,  after  gallantly  braving  the  wintry  storms  of  the 
Atlantic,  is  now  nearly  ready  for  sea,  and  will  soon  be  running  between 
this  country  and  New  York,  under  the  command  of  Captain  Matthews. 
The  repairs  of  the  hull  have  been  executed  by  Messrs.  Vernon,  of 
Liverpool,  and  the  new  engines  and  boilers  are  by  Messrs.  Penn  and 
Son.  They  are,  we  believe,  off  the  same  patterns  as  those  made  for 
H.M.S.  Sphynx.  The  plate,  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Bourne's 
"  Treatise  on  the  Screw  Propeller,"  gives  the  details  of  the  various 
dimensions,  on  which  we  shall  have  some  remarks  to  make,  after  she 
has  been  tried. 


1852.] 


Trial  of  the  "  Orinoco" 


41 


THE  LOSS  OF  THE  AMAZON. 

We  have  received  a  number  of  communications  on  this  melancholy 
subject,  but  as  they  only  proceed  on  hypothesis,  we  defer  going  into 
the  details  until  the  examination  now  being  conducted  by  Captain 
Beachey  on  behalf  of  the  Board  of  Trade  is  concluded.  We  may 
suggest  that  accurate  particulars  of  the  relative  positions  of  the  boilers 
and  the  bulk-heads,  store-rooms,  &c,  would  be  very  desirable,  to 
enable  a  correct  judgment  to  be  formed  on  the  cause  of  the  accident. 

TEIAL  OF  THE  "ORINOCO." 

The  royal  mail  steam-ship  Orinoco,  W.  Allan,  acting  commander,  arrived 
at  Southampton  from  the  Thames  on  the  25th,  having  left  Blackwall  on 
Friday,  shortly  after  noon. 

The  Orinoco  was  built  at  Northfleet  (in  Company  with  the  Magdalena, 
the  third  vessel  of  the  same  class  for  the  West  India  service),  by  Mr.  Pitcher, 
and  the  engines  are  from  the  celebrated  factory  of  Messrs.  Maudslay,  Sons, 
and  Field. 

Externally,  the  Orinoco  very  much  resembles  the  Amazon,  her  great 
length,  lofty  rig,  immense  spread  of  canvass,  and  low  funnels,  giving  her 
the  appearance  of  a  steam  frigate  of  the  largest  class,  and  not  of  a  mere 
merchant  steamer.  Great  Britain  has  just  reason  to  be  proud  of  the  energy 
and  enterprise  of  great  commercial  associations  like  the  Royal  Mail,  and 
other  great  Steam-Packet  Companies,  which  can  build  and  employ  steam- 
ships of  this  class.  Although  adapted  for  the  peaceful  business  of  conveying 
mails,  passengers,  and  cargo,  yet  the  sterner  necessities  of  war  have  not  been 
forgotten  or  lost  sight  of,  and,  in  the  event  of  hostilities,  these  ships,  when 
supplied  with  the  armament  which  they  are  designed  and  able  to  cany, 
would  be  converted  into  gigantic  and  powerful  steamers  of  war,  formidable 
not  alone  for  the  heavy  guns  they  would  be  able  to  use,  but  for  the  great 
speed  they  can  attain,  a  speed  superior  to  that  of  any  steam  ships  of  war  in 
the  British,  French,  or  American  navies.  The  Orinoco  has,  therefore,  been 
pronounced  capable  of  being  armed  with  26  guns,  four  of  which,  on  the 
main  deck,  might  be  10-inch  Paixhan  long  range  guns,  of  the  heaviest 
size;  the  remainder  short  32  or  24 -pounders,  as  the  case  may  be.  Upon  an 
emergency,  a  couple  of  long  68-pounders,  on  traversing  slide  carriages, 
might  be  fitted  to  the  spar  deck,  if  that  deck  were  temporarily  strengthened 
by  a  few  additional  supports  for  the  purpose. 

The  dimensions  of  this  noble  ship  are  as  follows  : — Length  between  the 
perpendiculars,  270  feet  ;  length  over  all  (figure-head  to  taffrail),  301  feet ; 
length  on  spar  deck,  276^  feet ;  breadth  from  out  to  out  of  paddle-boxes, 
71  feet  10  inches  ;  extreme  breadth,  41  feet  10  inches  ;  ditto  for  tonnage  to 
a  six-inch  bottom,  4l£  feet  ;  breadth  moulded,  40£  feet ;  depth  of  engine- 
room  at  shaft,  26  feet  1  inch  ;  depth  from  under  side  of  spar  deck,  33£  feet ; 
burden  in  tons,  builder's  measurement,  2,245  31-94ths. 

The  Orinoco,  like  the  Amazon,  has  nine  boats,  four  of  which  are  Lamb's 
patent  life-boats,  30  feet  long  and  8  feet  wide,  and  calculated  to  carry  32 
persons  each.  Two  are  swung  forward  over  the  fore  sponson,  and  two  over 
the  after  sponson.  There  are  also  two  large  cutters,  27  feet  long,  with  8  feet 
beam,  each  boat  calculated  to  carry  35  persons,  and  pulled  by  12  oars  each. 
Besides  this,  there  is  one  mail  boat,  22  feet  long,  6  feet  beam,  able  to  carry 
18  people  ;  a  gig,  25  feet  long,  5  feet  beam,  able  to  contain  10  persons  ;  and 
a  dingy  (rather  larger  than  that  supplied  to  the  Amazon),  being  17  feet  long 
and  54  feet  wide,  and  calculated  to  carry  eight  or  nine  people.  These  nine 
boats  would  be  sufficient  to  provide  for  the  safety  of  234  persons. 

We  may  remark  here,  that  in  the  securing  of  the  Orinoco's  boats,  the  iron 
cratches,  so  much  objected  to  in  the  Amazon,  have  been  omitted.  During 
the  run  round,  an  experiment  was  made  with  the  forward  starboard  life- 
boats, particularly  with  a  view  to  ascertain  how  quickly  these  boats  might  be 
cast  loose  and  go  clear  of  the  sponson.  The  operation  was  performed  in  less 
than  three  minutes  from  the  time  the  men  were  called  on  deck,  unexpectedly 
and  without  previous  notice,  to  make  the  attempt. 

The  Orinoco  is  propelled  by  two  engines  made  by  Messrs.  Maudslay,  Sons, 
and  Field,  of  London,  which  are  of  the  nominal  aggregate  power  of  800 
horses.  These  engines  are  on  the  patent  double  cylinder  direct  acting  prin- 
ciple, and  embrace  all  the  most  recent  improvements  applied  to  marine  steam 


machinery.  Each  of  the  four  cylinders  are  of  68  inches  diameter,  equal  to 
two  98  inch  cylinders  such  as  are  supplied  to  the  ordinary  side  lever  marine 
engines ;  and  the  boilers  are  eight  in  number,  each  boiler  having  three  fur-* 
naces,  and  possess  an  aggregate  evaporating  power  of  9,000  gallons  of 
water  per  hour ;  the  paddle  wheels,  40  feet  in  diameter,  are  fitted  with  the 
patent  feathering  floats,  which  have  been  found  so  efficient  and  successful  in 
their  operation  when  applied  to  other  steamers  of  this  line. 

Draught  of  water  aft,  17  feet  9  inches;  forward,  17  feet  6  inches;  when 
leaving  Blackwall  having  400  tons  of  coal  on  board.  It  is  calculated  that 
with  1,100  tons  of  coals,  and  with  cargo  and  stores  all  ready  for  sea,  the 
Orinoco  will  have  a  draught  of  water  of  21  feet  on  an  even  keel. 

The  magazine  of  the  ship  is  fitted  in  a  lead  tank,  and  may,  in  the  event  of 
fire,  be  immediately  flooded  with  water,  from  a  pipe  leading  from  the  spar 
deck. 

The  Orinoco  started  from  Blackwall  at  1.30  p.m.  on  Friday.  Two  trials 
of  her  speed  were  made  in  Long  Reach,  on  the  first  against  the  last  of  the 
flood  tide  ;  and,  tested  on  both  sides  at  the  measured  mile,  the  distance  was 
performed  in  5  minutes  10  seconds,  equal  to  a  speed  of  11.613  knots,  about 
12^  statute  miles  per  hour,  the  engines  making  13  revolutions  with  a  pres- 
sure of  12  lbs.  of  steam  in  the  boilers.  A  second  trial  gave  a  result  of  5 
minutes  33  seconds,  equal  to  10.811  knots,  to  which  was  added  the  influence 
of  the  tide,  equal  to  half  a  knot,  making  a  total  of  11.311  knots.  After  re- 
maining a  short  time  off  Gravesend,  the  Orinoco  proceeded  to  the  Nore,  where 
she  anchored  for  the  night,  performing  the  run  thence,  a  distance  of  23  miles, 
against  a  four-knot  tide,  in  1  hour  23  minutes,  the  engines  making  13^  revo- 
lutions, the  speed  by  Massey's  log,  when  added  to  the  adverse  influence  of 
the  tide,  giving  a  speed  of  nearly  12  knots,  equal  to  13  4.5  miles  per  hour. 

When  in  the  vicinity  of  Stokes  Bay,  advantage  was  taken  of  the  oppor- 
tunity to  test  the  speed  of  the  ship  by  several  runs  at  the  measured  mile,  the 
results  of  which  were  as  follows: — 

1st  run,  in  slack  water,  4m.  59sec,  equal  to  12.040  knots;  2nd,  5m.  9sec, 
11.650;  3rd,  4m.  59sec,  12.040 — revolutions  13f,  with  121bs.  steam. 

Experiments  were  also  made  in  turning  the  ship  when  under  full  steam, 
and  she  came  round  on  the  first  occasion  in  3m.  30sec,  and  on  second  trial 
in  2m.  30sec. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  above,  that  the  Orinoco,  on  two  trials,  attained  a 
speed  of  over  12  knots,  equal  to  about  13J  statute  miles  in  Stokes  Bay.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  that  she  was  light,  and  that,  when  fully  laden 
with  coals,  stores,  cargo,  &c,  her  rate  of  steam  through  the  water  will 
necessarily  be  considerably  less. — Times. 

THE  EASTERN  STEAM  NAVIGATION  COMPANY. 
At  a  meeting  to  promote  the  completion  of  the  Great  Western  docks  at 
Plymouth,  held  last  week,  a  committee  was  formed  to  procure  subscriptions 
for  the  6,000  guaranteed  5  per  cent,  shares  of  £10  each,  which  it  had  been 
resolved  to  issue,  and  which,  it  was  alleged,  would,  with  the  amount  au- 
thorized to  be  raised  on  debentures,  fully  suffice  for  the  objects  to  be  effected. 
The  amount  already  expended  was  stated  to  be  about  £90,000,  and  an  offer 
had  been  received  to  finish  the  undertaking  for  £78,000.  Mr.  Braine,  the 
deputy  chairman  of  the  Eastern  Steam  Navigation  Company,  attended,  and 
pointed  out  that  unless  the  docks  were  completed  it  would  be  impossible  for 
his  Company  to  bring  their  vessels  to  Plymouth.  He  added,  also,  to  show 
the  necessity  for  immediate  action  on  the  part  of  the  town,  if  they  would 
secure  the  advantages  contemplated,  that  the  tenders  for  the  second  monthly 
mail  to  India  and  China  would  be  decided  upon  at  the  end  of  February 
next,  and  that  the  Company,  by  arrangements  which  its  directors  had  made 
on  their  own  private  responsibility,  had  already  nearly  completed  one  vessel 
at  Bristol,  and  had  laid  down  the  keels  and  built  the  engines  of  seven  others. 

AFRICAN  MAIL  CONTRACT. 
The  contract  for  the  monthly  mail  line  of  screw  steamers  to  and  from  Eng- 
land and  the  West  Coast  of  Africa,  which  was  advertised  by  the  Admiralty 
in  September  last,  has  been  taken  by  Mr.  Macgregor  Laird.  It  is  for  nine 
years,  at  an  average  payment  of  £21,000  per  annum.  The  places  touched 
at  will  be  Madeira,  Teneriffe,  Goree,  River  Gambia,  Sierra  Leone,  Liberia, 
Cape  Coast  Castle,  Accra,  Whydah,  Badagry,  Lagos,  Bonny,  Calebar,  Came- 
roons,  and  Fernando  Po,  making  the  total  distance  out  and  home  9,000 
miles,  which,  including  stoppages,  will  be  performed  in  from  58  to  60  days. 
The  speed  of  the  vessels  is  to  average  8  knots,  and  their  size  will  be  about 
700  tons.  It  is  satisfactory  to  add  also  that  they  are  to  be  constructed  of  iron. 


42 


Reviews.— Engineers'  Strike. 


[February, 


KEVIEWS. 

Suggestions  for  a  Crystal  College,  or  new  Palace  of  Glass,  for  com- 
bining the  intellectual  talent  of  all  nations;  by  W.  Cave  Thomas. 
London  :  Dickinson  Brothers.     8vo.  pp.  63. 

Mr.  Thomas  is  favourably  known  as  the  master  of  the  North 
London  School  for  drawing  and  modelling,  and  his  experience  in  that 
capacity  has  led  him  to  take  up  the  entire  question  of  education, 
one  of  the  most  important  of  the  present  day,  and  which  cannot  be  too 
often  discussed,  so  long  as  the  combatants  preserve  that  philosophical 
spirit  which  distinguishes  Mr.  Thomas's  brochure.  His  arguments  on 
the  developement  of  animal  organization,  and  the  theory  that  man 
occupies,  very  probably,  the  "golden  mean"  in  animated  nature,  will 
be  found  interesting  to  the  student.  Appended  to  these  reflections, 
are  some  suggestions  on  a  grand  college,  in  which  provision  is  made 
for  mental  and  physical  education  in  every  branch  of  science  and  art. 
Institutions  of  this  class,  however,  are  not  of  mushroom  growth,  and 
we  should  prefer  seeing  our  existing  educational  establishments  in- 
creased in  usefulness,  to  expending  all  our  available  energy  in  be- 
ginning de  novo. 

Rudimentary   Treatise  on  Marine  Engines  and  Steam    Vessels;    by 

Robert  Murray,  C.E.     London  :  Weale. 

Mr.  Murray  has  been  successful  in  producing  a  very  useful  com- 
pilation on  the  management  and  construction  of  the  marine  engine,  as 
applied  to  the  paddle  wheel  and  the  screw.  Amongst  the  original  in- 
formation will  be  found  the  result  of  Lord  Dundonald's  experiments 
on  slow  combustion  in  marine  boilers,  the  experiments  at  Woolwich 
dockyard  on  the  same  subject,  tables  of  velocities  of  paddle  wheels,  a 
comparison  of  the  efficiency  of  different  vessels  for  scientific  purposes, 
in  which  the  number  of  tons  of  displacement  which  100  indicated 
horses  power  will  propel  at  ten  knots,  is  proposed  as  the  standard  of 
comparison.  There  are  also  the  government  forms  of  specifications  of 
paddle  wheel  and  screw  engines,  one  of  which  we  have  given  at  another 
page.  We  perceive  that  the  author  has  made  a  very  free  use  of  our 
columns,  without,  however,  acknowledging  the  source  from  which  his 
information  is  derived. 

Text-Book  of  Geometrical  Drawing;  by  William  Minifie.  Third 
Edition ;  Baltimore,  U.S. ;  imp.  8vo.  pp.  127.  Minifie  &  Co. 
Geometrical  drawing  is,  unhappily,  as  yet  so  little  established  as 
a  branch  of  education  in  this  country,  that  there  is  a  corresponding 
dearth  of  any  good  works  on  the  subject.  The  best  thing  of  the  kind 
we  have  seen  is  Bolton's  Drawing  from  Objects.  The  present  work  is 
of  a  similar  character,  but  on  a  more  extensive  scale.  Mr.  Minifie  is 
teacher  of  drawing  in  the  High  School  of  Baltimore,  and  this  work  is 
the  result  of  his  experience  in  that  capacity.  The  definitions  and  rules 
of  geometry  are  explained,  as  well  as  the  uses  of  the  various  instru- 
ments. This  portion,  which  may  be  called  the  elementary,  is  suc- 
ceeded by  examples  of  the  application  of  the  rules  to  Architecture, 
Carpentry,  and  Machinery.  The  last  subject  seems  to  demand  a  special 
treatise  for  students  who  wish  to  follow  it  up.  The  text  has  a  prac- 
tical tone  about  it  which  we  admire,  whilst  the  illustrations,  which  are 
numerous,  are  on  copper,  and  particularly  well  executed.  In  paper 
and  typography,  it  is  equal  to  any  work  of  the  same  class  published  in 
this  country,  which  is  more  than  we  can  say  of  the  Government  Patent 
Office  Report,  noticed  at  another  page,  and  which,  as  a  Government 
publication,  ought  certainly  to  set  a  better  example. 


Cyclopmdia  of  Useful  Arts ;  edited  by  Charles  Tomlinson.     Royal 
8vo.    Parts  1  to  5.     George  Virtue  :  London  and  New  York. 
We  are  indebted  to  the  Great  Exhibition  for  this  work,  which  pro- 
mises to  be  a  valuable  record  of  the  present  state  of  the  arts  and 


sciences.  It  takes  a  popular  view,  it  is  true,  but  from  the  care  with 
which  the  authorities  are  selected  and  quoted,  we  have  no  fear  that 
correctness  is  sacrificed  in  the  attempt  to  make  it  available  for  the 
million.  It  is  just  the  sort  of  work  for  a  Mechanics'  Institute,  and 
may  tempt  many  a  reader  to  drink  deeper  from  the  fountain  of  science. 

Dynamics,  Construction  of  Machinery,  Equilibrium  of  Structures,  and 
the  Strength  of  Materials;    by  G.  Finden  Warr.      Library   of 
Useful  Knowledge.    8vo.  pp.  296.    London  :  R.  Baldwin. 
The  title  is  almost  sufficiently  explanatory  of  the  objects  of  this 
work,  which  is  to  be  commended  not  less  for  the  lucidity  of  its  lan- 
guage, than  for  its  correctness  in  practical  detail,  the  latter  a  virtue 
but  little  known  in  popular  works.   Amongst  the  mechanism  detailed, 
will  be  found  the  steam-hammer,  Whitworth's  latest  improvements  in 
tools,  and  the  new  printing  machines.      Amongst  the  constructive 
examples  are  the^tubular  bridges,  and  the  experiments  by  the  Govern- 
ment Commission  on  the  use  of  iron  in  railway  structures.    At  another 
page  we  have  extracted  an  article  on  Freiburg  Suspension  Bridge. 

The  First  Step  in  Chemistry.     By  Robert  Galloway,  F.C.S.     8vo. 

pp.  91.     London  :  John  Churchill. 

This  appears  to  us  one  of  the  best  elementary  works  on  the  subject 
that  we  have  seen,  and  their  name  is  legion.  The  style  is  simple  and 
terse  ;  in  fact,  the  matter  reminds  us  of  the  notes  we  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  make  on  any  subject  on  which  it  was  desirable  to  enlarge 
in  the  class-room.  Exercises  are  appended  in  the  "catechism"  form, 
a  method  which  is  always  the  most  acceptable  to  the  student,  and 
attractive  to  the  general  reader. 

THE  ENGINEERS'  STRIKE. 
The  struggle  between  capital  and  labour  still  continues,  and,  we 
regret  deeply  to  say,  seems  likely  to  continue.  We  can  add  nothing 
to  what  we  said  last  month  on  the  points  of  over-time  and  piece-work. 
Their  justice  is  admitted,  we  have  reason  to  know,  by  many  of  our 
readers  of  the  artizan  class,  whose  only  answer  is,  "  We  must  do  as 
the  others  do."  Several  orders,  intended  for  London  firms,  have 
already  been  transferred  to  the  Clyde,  and  we  find  writers  in  France 
urging  French  engineers  not  to  let  slip  such  a  favourable  opportunity 
of  profiting  by  the  infatuated  blindness  of  English  engineers.  We 
extract  the  following  from  a  circular  issued  by  the  Employers'  Asso- 
ciation : — 

Ours  is  the  responsibility  of  the  details ;  ours  the  risk  of  loss  ;  ours  the 
capital,  its  perils  and  its  engagements.  We  claim,  and  are  resolved  to  assert 
the  right  of  every  British  subject,  to  do  what  we  like  with  our  own,  and  to 
vindicate  the  title  of  our  workmen  to  the  same  constitutional  privilege- 
Artizans  and  their  employers  are  respectively  individuals — each  legally 
capable  of  consent — each  severally  entitled  to  contract.  Our  agreements  for 
their  service  are  made  with  them  in  their  separate,  not  in  their  aggregate 
capacity.  They  have  labour  and  skill  to  sell ;  we  have  capital  to  employ  it 
and  to  pay  it.  Who,  then,  or  what  should  stand  between  these  two  single 
parties  to  a  lawful  bargain,  and  dictate  to  the  buyer  what  he  should  give,  or 
control  the  seller  in  the  conditions  of  his  service  ?  In  the  most  literal  sense 
we  are  the  customers  of  the  working  classes ;  and  the  interference  of  self- 
constituted  arbiters  with  the  internal  economy  of  our  establishments  is  not 
less  preposterous  than  would  be  a  command  from  our  baker  as  to  the  num- 
ber or  the  price  of  loaves  we  should  consume ;  or  a  mandate  from  our  butcher 
as  to  when  we  should  dine  and  what  should  be  the  meat.  We  altogether 
ignore  the  proposition  that  we  should  submit  to  arbitration  the  question, 
whether  our  own  property  is  ours,  and  whether  we  are  entitled  to  be  the 
masters  of  our  own  actions. 

Our  business  renders  us  more  obnoxious  to  strikes  than  any  other,  and 
renders  precautions  against  them  more  imperative.  The  heavy  expense  of 
our  machinery  and  tools,  and  the  peculiar  character  of  the  work  we  produce. 


1852.] 


Boiler  Making  in  Lancashire. 


43 


render  over-time,  piece-work,  and  irregularity  of  employment  an  unavoid- 
able and  certain  incident  of  our  calling.  We  cannot,  like  the  spinner,  the 
weaver,  or  the  cloth-worker,  manufacture  on  speculation,  and  produce  without 
order,  certain  that  ultimately  the  article  will  be  required,  and  must  always 
be  iu  -demand.  The  same  yarn  will  weave  to  any  pattern,  the  same  cloth 
will  f.t  any  coat ;— but  we  can  only  produce  to  order,  and  we  must  produce 
our  commodity  when  it  is  ordered.  Our  customers  require  all  their  pur- 
chi  -ses  for  a  special  purpose,  and  at  a  particular  time.  Perhaps  they  are 
use-less  to  them,  unless  supplied  when  stipulated— certainly  they  will  cease 
to  employ  us  if  we  fail  to  finish  to  our  time.  Belgium  and  Germany  are  not 
far  off.  Piedmont  and  Switzerland  are  quite  within  competitive  distance. 
•  Tho  United  States  begin  to  manufacture  for  themselves,  and  even  to  meet  us 
in  neutral  markets.  France,  but  recently  our  largest  customer,  is  now  our 
most  formidable  rival,  and,  in  spite  of  her  disadvantages  in  reference  to  the 
raw  material,  almost  entirely  supplies  her  own  demand.  If  we  are  to  enjoy 
an  equality  of  advantages  with  our  competitors  in  the  common  market  of  the 
world,  we  must  consent  to  bind  ourselves  to  complete  our  eontracts  on  a  day 
early,  and  certain.  Short-sighted  unionists,  aware  that  we  work  against  time, 
some  of  us  under  actual  penalties,  all  of  us  under  peril  of  loss  of  trade  if  we 
fail  in  punctuality,  induce  the  men,  when  the  master  is  in  his  greatest  diffi- 
culty, to  take  advantage  of  his  necessities  to  wring  from  him  humiliating  and 
unjust  concessions,  which  leave  him  without  profit,  or  threaten  him  with  loss. 
Afraid  to  subject  himself  to  the  repetition  of  practices  which  present  to  him 
only  the  alternative  betwixt  heavy  fines  for  failure  of  contracts,  or  loss  of 
business  character,  and  exorbitant  remuneration  for  inferior  skill,  the  master 
declines  otherwise  profitable  orders,  draws  his  operations  narrower,  and 
diminishes  the  demand  for  labour;  and  this  dread  spreading  generally  through 
the  trade,,  and  too  amply  justified  by  offensive  interference,  forced  upon  every 
master,  induces  a  universal  disposition  to  decline  the  most  valuable  custom, 
and  thereby  seriously  to  depress  the  business,  and  circumscribe  the  employ- 
ment of  the  country. 

It  will  readily  occur  to  all  who  have  the  slightest  acquaintance  with  com- 
merce, that  production  carried  on  almost  entirely  to  order,  and  limited  as  to 
time  in  its  completion,  cannot  be  conducted  without  over  time,  in  a  great 
measure  as  systematic  as  the  punctuality  of  the  time-orders  received — that 
as  masters  are  taxed  from  25  to  50  per  cent,  more  for  the  extra  hours,  when 
the  service  is  least  valuable,  nothing  but  necessity  would  induce  them  to 
adopt  the  practice — that  from  the  very  nature  of  mechanical  operations, 
which  are  almost  as  dependent  on  each  other,  and  as  successive  in  their  pro- 
cesses as  the  inanimate  machinery  they  fabricate,  the  non-completion  of  one 
article  may  keep  many  persons  idle  who  are  waiting  to  commence  some 
department  of  machinery  to  which  the  former  is  indispensable ;  and  that  as 
the  machinery  and  tools  used  in  engineering  involve  vast  outlay  of  capital — 
the  only  option  left  to  the  employer  is  to  work  one  set  of  tools  beyond  the 
usual  hours  of  labour,  or  to  erect  another  set  at  an  exorbitant  expense, 
which,  even  if  it  would  serve  the  purpose,  which  it  could  not,  must  come  out 
of  the  price  of  the  work  it  executes  ;  in  which  case  demand  is  discouraged, 
and  customers  are  driven  to  jforeign  markets,  and  byotheir  withdrawal  the 
demand  for  employment  is  destroyed.* 

It  is  under  these  circumstances  that  the  employers  in  Lancashire  and  in 
London  have,  by  pre-concert,  simultaneously  received  notice  from  the  ostensible 
representatives  of  15,000  of  our  artisans,  that  "they  have  come  to  a  resolu- 
tion to  abolish  the  practices  of  over-time  and  piece-work;"  and  in  "those 
cases  where  over-time  is  really  necessary,  in  cases  of  break-downs  or  other 
accidents,  all  time  so  worked  over,  to  be  charged  and  paid  at  the  rate  of 
double  time."  The  true  intent  and  meaning  of  these  conditions  is  this, — 
that  where  a  master  sustains  the  heavy  loss  of  breaking  a  highly  expensive 
instrument,  he  shall,  in  addition  to  his  misfortune,  be  fined  by  our  artisans 

*  Many  illustrations  will  occur  to  the  professional  reader,  of  the  impossibility  of  procuring 
a  substitute  for,  or  dispensing  with  the  use  of  over-time  in  a  trade  which  is  so  peculiarly 
dependent  for  orders  on  season  and  punctuality.  Railway  engines  must  be  supplied  to 
time,  to  prevent  the  confusion  of  the  whole  public  arrangements;  and  as  the  nature  of  the 
work  will  not  admit  of  the  access  to  it  of  more  than  a  certain  number  of  hands,  it  is  imprac- 
ticable to  avoid  irregularity  or  protraction  of  the  hours  of  labour.  Proprietors  of  steamers 
on  the  Rhine,  the  Thames,  or  the  Clyde  must  have  new  steamboats  ready  before  the  travelling 
season,  else  the  profits  they  would  earn  would  be  lost,  and  the  order,  therefore,  would  not 
be  given,  except  under  obligation  to  complete  the  vessels  in  proper  time,  which  may  only 
be  possible  by  working  over-hours.  Whole  fleets  of  steamers  may  be  damaged  by  winter 
storms,  and  to  dispatch  mails  with  punctuality,  the  repairs  must  be  pressed  forward  night 
and  day. 


double  wages  to  repair  it,  although  the  earnings  of  perhaps  a  thousand  of 
their  fellow-mechanics  may  depend  on  the  immediate  resumption  of  its 
working.  For  the  protection  of  our  customers,  there  is  no  sacrifice  which 
we  will  not  cheerfully  bear,  rather  than  submit  to  this  extortion. 

Many  of  ourselves  have  traced  their  rise  from  the  condition  of  the  em- 
ployed to  that  of  employers  to  the  opportunites  afforded  by  piece-work, 
which  enabled  them  to  become  small  contractors,  and  thereby  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  rewards  of  their  directing  skill.  As  it  is  the  fairest  and 
least  fallible  test  of  the  value  of  labour,  and  best  enables  the  master  to  make 
his  estimates  with  security,  so  it  is  the  line  which  measures  off  the  expert 
and  industrious  workman  from  the  lazy  and  unskilful;  and,  above  all,  it  is 
the  lever  by  which  patient  merit  and  superior  intelligence  raises  itself  above 
the  surrounding  level,  and  enables  society  to  reward  and  to  profit  by  me- 
chanical genius,  and  energy,  as  well  as  respectability  of  character.  All 
classes,  in  nearly  every  avocation,  have  occasionally  to  work  over-time — the 
P,rime  Minister  perhaps  the  most — the  successful  physician  or  the  greatest 
lawyer  the  most  slavishly.  But  men  of  any  merit  voluntarily  set  the  task  to 
themselves — those  of  the  mechanic  class  earnestly  desire  it  ;  and  so  far  is 
either  that  or  piece-work  from  being  regarded  as  an  oppression,  our  experi- 
ence as  masters  is,  that  in  the  eyes  of  mechanics,  as  a  body,  it  is  viewed  as  a 
positive  objection  to  an  establishment  that  it  does  not  afford  opportunity  for 
working  over-time.  The  real  objection  to  piece-work,  we  fear,  is,  that  it 
protects  the  masters  against  those  who  are  indisposed  to  give  a  fair  day's 
work  for  a  fair  day's  wages. 

It  has  been  publicly  announced,  that  the  operatives  intend  starting 
shops  of  their  own,  in  the  event  of  the  employers  keeping  their  works 
closed ;  and  of  course,  if  the  men  or  their  advisers  have  discovered  any 
improved  method  of  conducting  an  engineering  business,  so  as  to  make  a 
greater  profit  than  previous  capitalists  have  done,  the  public  cannot  but 
be  benefitted  by  the  competition.  One  thing,  at  all  events,  is  certain, 
that  there  is  no  lack  of  concerns  in  the  market  for  them  to  choose 
from.  Of  these,  there  are  six  in  London  and  the  vicinity  alone,  besides 
others  at  Liverpool,  Bristol,  &c,  the  majority  of  them  old  established 
concerns;  which  would  absorb  sums  varying  from  ,£10,000  to  £50,000 
each,  to  put  them  in  working  condition.  The  reason  for  this  is  a  very 
simple  one — wages  on  the  Clyde  are  about  25  per  cent,  lower  than  in 
London,  and  there  is  no  concealing  the  fact  that  the  Scotch  engineers 
are  gradually  drawing  the  trade  away  from  London,  and  the  ultimate 
effect  will  be  that  the  large  London  houses  will  have  to  open  country 
establishments,  or  give  up  business  altogether.  Messrs.  Boulton  and 
Watt  have  always  had  their  works  at  Birmingham,  and  their  office  in 
London,  and  Messrs.  Miller  and  Ravenhill  have  recently  opened  a  ship- 
building establishment  on  the  Tyne.  The  London  trade  will  thus  be 
confined  to  repairs,  which  can  only  be  done  conveniently  on  the  spot 
where  they  are  required,  and  the  great  bulk  of  the  workmen  will  have 
the  option  of  "  three  courses  " — either  to  work  in  the  country  at  country 
wages,  to  change  their  trade,  or  to  emigrate.  We  only  hope  they  may 
reflect  before  it  is  too  late. 

BOILER  MAKING  IN  LANCASHIRE. 

Oub  Lancashire  friends,  we  find,  cannot  settle  down  to  any  definite 
form  of  boiler.  We  know  what  a  "  Cornish  boiler"  is,  and  Mr.  Arm- 
strong tells  us  there  is  a  "  London  boiler,"  but  what  a  "  Lancashire 
boiler"  is,  nobody  will  venture  to  say.  Cornish  boilers  were  tried  in 
Lancashire,  but  were  not  found  so  applicable  for  inferior  coal,  owing 
to  their  limited  area  for  fire-grate.  This  led  to  the  introduction  of 
the  double-flued,  or  Fairbairn's  boiler,  which  answered  for  a  time, 
until  Messrs.  Galloway  changed  its  character  by  uniting  the  furnaces 
behind  the  bridge,  and  by  introducing  water-tubes  to  give  more 
heating  surface  in  the  same  capacity.  Two  or  three  explosions  set 
some  of  the  more  timid  in  search  of  locomotive  boilers,  but  the  first 
cost  of  these  will  always  operate  against^their  extensive  introduction. 
A  new  idea  was  then  started,  "  Enlarge  the  fire-box,  and  remove  the 
tubes  further  from  the  intense  heat,  to  make  them  last  longer."    Two 


44 


List  of  English  Patents. 


[February,  185: 


well-known  engineers  have  followed  out  this  idea,  Mr.  Holcroft  of 
Manchester,  and  Mr.  Hick  of  Bolton.  The  former,  we  believe,  was 
in  the  field  first,  and  registered  a  design  for  what  we  may  call  a  "  twin 
boiler,"  consisting  of  an  ordinary  double-flued  boiler,  the  flame  from 
which  is  carried  through  another  cylindrical  boiler,  placed  alongside 
of  it,  filled,  within  a  due  distance  of  the  water-level,  with  small  tubes. 
This  plan  had  the  advantage,  that  both  ends  of  the  tubes  were  acces- 
sible, and  that  the  multitubular  boiler  could  be  readily  put  in  or  taken 
out,  without  disturbing  the  other.  Mr.  Hick  has  just  specified  a  patent 
for  a  slight  variation  of  the  same  idea ;  the  only  difference  being  that 
the  two  boilers  are  placed  end  to  end,  with  a  chamber  between  them 
lined  with  fire-brick,  to  render  the  combustion  of  smoke  more  per- 
fect. Neither  of  these  plans  appear  to  us  to  possess  any  material  ad- 
vantage over  Messrs.  Galloway's  water-tube  boilers.  The  deposit^  of 
scale  on  the  small  tubes  appears  likely  to  give  trouble.  On  this  point 
we  shall  collect  some  information  for  an  ensuing  number. 


Mr.  D.  Mushet,  versus  "  The  Artizan." — Our  attention  has  been  called 
to  a  series  of  letters  in  the  Mining  Journal,  under  the  signature,  D.  Mushet, 
in  which  the  writer  attempts  to  deny  the  correctness  of  an  opinion  expressed 
by  the  conductor  of  this  journal  in  1844,  on  the  inventions  of  Mr.  Craddock. 
With  the  correctness  or  incorrectness  of  that  opinion  we  will  not  now  deal; 
we  may,  perhaps,  do  so  on  a  future  occasion.  There  is  another  point,  how- 
ever (not  at  all  affecting  that  opinion),  which  we  should  like  to  see  cleared 
Up: — Mr.  Mushet  states  that  Mr.  Craddock,  demurring  to  the  opinion  so 
expressed,  "  replied  in  his  usual  dispassionate  style."  This  answer  did  not 
appear,  neither  any  usual  notice  to  correspondents  ;  but  Mr.  Craddock  re- 
ceived a  private  note  from  the  editor  stating,  that  "  on  the  remittance  of  £5 
his  answer  should  be  inserted."  If  this  means  anything  it  means,  that  the 
editor  of  this  journal  required  a  bribe  of  £5  to  induce  him  to  give  insertion 
to  an  article,  the  tenor  of  which  was  contrary  to  his  convictions.  As  the 
present  conductor  had,  at  the  time  mentioned,  no  connexion  with  the 
Artizan,  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  do  more  than  disclaim  any  knowledge  of  the 
note  in  question,  nor  is  it  easy  to  obtain  evidence  on  what  might  take  place 
eight  years  ago.  We  have  only,  therefore,  one  request  to  make  (and  from 
the  courtesy  displayed  in  Mr.  Mushet's  communications,  we  feel  sure  that 
he  will  oblige  us),  which  is,  that  he  will  publish  the  whole  of  the  note,  of 
which  he  gives  what  purports  to  be  an  extract.  We  trust  that  it  will 
throw  some  light  on  the  subject. 

NOVELTIES. 

Hollow  Brickwork. — The  objection  to  the  hollow  bricks,  as  hitherto 
made,  has  been,  that  "in  the  manufacture  the  core  could  not  be  supported 
except  by  a  thin  bar,  which,  as  the  brick 
issued  from  the  die,  did,  in  fact,  cut  it  in 
halves,  to  be  afterwards  joined  by  the  co- 
hesion of  the  clay.  But,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected, the  joint  was  always  weak,  and  the 
bricks  frequently  split  at  that  point.  The 
annexed  sketch  shows  a  plan,  registered  by 
Mr.  T.  Paris,  of  Barnett,  for  moulding  solid 
bricks,  so  that,  when  laid  together,  they  will 
form  hollow  brick-work.  These  bricks  are 
made  without  a  core,  and  therefore  (Aviate 
the  difficulty  above  mentioned.  They  can 
also  be  made  of  any  clay,  and  can  be  burned 
in  a  clamp,  which  will  render  them  much 
cheaper.  There  can  be  no  question  about 
the  perfection  of  the  bond  which  they  form, 
and,  in  fact,  with  a  little  sand  to  fill  up  the 
crevices,  they  would  be  admirably  adapted  for  temporary  buildings  of  all 
kinds. 

Whishaw's  Tele- 
kouphonon.  —  Ttye 
use  of  speaking  tubes 
is  rapidly  spreading, 
and  after  once  being 
introduced    into    a 
house,  the  inmates 
wonder    how    they 
could  ever  have  existed  without  them.     The 
accompanying  sketch  represents  an  arrange- 
ment invented  by  Mr.  Whishav*,  the  telegraphic 
engineer,  and  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Kepp, 
of  Chandos  Street.     The  object  is  to  show,  in 
a  room  where  there  are  a  number  of  mouth- 
pieces, from  which  the  signal  proceeds.    Each 
mouth-piece  has  a  stopper,  consisting  of  a  whistle,  in  the  centre  of  which  is 


a  little  spindle  with  aii  ivory  button  on  the  end.     When  the  sender  bk 
down  the  pipe,  it  whistles  to  call  attention,  and  forces  out  the  ivory  butu 
to  distinguish  the  mouth-piece.    In  long  lengths  of  pipe,  a  difficulty   is  ex 
perienced  in  forcing  the  air  by  the  lungs,  and  accordingly  a  cylind<  ?  and 
piston,  forming  a  simple  air-pump,  are  provided,  by  a  single  stro\e  of 
which  the  whistle  is  at  once  sounded. 


I 


LIST  OF  ENGLISH  PATENTS. 
From  31st  December,  1851,  to  22nd  Januaey,  1852. 
Six  months  allowed  for  enrolment,  unless  otherwise  expressed.  \ 

Kobert  Beck  Froggatt,  of  Sale  Moor,  Chester,  manufacturing  analytical  chemist,  for  im- 
provements in  the  preparation  of  certain  compounds  to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  renderiW 
woven  and  textile  fabrics,  paper,  leather,  wood,  or  other  materials  or  substances  waterproti* 
and  fireproof,  and  also  in  machinery  or  apparatus  employed  therein.    December  31. 

Francis  Hastings  Greenstreet,  of  Albany-street,  Mornington  .crescent,  for  improvements' 
in  coating  and  ornamenting  zinc.    December  31. 

George  Gwynne,  of  Hyde  Park-square,  Middlesex,  Esq.,  and  George  Fergusson  Wilson, 
managing  director  of  Price's  Patent  Candle  Manufactory,  Belmont,  Vauxhall,  for  improve- 
ments in  treating  fatty  and  oily  matters,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  lamps,  candles,  night- 
lamps,  and  soap.    December  31. 

George  Collier,  of  Halifax,  York,  mechanic,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  car- 
pets and  other  fabrics.    December  31. 

Francis  Clark  Monatis,  of  Earlstown,  Berwick,  builder,  for  an  improved  hydraulic  syphon. 
December  31. 

David  Napier,  of  Millwall,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  steam-engines.    December  31 . 

Thomas  Barnett,  of  Kingstcn-upon-Hull,  grocer,  for  improvements  in  machinery  for 
grinding  wheat  and  other  grain.    January  8. 

Joseph  Addenbrooke,  of  Bartlett's-passage,  London,  envelope  manufacturer,  for  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  envelopes,  and  in  machinery  used  therein.    January  8. 

Charles  Dickson  Archibald,  of  Portland-place,  Middlesex,  Esq.,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  bricks  and  other  articles  made  of  plastic  materials,  and  in  cutting,  shaping, 
and  dressing  the  same,  as  also  stone,  wood  and  metals,  and  in  machinery  and  apparatus 
employed  therein.    (Being  a  communication.)    January  8. 

William  Cook,  of  Kingston-upon-Hull,  working  copper-smith,  for  certain  improvements 
in  the  construction  of  steam  engines,  consisting  of  a  rotatory  circular  valve  for  the  regular 
admission  of  steam  from  the  boiler  alternately  into  the  chambers  of  the  two  cylinders  o! 
double-acting  engines.    January  12. 

Alcide  MarcelUn  Duthoit,  of  Paris,  France,  statuary,  for  an  improved  chemical  combina- 
tion of  certain  agents  for  obtaining  a  new  plastic  product.    January  12. 

Robert  John  Smith,  of  Islington,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  certain  improvements  in 
machinery  or  apparatus  for  steering  ships  and  other  vessels.    January  13. 

Jean  Antoine  Farina,  of  Paris,  proprietor,  for  a  process  for  manufacturing  paper 
January  13.  ' 

James  Aikman,  of  Paisley,  Renfrew,  North  Britain,  calenderer,  for  improvements  in  tl 
treatment  or  finishing  of  textile  fabrics  and  materials.    January  20. 

James  Macnee,  of  Glasgow,  North  Britain,  merchant,  for  improvements  in  the  manufs 
ture  or  production  of  ornamental  fabrics.    January  20. 

Thomas  Kennedy,  of  Kilmarnock,  North  Britain,  gun-manufacturer,  for  improvements  i 
measuring  and  registering  the  flow  of  water  and  other  fluids.    January  20. 

Peter  Armand  Lecomte  de  Fontainemoreau,  of  South-street,  Finsbury,  for  certain  i 
provements  in  treating  fibrous  substances.    (A  communication.)    January  20. 

Henry  Graham  William  Wagstaff,  of  Bethnal-green,  Middlesex,  candle-maker,  for  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  candles.    January  20. 

Peter  Wright,  of  Dudley,  Worcester,  vice  and  anvil  manufacturer,  for  improvements  in 
the  manufacture  of  anvils.    January  20. 

John  Whitehead  the  younger,  of  Elton,  near  Bury,  Lancaster,  dyer  and  finisher,  and 
Robert  Diggle,  of  the  same  place,  foreman,  for  improvements  in  bleaching  and  dying,  and 
in  washing,  scouring,  and  other  processes  connected  therewith.    January  20. 

George  Lowe,  of  Finsbury  Circus,  London,  civil  engineer,  and  Frederick  John  Evans,  o* 
Horseferry-road,  Westminster,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  gas 
for  the  purposes  of  illumination,  and  of  improvements  in  the  purification  of  gas,  and  of  im- 
proved modes  of  treating  the  products  arising  from  the  manufacture  of  gas.    January  20. 

Frank  dbrke  Hills,  of  Deptford,  Kent,  manufacturing  chemist,  for  improvements  in 
manufacturing  and  purifying  certain  gases,  and  in  preparing  certain  substances  for  purifying  '. 
the  same.    January  22. 

Peter  Armand  Lecomte  de  Fontainemoreau,  of  South-street,  Finsbury,  London,  for  certain 
improvements  in  railways  and  locomotive  engines,  which  said  improvements  are  also  ap- 
plicable to  every  kind  of  transmission  of  motion.    (A  communication.)    January  22. 

Edward  Tyer,  of  Queen's-road,  Dalston,  gentleman,  for  certain  improvements  in  tht 
means  of  communication  by  electricity,  and  apparatus  connected  therewith.    January  22. 

James  Pillans  Wilson  and  George  Fergusson  Wilson,  of  Wandsworth,  gentlemen,  for  im- 
provements in  the  preparation  of  wool  for  the  manufacture  of  woollen  and  other  fabrics, 
and  in  the  process  of  obtaining  materials  to  be  used  for  that  purpose.    January  22. 

Walter  Marr  Brydone,  of  Boston,  for  improvements  in  apparatus  for  signal  and  other 
lights  for  railways.    January  22. 


1852. 
January, 


DESIGNS  FOR  ARTICLES  OF  UTILITY. 
From  the  26th  December  1851,  to  the  22nd  January,  1852,  inclusive. 
December  26, 3067,  James  Black,  Edinburgh,  "Paper  cutting  machine." 

„    27,  3068,  F.T.  Jones  and  Co.,  London,  "  Moulding  to  be  used  as  a  picture-rod.' 
„    27,  3069,  W.  Peech,  Sheffield,  "Non-equal  shears." 

„  29,  3070,  J.  Chesterman,  Sheffield,  "  Double  expanding  and  contracting  spanne- 
„  30,  3071,  Henry  Kearsley,  Ripon,  Yorkshire,  "  General  tile-screening  or  grindi; 
and  brick-machine." 

1,  3072,  George  N.  Haden,  Trowbridge,  "  Hand  hard-labour  machine." 

1,  3073,  J.  Thornton  and  Sons,  Birmingham,  "Railway-carriage  roof-lamp.' 

2,  3174,  John  Ferrabee,  Stroud,  "Grass-cutter." 
2,  3175,  John  Hughes,  Lee,  Kent,  "  Nursery  yacht." 
2,  3176,  Victor  Angiers,  Fitzroy-square,  "Design  for  brushes." 

10,  3077,  Walsh  and  Brierley,  Halifax,  "Double  bar  brace-slide." 

12,  3078,  J.  and  T.  Brown,  Bradford,  "  Pressing  lever." 

12,  3079,  T.  Johnson,  Manchester,  "  Compound  spring  for  a  printing-press." 

12,  3080,  G.  Lewis,  Leicester,  "Lock." 

13,  3081,  W.  Pearse,  Tavistock,  "Roasting-jack." 

13,  3082, R.  Gordon  and  J.  Thompson,  Stockport  and  Manchester,   "He 
wrought-iron  yarn-beam,  back-roller,  and  cloth-beam." 

14,  3083,  S.  Samuel,  Houndsditch,  "  Cap-peak." 
16, 3084,  J.  Humphreys,  Lancaster,  "  Presser-mould." 
17,  3085,  T.  G.  Cressall,  Finsbury,  "  Steam-lock." 

20,  J086,  S.  Hood,  Upper  Thames-street,  "  Stable-fitting  for  loose-box." 
20,  3087,  W.  Coulson,  York,  "  Morticing  machine." 
22,  3088,  H.  Wilkinson,  Pall-mall,  "  Self-expanding  solid  rifle  bullet" 
22,  3089,  Stephen  Webb,  of  the  firm  of  Walker  and  Webb,  Oxford-street,  "  Ku 

siphon,  or  fetlock  boot." 


55 


I 


THE    AKTIZAN 


No.  III.— Vol.  X.— MARCH  1st,  1852. 


PATENT  HYDKAULIC  PURCHASE  MACHINERY  FOR  SLIP 

DOCKS. 

Daniel  Miller,  C.E.,  Patentee,  Glasgow. 

Illustrated  by  Plate  4. 

The  efficiency  of  slip  docks,  and  the  facility  with  which  they  can  he 
constructed,  have  led  to  their  general  adoption,  both  in  this  and  in  other 
countries.  The  cost  of  their  construction,  compared  with  dry  docks,  is 
very  small,  and  they  possess  many  other  advantages. 

A  slip  dock  consists  of  three  principal  parts  :  the  inclined  plane,  or 
"  slip,"'  running  down  into  the  water,  on  which  are  placed  three  or 
more  lines  of  massive  cast-iron  rails  on  strong  foundations ;  the  carriage 
or  cradle,  upon  which  the  vessel  is  hauled  up,  provided  with  truck 
wheels  having  flanges  to  guide  them  on  the  rails,  and  also  with  palls  to 
fall  into  the  rack  on  the  inclined  plane ;  and  the  purchase  machinery  at 
the  top  of  the  slip  by  which  the  motive  power  is  brought  up  to  the  re- 
quired degree  for  hauling  up  the  carriage  with  the  ship  upon  it, — the 
connection  between  the  carriage  and  the  machinery  being  formed  by  a 
series  of  iron  traction  rods  united  by  bolts  and  coupling  links.  It  is  upon 
the  last  part  of  the  slip  that  the  improvement  to  be  described  has  been 
effected,  the  main  feature  of  which  is,  the  application  of  hydraulic 
power.  The  purchase  machinery  used  hitherto  for  bringing  up  the 
power,  consists  of  a  system  of  spur  and  pinion  wheel  geering,  which 
transmits  the  power  to  a  barrel  or  drum  on  the  last  spur-wheel,  the 
revolution  of  which  draws  round  it  a  short  pitch  chain,  attached  to  the 
iron  traction  rods  leading  down  to  the  carriage. 

The  Patent  Hydraulic  Purchase  Machinery,  invented  by  D.  Miller, 
Esq.,  civil  engineer,  of  Glasgow,  has  been  carried  into  successful  opera- 
tion at  the  large  slip  dock  recently  constructed  at  the  harbour  of  Glas- 
gow, on  the  Clyde,  by  Messrs.  R.  B.  Bell,  &  D.  Miller,  C.E. 

The  accompanying  engraving  represents  the  purchase  erected  there, 
which  was  made  by  Messrs.  S.  and  H.  Morton,  engineers,  Edinburgh. 
As  it  had  to  be  made  to  suit  foundations  which  had  been  prepared  for 
purchase  machinery  on  the  old  principle,  the  arrangement  had  to  be 
made  accordingly,  or  a  different  one  might  probably  have  been  adopted. 

Referring  to  the  engraving,  a  represents  a  massive  cylinder  of  cast- 
iron  placed  at  an  inclination  corresponding  to  that  of  the  slip,  and  sup- 
ported on  cross  bearers  which  are  firmly  bolted  down  to  the  foundation 
of  masonry.  It  is  fitted  with  a  moveable  ram,  b,  working  through 
cupped  leathers  at  the  neck.  Two  side-rods  proceed  from  the  cross- 
head,  k,  on  the  end  of  the  ram  along  the  sides  of  the  hydraulic 
cylinder,  to  another  cross-head,  t,  where  the  traction  rods  are  attached, 
connecting  it  with  the  carriage  on  which  is  the  vessel  to  be  drawn  up 
on  the  slip.  The  motive  power  is  a  steam  engine,  placed  on  a  separate 
foundation  alongside,  but  which  is  not  shown.  The  engine  shaft  puts 
in  motion  the  two  cranks,  g  g,  which  work  the  plungers,  h  h,  of  the 
pumps  fixed  in  the  cistern,  d.  These  pumps  have  each  two  plungers, 
the  one  inside  the  othei-,  so  as  easily  to  admit  of  a  change  of  power, 
according  to  the  size  of  vessel  to  be  hauled  up.    e  is  a  weight  connected 


by  a  chain,  winding  round  a  roller,  to  the  cross-head  of  the  ram,  for  the 
purpose  of  drawing  the  ram  back  again  into  the  cylinder  after  it  has 
completed  a  stroke.  In  order  to  avoid  having  the  pit,  into  which  the 
weight  descends,  of  an  inconvenient  depth,  the  roller  is  made  of  two 
diameters,  that  part  of  the  chain  from  the  cross-head  to  the  roller 
winding  round  the  larger  diameter,  and  the  part  descending  into  the 
pit  round  the  smaller  diameter,  s,  is  a  large  cock  worked  by  the  lever, 
j,  for  discharging  the  water  from  the  cylinder  back  to  the  cistern. 

Mode  of  Action. — The  carriage  having  been  run  down  the  in- 
clined plane,  or  slip,  into  the  water,  and  the  vessel  properly  blocked  up 
and  secured  upon  it,  the  connection  between  it  and  the  cross-head  of 
the  purchase  is  formed  by  the  traction  rods.  The  ram  being  supposed 
to  be  at  the  commencement  of  its  stroke,  the  clutch  on  the  engine 
shaft  is  put  in  gear,  by  which  the  pumps  are  put  in  motion,  and  force 
the  water  from  the  cistern,  d,  into  the  hydraulic  cylinder.  The  ram  is 
thereby  made  to  move  steadily  up  out  of  the  cylinder  (with  a  force  in 
comparison  with  the  steam  engine  or  other  actuating  power,  as  the  area 
of  the  forcing-pumps  to  the  area  of  the  ram),  and,  by  means  of  the 
side  rods  between  the  two  cross-heads,  communicates  the  motion  to  the 
traction  rods  connected  with  the  carriage,  which,  with  the  vessel  upon 
it,  is  hauled  up  on  the  slip.  When  the  ram  has  moved  out  of  the 
cylinder  the  length  of  its  stroke,  it  is  stopped  by  a  man  at  the  lever,  j, 
turning  the  discharge  cock,  s,  which  allows  the  water  to  escape  from 
the  cylinder  back  to  the  cistern ;  the  traction  rod  nearest  the  top  is 
then  removed,  and  the  ram  is  immediately  drawn  back  into  the  cylinder 
by  the  descending  weight,  e.  The  next  traction  rod  being  now  taken 
hold  of  by  the  cross-head,  t,  the  same  action  again  takes  place,  and 
the  ram  moves  up  to  the  end  of  its  stroke,  when  another  traction  rod 
is  knocked  off,  and  the  ram  returns  to  be  attached  to  another,  and  soon. 
By  a  succession  of  these  movements,  the  carriage,  with  the  ship 
upon  it,  is  steadily  and  quickly  drawn  up  on  the  slip  to  the  distance 
required. 

For  drawing  up  the  empty  carriage,  a  chain  barrel,  e,  supported  on 
the  standards,  1 1,  is  used,  which  is  worked  by  the  sliding  pinion,  n,  on 
the  engine  shaft,  putting  in  motion  the  wheels,  o,  p,  and  r,  the  last  of 
which  is  on  the  barrel  shaft.  The  chain  from  the  barrel  passes  over  a 
guide  roller,  u,  at  the  lower  end  of  the  cylinder.  This  apparatus  is  also 
used  for  letting  down  the  empty  carriage  into  the  water,  preparatory  to 
taking  on  a  vessel,  in  which  case  the  brake,  x,  is  employed  to  regulate 
the  descent. 

The  advantages  of  the  hydraulic  purchase  will  be  at  once  apparent  to 
all  practical  persons  accustomed  to  machinery  working  under  heavy 
strains.  In  the  purchase  machinery  on  the  old  principle  the  whole  strain 
in  drawing  up  a  ship  being  sustained  by  the  bearings  of  the  shafts  and 
the  teeth  of  the  wheels,  a  great  amount  of  friction  is  produced,  causing 
much  loss  of  power  and  wear  and  tear  ;  but  in  the  hydraulic  purchase, 
as  the  whole  strain  is  exerted  in  a  line  with  the  ram,  no  surfaces  are 
brought  in  contact  to  produce  these  disadvantageous  effects. 

7 


46 


The  Irish  Difficulty,  and  its  Solution. 


[March, 


One  of  the  great  advantages  of  the  hydraulic  power  is  the  smooth- 
ness and  uniformity  of  working  which  may  be  attained,  and  the  ease 
with  which  it  may  be  managed ;  all  the  attendance  that  the  machine 
requires  is,  that  the  lever,  j,  may  be  raised  by  one  of  the  men  who 
remove  the  traction  rods,  each  time  that  the  ram  gets  to  the  top  of  its 
stroke,  as,  by  turning  the  cock,  s,  the  machine  can  be  stopped  or  set 
on,  and  the  speed  decreased  or  increased  with  perfect  ease  ;  and  as  the 
engine  and  pumps  work  all  the  time  that  a  ship  is  being  hauled  up, 
there  is  no  trouble  in  clutching  or  unclutching  the  engine  shaft.  The 
speed  of  the  ram,  with  the  large  pumps  working,  in  taking  up  vessels 
of  500  tons  register,  is  twelve  feet  per  minute,  and  when  ships  of  800  or 
900  tons  register  are  taken  up,  with  the  small  pumps  working,  the  speed 
is  six  feet  per  minute.  No  time  is  lost  by  the  return  of  the  ram  to  take 
a  fresh  hold,  as  it  comes  back  as  quickly  as  the  men  can  remove  the 
rods. 

It  is  a  sufficient  proof  of  the  efficiency  of  the  hydraulic  purchase, 
notwithstanding  that  it  was  the  first  one  erected,  and,  therefore,  could 
scarcely  be  expected  to  be  made  perfect  at  once,  that  the  machinery  on 
the  old  principle,  which  had  been  first  ordered  for  the  new  slip  dock  at 
Glasgow,  and  was  lying  ready  to  be  put  up  if  the  hydraulic  purchase 
did  not  work  satisfactorily,  was  thrown  aside,  thus  incurring  much 
additional  expense  on  the  part  of  the  proprietors  of  the  slip,  in  order 
to  secure  the  new  plan. 

The  construction  of  slip  docks  for  taking  up  ships  of  very  large  size 
has  been  hitherto  retarded  by  the  great  expense  and  complication 
necessary  for  bringing  up  the  power  by  the  system  of  wheel-work,  and 
the  difficulty  of  making  it  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand  the  enormous 
strain  to  which  it  is  subjected.  By  the  hydraulic  plan,  however,  there 
is  now  no  limit  to  the  size  of  ships  which  may  be  taken  up,  and  slip 
docks  may  be  constructed  by  which  ships  or  steamers  of  3,000  tons 
register  or  upwards  may  be  taken  up  with  the  greatest  ease,  and  with 
as  little  injury  as  they  would  receive  resting  in  a  dry  dock. 

THE  IRISH  DIFFICULTY  AND  ITS  SOLUTION. 

FLAX-COTTON  AND  BEET  ROOT  SUGAR. 

(Continued  from  page  24.J 


Having  already  indicated  the  extensive  field  which  exists  for  the 
employment  of  Mr.  Claussen's  process  for  the  manufacture  of  flax- 
cotton,  we  must  take  leave  of  the  subject  until  the  Companies  now 
formed  for  carrying  out  his  invention  have  fairly  commenced  opera- 
tions, in  which  they  have  our  best  wishes  for  success.  Experiments 
on  the  large  scale  are  needed  to  show  the  precise  profit  which  may  be 
expected  from  the  use  of  a  material,  as  yet  new  to  the  cotton-spinning 
interest,  and  for  these  we  shall  not  have  long  to  wait  if  the  further 
progress  of  the  works  meets  with  no  unexpected  obstruction. 

We  now  come  to  the  second  of  the  proposed  remedies,  the  cultiva- 
tion of  Beet-root  and  the  production  of  Sugar  from  the  saccharine 
matter  which  it  contains.  The  same  conditions  have  to  be  fulfilled  in 
this,  as  in  the  former  case.  Is  the  climate  of  Ireland  suited  to  the 
growth  of  Beet-root  ?  Can  the  sugar  be  produced  at  such  a  price  as 
will  compete  with  the  slave-grown  sugar  of  the  West  Indies  when  all 
the  protecting  duties  are  removed  ? 

To  the  first  of  these  questions  a  unanimous  reply  is  given  in  the 
affirmative,  by  those  well  qualified  to  judge.  We  shall  not,  therefore, 
waste  time  in  producing  authorities.  The  second  question  involves  a 
number  of  points  on  which  there  exists  the  usual  difference  of  opinion, 
and  each  requires  analysing  before  we  can  safely  draw  any  inferences 
from  them. 

Considerable  stress  is  laid  by  the  advocates  of  Beet-sugar  upon  the 
fact  that  its  manufacture  has  been  steadily  progressing  on  the  con- 
tinent, and  it  is  fairly  argued  that  our  superiority  in  machinery  ought 


to  place  us  in  at  least  as  good  a  position  as  our  continental  neighbours. 
For  the  following  information  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Seymour's 
work : — 

"  First — as  to  the  quality  of  Beet-sugar — the  opinion  of  two  leading 
authorities  in  chemistry  may  be  quoted  with  reference  to  the  quality 
of  the  sugar  extracted  from  the  beet,  as  compared  with  that  of 
the  cane  : — '  Sugar,'  writes  Dr.  Ure,  '  extracted  either  from  the 
cane,  the  beet,  or  the  maple,  is  identical  in  its  properties  and  com- 
position when  refined  to  the  same  pitch  of  purity,  only  that  of  the 
beet  seems  to  surpass  the  other  two  in  cohesive  force,  since  larger  and 
firmer  crystals  of  it  are  obtained  from  a  clarified  solution  of  equal 
density.' 

"  '  The  most  beautiful  white  sugar,'  says  Liebig,  '  is  now  manufac- 
tured from  the  beet-root,  in  place  of  the  treacle-like  sugar,  having  the 
taste  of  the  root,  -which  was  first  obtained.'  " 

The  present  state  of  the  law  as  to  home-grown  sugar  stands 
thus  : — The  Act  1  Vic.  c.  57,  imposed  a  duty  of  24s.  per  cwt.  on  un- 
refined Beet-root  sugar  grown  in  the  United  Kingdom  ;  by  8  and  9 
Vic.  c.  13,  the  duty  was  reduced  to  14s.  per  cwt. ;  and  by  13  and  14 
Vic.  c.  67,  the  duty  was  further  reduced  to  10s.  per  cwt.  from  and 
after  the  5  th  of  July  last,  on  all  sugars  grown  and  manufactured  in 
the  United  Kingdom. 

"  Mr.  MacGregor,  in  his  '  Commercial  Statistics,'  makes  the  follow- 
ing statement  on  the  manufacture  of  Beet-sugar  in  France — 

'  The  number  of  establishments  manufacturing  Beet-root  sugar, 
and  the  quantity  produced  in  France  during  the  following  years,  were — 
In  1828,  fifty-eight  establishments,  producing  2,685,000  kilogrammes  ; 
in  1830,  fifty-nine  establishments,  producing  6,000,000  of  kilo- 
grammes ;  in  1837  the  number  increased,  under  the  protective  system, 
to  543  at  work,  producing  about  36,000,000  kilogrammes,  while  the 
average  annual  consumption  for  seven  years  of  Beet-root  and  colonial 
sugars  amounted  to  95,335,554  kilogrammes.  In  1838-9  there  were 
560  manufactories  of  Beet-root  sugar,  all,  except  five,  actively  at  work, 
producing  nearly  27,000,000  kilogrammes.'  This  shows  an  immense 
and  steadily  progressive  increase  from  1828  to  1837. 

"  In  1838-9,  owing  to  the  interference  of  the  legislature,  the  trade 
received  a  violent  but  temporary  check ;  for  we  find  that  in  tJie  fol- 
lowing year  it  nearly  doubles  itself,  far  surpassing  its  culminating 
point  in  1837. 

"  In  the  year  1850,  the  quantity  of  sugar  produced  was  75,000  tons, 
although  in  1840  the  duty  was  only  lis.  6d.  per  cwt.,  and  in  1850  it 
amounted  to  from  18s.  Id.  to  £1  2s.  per  cwt.  on  raw  sugars,  according 
to  quality,  and  £1  6s.  Id.  on  refined. 

"  The  present  year  exhibits  a  still  further  increase  of  10,000  tons 
for  the  year  ending  in  April  last ! 

"  The  Mincing-lane  '  Commercial  Daily  List'  of  Wednesday,  May 
28,  1851,  gives  the  following  summary  of  the  working  of  the  Beet 
sugar  manufactories  in  France  during  the  past  season : — 

"  In  the  304  Beet-root  sugar  manufactories,  in  work  at  the  end  of 
last  month,  the  total  productions  of  the  season,  ending  in  April, 
amounted  to  78,427,355  kilog.,  and  the  consumption  for  the  same 
period  was  62,248,430  kilog.  The  quantity  remaining  on  hand  at  the 
end  of  the  month  was  16,209,255  kilog.  During  the  corresponding 
period  of  the  preceding  year-,  the  total  production  in  the  288  manufac- 
tories then  at  work  only  amounted  to  65,754,125  kilog.,  and  the  con- 
sumption to  only  50,020,550  kilog. 

"  Thus,  within  the  last  year,  the  number  of  manufactories  has  in- 
creased by  16,  or  upwards  of  5  per  cent. ;  the  total  productions  by 
12,673,230  kilog.,  or  upwards  of  20  per  cent. ;  and  the  consumption, 
by  1,227,880  kilog.,  or  nearly  25  per  cent.  ! 

"  The  following  extract  as  to  the  state  of  this  manufacture  in  Bel- 
gium, is  taken  from  one  of  the  carefully  written  and  deservedly  autho- 


1852.] 


The  Irish  Difficulty,  and  its  Solution. 


47 


ritative  letters  of  the  special  correspondent  of  the  Morning  Chronicle, 
on  the  subject  of  Belgian  Agriculture  : — 

"  '  The  manufacture  of  sugar  from  Beet-root  forms  an  important 
branch  of  Belgian  industry.  It  is  rapidly  increasing ;  indeed,  there 
is  scarcely  any  department  in  which  more  activity  is  displayed.  We 
have  seen  that  in  the  year  1846  there  were  cultivated  for  this  purpose 
upwards  of  195,000,000  pounds  weight  of  Beet-root;  since  that  period 
the  production  has  enormously  increased,  and  the  manufacture  is  car- 
ried on  at  a  greater  advantage  than  heretofore,  because  the  leaves  and 
refuse  of  the  Beet-root,  after  the  saccharine  matter  has  been  extracted, 
are  used  or  sold  for  fattening  of  cattle.  There  is  scarce  a  district 
where  large  sugar  manufactures  may  not  be  found.  Incomparably  the 
best  is  thafron  the  property  of  the  Messrs.  Claes,  at  Lembecq,  where 
machinery  of  a  novel  and  superior  construction  aids  the  manufacture 
to  such  an  extent,  that  processes  which  formerly  took  six  or  eight 
days  to  perfect  them,  can  now  be  accomplished  in  twenty-four  hours.' 

"Mr.  M'Culloch,  in  his  Commercial  Dictionary  (Ed.  1847),  after 
observing  that  '  in  1842  it  was  resolved  in  France  to  raise  annually 
the  duty  on  beet-root  sugar,  by  about  five  francs  a  cwt.,  till  the  duty 
on  it  should  be  equalized  with  the  duty  on  colonial  sugar — that  this 
system  came  into^operation  on  the  1st  of  August,  1844,  and  that  in 
August,  1848,  the  equalization  of  the  duties  would  be  effected,'  utters 
this  gloomy  prediction — '  The  probability  is,  that  if  fully  carried  out, 
this  project  will  go  far  to  annihilate  the  growth  of  beet-root  sugar  in 
France !'  The  theoretical  opinion  of  the  ablest  political  economist 
must  yield  to  the  superior  force  of  fact.  The  manufacture,  whose 
'  annihilation'  was  so  confidently  predicted,  has  flourished,  notwith- 
standing the  hostile  enactments  of  the  French  Government.  It  is 
true  the  number  of  factories  has  decreased,  but  the  capital  invested 
has,  since  1840,  more  than  doubled,  and  the  production  is  nearly  100 
per  cent,  greater ! — the  natural  result  of  competition  between  large 
manufacturers  with  ample  resources,  and  men  of  smaller  capital,  who 
are  more  likely  to  be  affected  by  fiscal  alterations,  a*nd  who  cannot 
take  advantage  of  improvements  in  machinery,  &c.  &c." 

This  prosperity,  we  are  informed,  shows  at  the  present  moment  no 
signs  of  diminution,  and  the  conclusion  cannot  be  avoided,  that  this 
manufacture  must  be  returning  fair,  if  not  liberal,  profits  on  the  capital 
invested  in  it.  It  may  be  argued  that  the  colonial  system  of  sugar 
manufacture  is  in  a  rude  and  imperfect  state,  and  that  the  cost  of 
colonial  sugar  will  be  reduced,  just  as  that  of  wheat  is  in  England  at 
the  present  time  by  the  operation  of  competition.  This  is  true,  but 
it  is  equally  fair  to  assume,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  manufacture 
of  beet-sugar  is  still  in  its  infancy,  and  is  open  to  the  same  improve- 
ment as  that  of  the  cane  sugar.  And,  what  is  of  as  great  importance, 
such  a  subject  is  infinitely  more  likely  to  receive  in  Europe  scientific 
investigation,  and  the  application  of  mechanical  ingenuity,  than  it  would 
be  in  the  colonies.  The  cost  of  fuel  in  the  colonies  will  always  be 
a  drawback  against  them.  It  will  scarcely  be  believed,  but  we  are  told, 
upon  the  authority  of  an  engineer  lately  returned  from  the  West  Indies, 
that  it  is  only  very  lately  that  any  attention  has  been  paid  to  clothing  the 
engines  and  boilers  on  the  sugar  estates,  although,  in  many  parts,  coals 
are  two  pounds  per  ton,  and  the  steam  is  almost  universally  used  at 
high  pressure.  To  save  purchasing  coals,  the  megass,  or  crushed  cane, 
is  commonly  used  for  fuel,  and  thus  the  fields  are  robbed  of  the  manure 
necessary  to  make  them  fertile.  Rather  than  import  coals,  the  planters 
import  guano,  and  the  megass-house  often  affords  a  tempting  oppor- 
tunity to  the  incendiary,  or  the  no  less  fatal  carelessness  of  the  negro 
population. 

The  following  fact  is  one  of  degree  only,  but  is  still  of  great  im- 
portance, as  showing  that  great  improvement  may  yet  be  made  in  the 
growth  of  the  beet : — 

"  One  important  practical  discovery  may  be  noticed  here,  which 


tends  to  enable  the  farmer  to  supply  beet  at  a  lower  price,  and 
should  be  taken  into  account  in  forming  any  estimate  of  the  probable 
profits  of  the  manufacture.  We  allude  to  the  discovery  by  M.  Peli- 
got,  that  the  root  of  the  young  beet  is  so  much  richer  in  saccharine 
juice  than  that  of  the  mature  plant,  that  if  the  roots  be  pulled  up  in 
summer,  although  the  weight  of  the  crop  is  much  less,  yet,  as  the 
quantity  of  sugar  is  larger,  the  value  of  the  crop  to  the  sugar  manu- 
facturer (after  allowing  for  the  loss  in  amount  of  pulpy  residue) 
is  in  fact  greater.  Thus  the  ground  becomes  available  much  earlier 
for  other  agricultural  operations,  and  the  plants  being  pulled  in  a  drier 
and  steadier  season,  are  much  less  liable  to  injury  from  exposure  to 
the  weather." 

Mr.  Seymour  brings  a  strong  array  of  figures  to  bear  on  the  point 
of  the  economy  of  manufacture,  and  not  without  cause,  for  the  illus- 
trious Liebig  (who  is  not,  however,  infallible,)  has  gravely  stated 
that  beet  sugar  "  has  no  future," — a  polite  German  way,  we  suppose,  of 
damning  anything.  Mr.  Seymour,  however,  proceeds  to  show,  that 
Liebig  first  states  that  from  6  to  12  per  cent,  of  sugar  is  now  obtainable 
from  the  beet,  and  in  his  estimates  only  allows  7f  per  cent.  He 
assumes  that  an  acre  of  the  "best  land"  in  the  environs  of  Magdeburgh 
produces  only  6^  tons  of  beet,  which  may  be  true  of  that  locality,  but 
certainly  cannot  be  applied  to  Ireland,  where  15  tons  of  beet  per  acre 
is  the  ordinary  produce  of  inferior  land.  On  the  other  hand  he  esti- 
mates the  yield  of  the  cane  at  40  to  50  cwt.  of  sugar  per  acre,  although 
at  another  page  he  says  that  "it  is  quite  inconceivable  that  the  planters 
of  the  colonies  should  continue,  as  hitherto,  out  of  the  20  per  cent,  of 
sugar  in  the  cane  juice,  to  lose  12  and  to  gain  only  8  per  cent.,"  or  16 
cwt.  only — a  vast  difference.  Indeed,  he  appears  to  have  taken  the 
maximum  sugar  in  the  cane,  without  reference  to  what  is  obtained  in 
practice,  out  of  it.  It  appears  impossible  to  reconcile  these  contradic- 
tory statements.  Liebig  points  out  a  probable  avenue  to  improvement 
in  the  following  words  : — "  The  discovery  ol  a  simple  means  of  pre- 
venting the  fermentation  of  the  juice  in  hot  climates,  and,  as  a  conse- 
quence, an  increased  return  of  sugar,  even  to  the  extent  of  only  4  per 
cent,  would  suffice  to  render  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  in  Europe 
impossible,  economically  speaking." 

Mr.  Seymour  has  another  opponent  to  grapple  with,  which  he  does 
with  considerable  energy.  Professor  Hancock,  who,  in  a  paper  read 
before  the  British  Association  (page  215,  Artizan,  1851)  endeavours  to 
prove  the  incompetency  of  the  beet  sugar  manufacturer  to  struggle 
with  colonial  cane  sugar.     We  give  the  professor's  estimate. 

"  Would  it  be  profitable  to  manufacture  from  beet-root,  at  the  Irish 
price  of  15s.  Qd.  per  ton,  refined  sugar  to  sell  at  28s.  per  cwt.  ?  The 
calculations  on  this  point  which  have  been  most  relied  on,  are  two  in 
number — that  of  Mr.  W.  R.  Sullivan,  Chemist  to  the  Museum  of  Irish 
Industry  in  Dublin,  and  that  of  M.  Paul  Hamoir,  of  the  firm  of  Serret, 
Hamoir,  Duquesne  and  Co.,  the  largest  manufacturers  of  beet-sugar 
at  Valenciennes,  dated  18th  of  April,  1850.  These  estimates  are  as 
follows : — 

"  Mr.  Sullivan's  Estimate  for  Ireland. 

.£45,000 

27,000 


60,000  tons  of  beet,  at  15s.  per  ton    ... 
Cost  of  manufacture,  at  9s.  per  ton  of  beet 


Total  outlay 
Produce,  5  per  cent,  of  sugar,  at  28s.  per  cwt.  

Estimated  profit    ... 
"  M.  Paul  Hamoir's  Estimate  for  France. 

61,607  tons  of  beet,  at  12s.  11  d.  per  ton        

Cost  of  manufacture,  nearly  13s.  per  ton,  of  beet    

Total  outlay 

Produce,  4£  per  cent,  of  sugar,  at  39s.  per  cwt 

Estimated  profit  in  France  .,. 


,     72,000 
93,000 

£21,000 

£38,400 
39,900 

78,300 
114,000 

£35,700 


48 


Cotton  and  its  Manufacturing  Mechanism. 


[March, 


Same  Estimate  applied  to  Ireland. 

61,607  tons  of  beet,  at  15s.  6d.  per  ton  ...  £46,080 

Cost  of  manufacture,  nearly  13s.  per  ton  of  beet      39,900 

Total  outlay 85,980 

Produce  4|  per  cent,  of  sugar,  at  28s.  per  cwt.  ...         81,430 

Estimated  loss  in  Ireland     £  4,550 

"  '  From  these  simple  calculations,'  adds  the  self-complacent  Pro- 
fessor, '  it  appears  at  once  that  by  only  introducing  into  the  estimates 
the  Irish  and  English  prices  of  beet-root,  and  of  refined  beet  sugar,  the 
result  is  so  varied  as  to  turn  a  profit  of  £35,000  at  the  French  prices, 
on  a  capital  of  £78,000  into  a  loss  of  £4,000  at  the  Irish  prices  !' 

"  First,  as  to  Professor  Sullivan's  estimate : — This  is  quoted  by  Dr. 
Hancock,  as  if  it  was  relied  on,  or  even  offered  by  him,  as  showing  the 
probable  profits  attending  the  beet  sugar  manufacture.  The  fact 
being  that  it  is  an  estimate  avowedly  made,  to  demonstrate  that,  even 
taking  the  least  encouraging  view  of  the  manufacture  ;  leaving  out  of 
the  account  all  use  whatever  of  improved  processes,  and  taking  the 
highest  price  at  which  the  beet-root  has  been  put  by  the  most  scep- 
tical, its  manufacture  would  give  a  handsome  profit. 

Does  not  Professor  Sullivan  repeatedly  insist  that  beet  must  be 
grown  cheaper  in  Ireland  than  in  France,  besides  yielding  a  greater 
per  centage  of  sugar  ?  Does  he  not  again  and  again  assert  that  6  per 
cent,  is  in  his  opinion  too  low  ?  Nay  ;  in  the  very  page  to  which  Dr. 
Hancock  refers,  does  he  not  give  an  estimate  at  5£,  6,  and  6^  per  cent, 
of  sugar  ?  Why  then  is  the  lowest  estimate  taken  and  the  highest  re- 
jected ?  or  why,  the  lowest  being  taken,  is  there  no  allusion  to  the 
existence  of  the  former  ? 

"  Secondly,  Dr.  Hancock  quotes  '  the  estimate  of  M.  Paul  Hamoir,' 
stating  that  he  does  so  from  Professor  Sullivan's  pamjjhlet ;  but  on 
referring  to  the  pamphlet,  we  find  Jive  estimates  given,  based  on  the 
calculations  furnished  by  M.  Paul  Hamoir.  The  lowest  being  4| 
(showing  the  yield  obtained  twenty  years  ago !)  and  then  going  on 
adding  \  each  time,  till  an  estimate  is  given  at  6£  per  cent.!  The 
first  shows  a  balance  of  £36,000  ;  the  second  of  £47,400 ;  the  third  of 
£58,800;  the  fourth  of  £70,000;  and  the  fifth  of  £81,600  from  the 
61,607  tons  of  beet !  yet  with  these  figures  before  his  eyes,  Dr.  Han- 
cock copies  down  the  lowest  calculations,  and  then  brings  them  in  this 
garbled  shape  before  the  British  Association,  as  '  M.  Paul  Hamoir's 
estimate !' 

"  This  fact  alone  is  enough  to  deprive  Dr.  Hancock's  argument  of 
the  slightest  weight,  and  render  both  his  facts  and  figures  of  very  little 
consequence ;  but  I  cannot  resist  the  pleasure  of  recording  a  little 
'  anecdote '  here  which  will  convey  its  own  moral  to  the  readers. 

"  It  so  happened  that  M.  Duquesne,  a  member  of  the  same  firm  in 
which  M.  Paul  Hamoir  is  a  partner  (Messrs.  Serret,  Hamoir,  Duquesne 
and  Co.)  was  in  London  a  few  days  after  this  '  estimate '  of  his  partner 
had  been  given  to  the  world  by  Dr.  Hancock,  and  on  his  attention 
being  called  to  the  statements  made  before  the  British  Association, 
he  declared  that  '  the  estimate '  could  not  refer  to  his  own  house  at 
Valenciennes,  for  the  return  of  sugar  obtained  there  was  Seven  per 

CENT. 

"  Now  I  shall  take  the  estimate  in  question,  and  '  apply  it  to  Ire- 
land,' to  show  Dr.  Hancock  that  there  are  still '  two  sides'  even  to  the 
question  he  undertook  to  '  settle.' 

"  But  before  I  do  so, 

1st.    For  beet  at  15s.  6d.  per  ton 

read     10s 7s. 

2nd.  For  cost  of  manufacture  at 

13s.  per  ton  read     10s 9s. 

3rd.  For  cost  of  desiccation  at 

4s.  per  ton read      Is 8d. 


4th.  For  4|  per  cent,  of  sugar, 

read      7  per  cent 8  per  cent. 

5th.  For  pulp,  10  per   cent,  at 

9s.  per  ton read    £2  £3 

"  I  might  add  further  '  errata?  whfch  probably  the  learned  Pro- 
fessor may  take  notice  of,  should  he  ever,  at  the  request  of  the  British 
Association,  publish  a  second  edition  of  his  paper  on  the  beet  sugar 
manufacture !  Content  with  those  I  have  stated,  I  shall  now,  in  a 
tabular  form,  contrast  the  Doctor's  calculations  with  my  own,  taking 
the  figures  most  disadvantageous  for  my  purpose. 

Dr.  Hancock's  Estimate. 
61,607    tons    of    beet,    at 

15s.  6d. £46,080 

Cost  of  manufacture,  nearly 

13s.  per  ton 


Produce  4J  per    cent,  of 
sugar,  at  28s.  per  cwt.  ... 


39,900 
85,980 
81,430 


Estimated  loss  in  Ireland  . .    £4,550 


OrjR  Estimate. 


61,607  tons  of  beet,  at 


10s. 


...30,803  10     0 


Cost   of  manufacture, 


at  lis. 


.33,883  17     0 


64,687     7 
Produce  7  per  cent,  of 
sugar,    at  28s.   per 
cwt 136,767  10 


Estimated  profit    72,080     3     9 
"  Thus  a  '  loss'  of  more  than  £4,000  becomes  a  gain  of  more  than 
cent,  per  cent. !" 

(To  be  continued.) 

COTTON  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURING  MECHANISM. 
By  Robert  Scott  Burn,  M.E.,  Mem.  S.A. 

(Continued  from  page  26.) 

The  annexed  diagram  will  illustrate  the  arrangement  of  Calvert's 
cotton-gin.  b  is  the  central  drum,  furnished  with  serrated  steel  blades  ; 
a  fluted  roller,  a,  revolves  in  the  same  direction  as  b;   the  fibres  of 

cotton  are  taken  from  the  central 
drum  by  the  revolving  brush,  c,  the 
speed  of  which  is  somewhat  greater 
than  that  of  b ;  e  is  a  fixed  plate, 
the  lower  edge  of  which  is  very 
nearly  in  contact  with  the  fluted 
roller,  a;  another  plate,  d,  is  move- 
able, and  can  be  adjusted  to  within 
any  desired  distance  of  the  circum- 
ference of  the  central  drum,  b.  The 
hopper  into  which  the  cotton  to  be 
ginned  is  placed,  is  formed  by  the 
two  plates,  and  by  the  sides  of  the 
machine.  On  the  hopper  being 
supplied,  and  the  moving  power 
applied,  the  seeds  and  cotton  derive 
motion  from  the  revolution  of  the 
fluted  roller,  a,  and  the  drum,  b ; 
the  serrated  blades  of  the  latter  partially  combing  out  the  cotton  from 
the  lowermost  seeds ;  the  seeds  thus  acquiring  a  circular  motion,  are 
subjected  completely  to  the  action  of  the  blades,  and  the  cotton  combed 
out ;  the  seeds  pass  through  the  opening  left  between  the  end  of  the 
adjustable  plate,  a,  and  the  circumference  of  the  drum,  b.  The  cotton 
is  supplied  to  the  hopper  from  time  to  time ;  a  certain  quantity  only 
being  subjected  to  the  combing  action  of  the  drum,  b,  at  a  time. 
The  revolving  brush,  c,  strips  the  cotton  from  b,  and  delivers  it  to  a 
suitable  receiver,  or  it  may  be  delivered  to  a  creeper,  and  finally 
wound  upon  a  roller. 
For  the  convenience  of  transport,  the  cotton,  after  being  ginned,  is 


Fig.  1. 


1852.] 


Notes  on  Designing  Machinery. 


49 


compressed  into  bags  by  hydraulic  presses ;  this  operation  causes  the 
cotton  to  become  matte,d,  and  the  fibres  entangled  with  one  another  ; 
sand,  and  other  extraneous  matter,  is  also  frequently  pressed  up  with  the 
cotton.  On  arrival  at  the  factory  in  which  the  material  is  to  be  worked 
up  into  yarn,  or  woven  into  cloth,  the  bags  are  opened,  and  the  opera- 
tion of  "  mixing,"  before  alluded  to,  is  gone  through.  The  fibres  are 
next  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  first  factory  machine,  termed  the 
"  willow,"  or  "  devil,"  as  it  was  formerly  called,  probably  from  its 
rough  operation.  The  action  of  the  willow  is  to  open  the  fibres,  and 
disentangle  them.  This  was  formerly  done  by  "butting;"  the  cotton 
was  placed  on  an  elastic  horizontal  network  of  cords,  and  repeatedly 
beat  with  slender  rods  or  wands ;  the  impurities  falling  through  the 
meshes  of  the  net  to  a  receptacle  below.  In  India,  a  large  bow  is  used 
for  opening  the  fibres  of  cotton  ;  "  it  is  made  elastic  by  a  complication 
of  strings ;  this  being  put  in  contact  with  a  heap  of  cotton,  the  work- 
men strike  the  string  with  a  heavy  wooden  mallet,  and  its  vibrations 
open  the  knots  of  the  cotton,  shake  from  it  the  dust  and  dirt,  and  raise 
it  to  a  downy  fleece."  In  America,  cotton  was  formerly  opened  by 
means  of  the  bow ;  hence  the  origin  of  the  term  so  often  seen  in 
cotton  price  lists,  "  bowed  cotton."  With  the  exception  of  fine-spin- 
ning establishments,  where  high-numbered  yarn  is  produced,  the 
operation  of  butting  has  been  entirely  superseded  by  the  willow.  The 
improved  form  of  machine  now  generally  used  is  that  known  as  the 
conical  "  willow."  The  principle  of  its  arrangement  and  operation 
will  be  understood  from  the  following  diagram  and  description : — 

The  conical  drum,  c  c,  fig.  2,  revolves  rapidly  on  a  horizontal  axis 
(shown  by  the  dotted  lines),  within  a  case,  d  d,  ff.  The  surface  of 
the  cone  is  provided  with  a  set  of  projecting  teeth  or  spikes,  the  upper 


Fig.  2. 

side  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  case  being  furnished  in  a  similar  man- 
ner ;  the  teeth  of  the  cone  moving  in  the  alternate  spaces  between 
those  of  the  case.  The  machine  is  fed  at  the  smaller  diameter  of  the 
cone,  by  means  of  an  endless  apron,  b  b,  passing  round  two  rollers, 
a  a ;  this  apron  is  made  of  thin  spars  of  wood  about  three  quarters  of 
an  inch  round,  and  fixed  to  two  endless  leather  straps,  which  pass  round 
the  rollers,  a  a ;  interstices  are  left  between  each  spar  forming  the 
apron,  it  thus  easily  passes  over  the  circumference  of  the  rollers.  The 
cotton,  fed  to  this  apron  by  hand,  is  slowly  introduced  to  the  small 
end  of  the  revolving  cone,  it  is  immediately  seized  by  the  projecting 
teeth,  and  whirled  rapidly  round ;  as  the  cotton  passes  along  the  sur- 
face of  the  cone,  its  speed  is  increased,  in  consequence  of  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  diameter;  it  is  finally  delivered  to  the  larger  end  at//, 
and  passed  on  to  a  moving  apron,  or  deposited  on  the  floor.  The 
fibres  being  torn  open  by  the  action  of  the  spikes,  the  dirt,  twigs,  &c, 
&c,  are  set  free,  and  their  heavy  portions  fall  down  through  the  gra- 
ting, which  forms  the  under  side  of  the  case ;  while  the  lighter  dust 
is  carried  off  to  ventiducts  communicating  with  the  external  air,  a 
sufficient  current  for  this  purpose  being  created  by  the  rapid  revolu- 
tion of  the  cone. 

(To  be  continued.) 


NOTES  ON  DESIGNING  MACHINERY. 

A  Correspondent  some  time  since  put  the  simple  question  to  us, 
"What  do  you  consider  the  best  form  of  stationary  engine  for  agricul- 
tural purposes  ? "  to  which  question  there  is  only  one  answer,  and 
that  a  very  unsatisfactory  one  :  "  It  depends  upon  circumstances.' 
Even  leaving  out  the  mercantile  part  of  the  question,  which  materially 
simplifies  it,  the  abstract  mechanical  one  is  strangely  perverted  by 
many  who  possess  practical  knowledge,  but  who  are  ignorant  of  what 
is  going  on  beyond  their  own  sphere.  Purchasers  may  rely  upon  it,  that 
there  is  much  less  difference  in  working,  between  the  engines  of  really 
good  makers,  than  they  are  apt  to  imagine.  When  a  new  firm  com- 
mence making  engines,  if  they  select  their  designs  with  judgment,  and 
get  self-acting  tools  to  suit,  they  at  once  lower  the  price  to  the  public, 
and  every  other  maker  within  the  influence  of  their  competition  have 
to  come  down  to  their  prices.  At  length,  some  one,  exasperated  at 
his  diminished  profits,  boldly  throws  aside  his  old  notions  and  tools, 
makes  a  fresh  start  and  takes  the  lead,  to  be  supplanted  in  his  turn 
by  another.  Thus  we  find  that  the  prices  amongst  respectable  makers 
differ  but  little,  whilst  the  forms  of  their  engines  assume  every  variety 
that  fancy  can  suggest. 

We  have  a  plate  lying  before  us  of  a  pair  of  steeple  engines,  con- 
structed for  the  United  States'  mint,  by  Messrs.  J.  P.  Morris  and  Co., 
of  Philadelphia,  from  the  designs  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr. 
Franklin  Peale,  Chief  Coiner,  a  notice  of  which  may  be  interesting. 
The  following  description  of  them  is  given  in  the  Franklin  Journal : — 

The  general  design  of  this  engine  conforms  to  the  Gothic,  or  pointed  style, 
and  its  construction  is  what  is  commonly  known  as  the  steeple  engine,  work- 
ing by  simple  high  pressure  ;  there  are,  however,  peculiarities,  and  as  far  as 
is  known  to  us,  novelties  in  construction,  which  it  is  thought  are  entitled  to 
attention. 

It  is  a  combined  or  double  engine,  with  the  cranks  at  right  angles,  and 
has  no  fly-wheel,  properly  so  called,  but  a  pulley  or  drum,  from  which  the 
power  is  carried  off  by  a  broad  belt,  two  feet  in  width.  The  drum  is  cast 
hollow,  with  chambers  in  the  periphery,  into  which  lead  has  been  run,  to 
counterpoise  exactly  the  pistons,  triangles,  pitmen,  &c,  so  that  the  engine  is 
in  perfect  equilibrium  in  every  position,  and  performs  its  revolutions  in  an 
equal  and  regular  manner. 

It  will  be  observed,  also,  that  it  is  perfectly  symmetrical  in  all  views,  and 
that  there  are  no  steam  or  exhaust  pipes  visible  on  the  exterior.  A  heavy 
bed  plate,  serving  as  a  base,  of  twelve  inches  elevation,  supports  the  frame 
and  cylinders  ;  it  rests  upon  a  brick  foundation  laid  in  cement,  and  secured 
by  strong  bolts  built  in.  The  steam  passages  have  been  cast  in  the  bed 
plate,  to  convey  the  steam  to  and  from  the  chests  and  cylinders,  which  stand 
vertically  upon  it.  The  pipes  which  convey  the  steam  from  the  boilers  to 
the  engine  are  placed  in  a  passage  or  chamber  built  in  the  foundation,  in 
which  chamber  the  throttle  valve,  controlled  by  the  governor,  is  placed. 

The  cylinders  (15  inches  diameter  X  4  feet  stroke)  are  placed  eccentrically, 
within  cylindrical  cases,  forming  jackets,  the  intervening  space  being  the 
steam  chest,  containing  the  valve  seats  and  long  slide  valves,  moved  by  the 
eccentrics,  which  are  placed  upon  the  shaft,  immediately  above;  the  eccen- 
tric position  of  the  outer  cylinder  or  jacket,  allowing  the  required  space  on 
one  side  for  the  valve,  and  a  sufficient  space  all  round,  for  the  channels  and 
steam. 

The  cylinders  are  fitted  over  one  another  with  conical  metallic  joints, 
and  the  cylinder  covers  contain  the  stuffing  boxes  of  the  piston  and  valve 
rods. 

It  is  this  position  and  arrangement  of  double  eccentric  cylinders,  giving 
space  for  the  valves,  channels,  and  steam,  and  forming  a  jacket  round  the 
working  cylinders,  which  is  claimed  as  an  economic  novelty,  simple  in  its 
form,  easy  of  construction,  and  presenting  on  the  exterior  a  plain  bright 
surface,  an  important  security  from  loss  of  heat  by  radiation,  or  condensation 
of  steam  in  the  interior;  and,  finally,  entirely  divested  of  the  usual  disfiguring 
appendages  of  steam  channels,  pipes,  joints,  &c. 

The  piston  rods  and  guides  are  made  of  steel ;  the  cross-heads  travel  upon 
the  latter,  with  metallic  packing  of  an  approved  alloy,  with  tightening  screws. 


50 


Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


[March, 


The  pistons  are  furnished  with  what  is  termed  steam  packing — in  other 
words,  metallic  plates,  held  against  the  surface  of  the  cylinders  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  steam. 

The  triangles  or  stirrups  connected  in  the  centre  of  the  bow  with  the 
piston  rods,  are  forged  in  one  piece,  and  are  planed  up,  and  finished  bright 
throughout. 

A  simple  solid  pitman  (connecting  rod)  forms  the  connexion  with  the 
cranks,  a  double  stub-end  (butt-end)  and  strap  connecting  with  the  cross- 
head  above,  and  a  single  one  below,  working  on  the  wrist  (crank)  pin. 

The  shaft  and  drum  are  supported  on  two  cast-iron  frames,  which  conform 
iu  general  features  to  a  pointed  arch  window,  strengthened  by  pannels,  and 
enriched  by  columns,  supporting  the  pedestals,  and  carried  up  to  a  finial,  its 
exterior  being  decorated  with  appropriate  crockets.  The  two  frames  are 
connected  above  the  drum  by  stays  and  braces,  which  are  consistent  with 
the  style,  so  arranged  as  to  afford  space,  within  which  the  governor  stands, 
centrally  and  appropriately,  to  regulate  the  motion  of  all  that  is  below  and 
around  it. 

The  engine  is  moved  by  steam  at  a  pressure  of  eighty  pounds,  and  is  in- 
tended to  be  run  at  fifty  revolutions  per  minute  ;  this  rate  of  motion  is 
maintained  without  the  slightest  vibration,  jar,  or  noise,  and  is  calculated  to 
give  a  sufficient  effective  force  for  all  the  heavy  operations  of  the  mint.  The 
power  is  applied,  through  the  agency  of  belts,  to  the  rolls,  and  other  machi- 
nery, silently  but  efficiently,  an  evidence  that  in  mechanics,  as  in  moral 
science,  the  best  effects  may  be  produced  with  the  least  noise.  » 

The  writer  of  the  foregoing  description  has  said  nothing  to  which  we 
can  take  exception,  as  the  neatness  of  the  design  is  unexceptionable  ; 
but  he  has  left  unsaid  many  things  which  would,  we  fear,  detract 
somewhat  from  the  credit  due  to  the  designer.  Elegance  is  doubt- 
less a  desideratum ;  but  the  designer  who  should  sacrifice  any  portion 
of  efficiency,  merely  to  please  the  eye,  cannot  in  our  opinion  be  com- 
mended for  his  judgment.  "  What  is  best,  looks  best,"  is  a  maxim  we 
would  impress  upon  all  designers  of  machinery.  If  you  cannot  make 
a  good  thing  a  neat  thing,  depend  upon  it,  it  is  your  own  fault,  and 
the  remedy  must  be  sought  in  patient  study,  if  the  object  be  worthy 
of  it.  In  the  case  before  us,  the  inner  cylinder  is  a  complicated  casting, 
and  is  fitted  into  the  outer  one  "with  conical  metallic  joints"  —  a 
method  which  is  both  expensive  and  hazardous  ;  should  any  leakage 
occur  from  the  unequal  expansion  of  the  cylinders,  it  would  neither 
be  readily  discovered  nor  stopped.  We  do  not  see  any  means  of 
getting  at  the  cylinder  faces  to  fresh-surface  them  when  required, 
without  taking  the  cylinders  asunder.  Any  saving  anticipated  from 
the  use  of  a  steam  jacket,  is,  in  practice,  so  small,  that  it  will  not  pay  for 
the  increased  expense  ;  a  sufficiently  good  result  is  obtained  by  a  felt 
and  wood  casing.  The  slides  are  two  short  ones,  connected  together 
by  a  bar.  Wo  provision  is  made  for  working  expansively,  and  no  feed 
pumps,  nor  means  of  working  them  are  shown.  Otherwise  than  the 
points  we  have  mentioned,  there  is  but  little  of  novelty  to  notice. 

We  are  not  aware  of  the  price  of  fuel  in  the  locality  where  the  mint 
is  situated,  but  it  appears  to  us  that  in  a  public  establishment,  where 
capital  is  not  wanting,  economy  would  have  been  better  consulted  by 
making  a  double  cylinder  condensing  engine.  The  same  arrangement 
might  have  been  preserved,  and  a  condensing  engine  substituted  for 
one  of  the  high  pressure  ones.  The  cranks  would  then  be  placed 
opposite  each  other,  instead  of  at  right  angles,  and  the  fly-wheel  might 
be  placed  on  the  second  motion. 

We  do  not  think  that  the  best  arrangement  has  yet  been  hit  upon 
for  steeple  engines.  The  crank  shaft  is  too  far  from  the  sole  plate, 
and  the  engine  is  generally  top-heavy.  By  sinking  the  cylinder  into 
the  sole  plate,  the  height  of  the  engine-would  be  materially  diminished; 
the  slide  face  should  be  placed  outside  of  the  cylinder  to  render  it 
easy  of  access — a  point  which  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  upon. 

In  this  country,  the  only  cases  that  we  are  aware  of,  of  this  form  of 
engine  being  used  for  large  powers  on  land,  are  in  the  fen  districts, 


where  they  have  been  applied  by  the  Butterley  Company  and  other 
firms  to  scoop  wheels  for  drainage  purposes.  In  these  instances,  the 
crank  shaft  is  carried  by  a  strong  entablature  running  across  the 
engine  house,  built  into  the  wall  at  either  end,  and  also  supported  by 
two  columns  standing  on  the  cylinder  sole  plate.  This  obviates  the 
objection  of  unsteadiness  which  we  have  noticed  above,  but  is  subject 
to  the  evil  of  being  dependent  on  three  points,  which  may  settle  un- 
equally, and  entail  a  vast  amount  of  trouble  and  expense  on  the 
engine-maker,  if  his  contract  includes  the  upholding  of  the  work. 

SOCIETIES. 

INSTITUTION  OE  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERS. 

"  On  an  Improved  Botler  for  Marine  Engines,"  by  Mr.  An- 
drew Lamb,  of  Southampton. 

The  Peninsular  and  Oriental  steam  ship  Ripon  is  an  iron  vessel,  of 
1650  tons  burthen,  and  has  two  oscillating  engines,  of  450  nominal 
horse  power.  She  was  built  by  Messrs.  Wigram  in  1846,  and  was 
supplied  with  her  machinery  by  Miller,  Ravenhill,  and  Co.,  of  London, 
since  which  time  she  has  been  almost  constantly  running  for  the  con- 
veyance of  the  Indian  Mail  from  Southampton  to  Alexandria. 

Her  average  speed  for  the  whole  of  this  time  has  been  9.1  knots 
per  hour.  The  boilers  fitted  to  her  by  Messrs.  Miller  were  of  the 
ordinary  tubular  construction.  They  were  in  six  pieces,  had  twelve 
furnaces,  and  744  iron  tubes,  3^  inches  outside  diameter,  6  feet  6 
inches  long.  The  total  fire-bar  surface  was  212  square  feet,  and  the 
heating  surface  in  tubes  3,798  square  feet,  reckoning  the  whole  of  the 
inside  surface  of  the  tubes  as  effective. 

The  sectional  area  through  tubes  equals  36i  square  feet;  ditto 
through  ferules,  28  square  feet.  These  boilers  were  loaded  to  10  lbs. 
on  the  square  inch,  but  in  consequence  of  being  deficient  in  steam, 
the  actual  pressure  attained  at  sea  very  seldom  exceeded  4  to  6  lbs. 
when  full  steam  was  admitted  to  the  cylinders ;  of  course  the  en- 
gineers found  it  to  their  advantage  to  keep  it  up  to  its  full  pressure 
by  working  the  expansion  apparatus.  This  deficiency  of  steam  was 
found  to  be  an  increasing  evil,  the  cause  for  which  may  be  satisfac- 
torily explained  by  a  little  consideration  of  the  modus  operandi  of  the 
sea-going  tubular  boiler.  When  commencing  running  with  the  boilers 
new,  for  a  short  period,  dependent  on  the  species  of  coal  consumed, 
the  tubular  boiler  offers  its  greatest  advantage,  and  is,  in  fact  (when 
properly  constructed),  as  good  an  apparatus  for  evaporating  water  as 
can  be  imagined  applicable  to  marine  purposes.  The  tubes  give  an 
immense  amount  of  heating  surface,  and  in  small  compass,  and  from 
their  form  are  capable  of  resisting  great  pressure,  but  afte*  three  or 
four  days'  steaming,  these  advantages  diminish.  The  tubes  have  an 
accumulation  of  soot  and  light  ashes  inside  them,  which,  by  reducing 
their  sectional  area,  sometimes  from  50  to  75  per  cent.,  diminishes  the 
draught  through  the  furnaces  in  the  same  proportion,  and  also  reduces 
the  effective  heating  surface  to  the  same  serious  extent.  This  accu- 
mulation depends  in  quantity  very  much  upon  the  coal.  On  one  occa- 
sion the  author  was  present  in  a  vessel  with  tubular  boilers,  burning 
Scotch  coal,  and  they  actually  came  to  a  dead  stand,  after  only  sixty 
hours'  steaming,  the  tubes  being  nearly  choked  up,  and  requiring  to 
be  swept.  When  tubular  boilers  have  made  a  few  voyages  at  sea, 
the  outside  of  the  tubes  becomes  encrusted  with  saline  matter,  which 
gradually  accumulates  upon  them,  chiefly  upon  their  bottom  sides, 
and  which  hitherto  it  has  been  found  impossible  to  remove  by  any 
other  means  than  scaling  them  mechanically.  The  situation  of  the 
tubes  (row  over  row)  prevents  this  being  accomplished,  excepting 
upon  the  upper  tiers,  and  the  consequences  are,  that  the  tubes  become 
coated  with  a  crust  5  or  f  ths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  the  tube-plates 
also,  which  from  its  non-conducting  nature  greatly  retards  the  trans- 


1852.1 


Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


51 


mission  of  the  heat  through  it,  and  the  tube  plates  becoming  hot, 
crack  and  blister,  and  deteriorate  very  rapidly. 

For  the  boiler  to  be  described  in  the  present  paper,  invented  and 
patented  by  the  author  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Summers,  the  following 
advantages  are  claimed  over  its  tubular  competitor  : — 
,  1st. — That,  while  it  possesses  an  equal  amount  of  heating  surface 
in  the  same  space  as  tubular  boilers,  it  is  free  from  the  evil  of  chok- 
ing with  inside  deposits  of  soot  and  ashes,  because  the  flues  being  in 
one  sheet  for  their  whole  depth,  the  deposit  falls  into  the  bottom  of 
the  flues,  and  is  swept  by  the  draught  through  into  the  up-take,  and 
thence  into  the  chimney.  . 

The  flues  are  flat  rectangular  chambers,  6  feet  9  inches  long,  and  3 
feet  3  inches  high,  open  at  each  end,  where  they  are  fixed  to  the  boiler. 
There  are  seven  of  these  flues  to  each  fire-grate  ;  the  smoke  spaces  are 
If  inches  wide,  and  the  water  spaces  2f  inches.  The  sides  of  the  flues 
are  \  inch  thick,  and  they  are  supported  by  stays,  fixed  inside  the  flues. 
From  this  circumstance  of  there  being  no  stays  or  other  projections  in 
the  water  spaces,  an  important  advantage  is  gained — that  no  nucleus 
is  offered  round  which  the  scale  can  collect,  and  no  impediment  to 
interfere  with  the  complete  and  rapid  cleansing  of  the  water  spaces 
from  scale  by  means  of  the  ordinary  scrapers. 

In  another  arrangement  of  these  boilers,  adapted  for  large  screw 
steamers,  and  also  for  war  steamers,  the  flues  are  placed  alongside  the 
furnaces  and  at  the  same  level,  instead  of  over  the  furnaces,  as  in  the 
engravings,  which  arrangement  protects  the  boilers  from  shot,  by 
keeping  them  below  the  water  line. 

In  these  improved  boilers,  the  same  amount  of  heating  surface  can 
be  obtained  in  the  same  capacity  of  boiler  as  with  tubes ;  the  only 
difference  is,  that  if  the  tubes  are  -,3bths  of  an  inch  thick,  they  will  of 
course  be  rather  lighter  than  J-inch  plates;  but  this  difference,  as 
compared  with  the  gross  weight,  is  so  small  as  to  be  unimportant.  In 
the  event  of  any  accident  to  any  of  the  flues,  they  may  be  taken  out, 
separately  or  collectively,  to  be  repaired  or  replaced  with  new  ones ; 
but  from  the  facility  with  which  they  can  be  kept  clean,  they  ought, 
as  in  the  old-fashioned  flue  boilers,  to  wear  out  the  shell ;  the  length 
of  time  being  remarkable  that  a  thin  plate  will  last,  if  kept  clean,  and 
never  overheated. 

The  last  boilers  of  this  construction  examined  by  the  author  were 
those  of  the  Tagus,  280  horse  power,  and  in  those  boilers,  after  six 
days'  steaming,  the  deposit  was  only  three  inches  deep  in  the  bottom  of 
each  flue  ;  and  the  total  depth  of  the  flues  being  3  feet  8  inches,  it 
follows  that  she  had  only  thus  lost  about  6  per  cent,  of  sectional  area. 

2nd. — That  the  improved  flues,  from  having  no  projection  either  of 
rivet  heads  or  stays  in  the  water  spaces,  offer  no  obstructions  whatever 
to  the  scaling  tool,  and  are  as  easily  kept  clean  as  any  part  of  any 
boiler  can  possibly  be,  thereby  entirely  removing  the  evil  of  a  loss  of 
heat  through  non-conducting  deposits,  and  very  much  increasing  the 
durability  of  the  boiler. 

3rd. — That  the  water  spaces  between  the  flues  being  comparatively 
large,  and  the  sides  of  the  flues  perfectly  vertical,  the  circulation  of 
water  in  the  boiler  must  necessarily  be  much  more  perfect  than  amongst 
a  number  of  tubes  (amounting  sometimes  to  thousands),  where  the  water 
has  to  wend  its  way  in  and  out  in  curved  lines.  This  greater  perfec- 
tion of  circulation,  the  author  thinks,  must  add  greatly  to  the  effective- 
ness of  the  heating  surface  in  the  improved  flues. 

It  must  be  here  mentioned,  that  these  advantages  do  not  now  rest 
upon  theory  only,  and  that  they  have  been  fully  realized  by  experience. 

The  first  boilers  fitted  with  these  flues  were  those  in  the  Pacha,  in 
October,  1849,' similar  to  those  shown  in  the  engravings,  and  up  to 
the  time  of  her  unfortunate  loss,  these  boilers  gave  entire  satisfaction. 
Then  followed  a  small  boat,  in  January,  1850,  and  the  Tagus,  in  August, 
1850,  since  which  their  success  has  been  rapid,  as  a  proof  of  which, 


numerous  vessels  of  different  Companies  are  being  and  have  been 
fitted  with  them.  The  Tagus  has  now  the  oldest  of  the  boilers,  and 
there  is  in  no  part  of  them  any  signs  of  deterioration  whatever ;  in 
fact,  they  are  in  every  way  perfect.  There  has  never  been  any  leak- 
age, and  the  consumption  of  fuel  is  less  than  with  her  former  tubular 
boilers. 

The  improved  boilers  now  fitted  to  the  Ripon  were  manufactured 
by  Messrs.  Summers,  Day,  and  Baldock,  of  Southampton,  and  are  in 
four  parts,  the  boilers  being  placed  in  the  wings,  two  forward  of  the 
engines,  and  two  aft,  the  stoke-holes  are  thus  in  midships. 

The  space  occupied  by  these  new  boilers  is  the  same  as  the  old  ones, 
the  arrangement  mentioned  having  economised  as  much  room  as  the 
increased  size  of  boilers  required,  so  that  the  same  quantity  of  coal  is 
carried  in  the  same  space  as  before.  The  n  w  boilers  have  16  furnaces 
and  246  square  feet  of  fire-bar  surface  ;  112  flues,  3  feet  9  inches  deep 
X  6  feet  3  inches  long,  being  5,440  square  feet  of  heating  surface, 
reckoning  the  whole  inside  surface  (as  in  tubes) ;  the  sectional  area 
through  the  flues,  deducting  the  stays  =  54  square  feet. 

This  large  sectional  area  can  be  diminished  at  pleasure  by  a  grating 
damper,  which  is  hung  at  the  front  end  of  the  flues,  and  extends  about 
10  or  12  inches  down  them,  and  which  is  worked  by  handles  placed 
outside  the  boiler  and  between  the  hinges  of  the  smoke-box  doors. 
The  engineer  can  thus  regulate  the  intensity  of  his  draught  at  pleasure, 
according  to  the  variety  of  coal  in  use,  &c,  &c. 

The  new  boilers  of  the  Ripon  are  loaded  to  13  lbs  per  square  inch; 
the  flues  being  strongly  stayed  inside,  would  of  course  resist  a  far 
higher  pressure  with  perfect  safety  ;  in  fact,  if  required,  they  might 
easily  be  sufficiently  stayed  to  resist  steam  of  any  pressure. 

The  Ripon,  at  the  same  time  that  the  boilers  were  altered,  had  her 
common  radial  paddle-wheels  replaced  by  feathering  ones,  which  con- 
sequently added  much  to  the  speed  of  the  vessel. 

The  best  speed  of  the  engines  of  the  Ripon,  with  the  old  arrange- 
ment, was  about  15  revolutions  per  minute,  and  that  of  the  vessel 
about  10  knots  per  hour,  when  quite  light. 

On  the  trial  at  the  measured  mile,  December,  1851,  the  vessel  was 
drawing  16  feet  3  inches  forward,  and  16  feet  7  inches  aft;  she  had 
all  her  coal  (422  tons)  on  board,  her  water,  and  some  cargo,  and  con- 
sequently was  pretty  deep  loaded.  The  speed  of  the  engines  was  1 9J 
revolutions  per  minute,  and  of  the  vessel  11.3  knots  per  hour.  Had 
she  been  light,  as  in  the  former  trial,  she  would  have  probably  gone 
over  12  knots.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  improvement  in  sjjeed 
may  be  fairly  stated  as  two  knots  per  hour,  The  cylinders  of  the 
engines  are  76  inches  diameter  X  7  feet  stroke.  Their  nominal  horse 
power  formerly,  at  15  revolutions,  would  be  404,  and  at  19^  revolu- 
tions, 526  horse  power,  so  that  the  new  boilers  have  given  122  horse 
power  more  steam,  of  an  increased  pressure  of  3  lbs.  per  square  inch, 
than  the  old  ones.  As  the  Ripon  is  now  making  her  first  voyage  with 
the  new  boilers,  the  author  cannot  speak  with  any  certainty  about  her 
consiimption,  but  will  give  some  details  of  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental 
steam  ship,  Bentinck,  which  has  made  one  voyage  to  Alexandria  and 
back,  with  these  improved  boilers  and  feathering  wheels. 

The  Bentinck  is  a  wooden  vessel,  built  by  Wilson,  of  Liverpool,  in 
1 844,  and  has  side  lever  engines,  by  Fawcett  and  Preston.  She  is 
2,020  tons  burthen,  and  her  engines  are  520  nominal  horse  power ; 
her  original  boilers  were  of  the  old  flue  construction,  and  were  loaded 
to  6  lbs.  per  inch  pressure ;  her  average  speed  at  sea  was  9  knots 
per  hour,  and  her  engines  about  14  revolutions  per  minute. 

The  speed  of  the  Bentinck  is  now  over  1 1  knots  per  hour.  The 
former  consumption  was  about  37  cwt.  per  hour ;  the  present  con- 
sumption averages  about  38  cwt.  per  hour. 

It  must  be  noticed  that  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company  had 
tubular  boilers,  with  brass  tubes,  made  for  this  vessel  by  Messrs. 


52 


Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


[March, 


Bury,  Curtis,  and  Kennedy,  and  that  they  were  brought  to  South- 
ampton, and  placed  in  the  Pottinger,  a  sister  ship  of  the  Ripon,  and 
of  450  nominal  horse  power,  with  common  paddle-wheels ;  these 
boilers  are  of  exactly  the  same  size  as  the  patent  boilers  made  for 
the  Bentinck,  and  they  are  both  loaded  to  the  same  pressure,  viz., 
12  lbs.  per  square  inch  ;  they  have  each  made  a  passage  to  Alexandria 
and  back,  and,  contrary  to  all  expectation,  the  Bentinck,  although  her 
eugines  are  70  horse  power  nominal  more  than  the  Pottinger,  and  are 
workino-  up  to  103  horse  power  more,  has  consumed  128  tons  less  coal 
than  the  Pottinger,  and  performed  the  same  distance  in  C8J  hours  less 
time.  This  result  of  diminished  consumption  is  undeniably  a  fair 
triumph  for  the  improved  boiler';  as  for  the  improved  speed  of  the 
vessel,  it  must  share  the  honours  with  the  feathering  paddle-wheel ; 
the  Bentinck  has  made  the  fastest  passage  on  record  between  the  ports 
mentioned. 

In  conclusion,  the  author  can  only  say,  that  he  believes  the  im- 
proved boiler,  described  in  the  present  paper,  will  become  the  marine 
boiler  generally  adopted ;  as  its  merits  are  evident,  and  its  cost  is  not 
greater  than  tubular  boilers ;  while  its  durability  will,  he  thinks,  be 
very  much  greater.  He  will  be  happy  to  show  these  boilers  to  any  of 
the  members  of  the  institution  who  may  have  an  opportunity  of  see- 
ing those  that  may  be  in  port,  or  at  Mr.  Summers'  works  at  South- 
ampton, where  there  are  now  five  sets  in  course  of  construction.  It 
may  be  added,  that  the  screw  steam  ship,  Glasgow,  by  Messrs. 
Todd  and  McGregor,  which  has  lately  made  the  fastest  run  across 
the  Atlantic  of  any  screw  steamer,  is  fitted  with  these  improved 
boilers ;  Messrs.  Todd  and  McGregor  have  made  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  them,  and  they  are  also  being  manufactured  by  several  others. 
It  is  intended  also  to  adopt  these  boilers  in  the  Himalaya?!,  now 
building  for  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Co.,  of  upwards  of  3,000 
tons  burthen,  to  be  propelled  by  oscillating  engines  of  1,200  horse- 
power. 

Fig.  t.  Fig.  2. 


[Note. — The  details  of  construction 
of  the  flues  are  shown  in  figs.  1,  2, 
and  3 ;  fig.  1  is  a  transverse  section, 
fig.  2  a  plan,  and  fig.  3  a  longitudinal 
section  of  a  portion  of  the  flues  shown 
on  an  enlarged  scale.  They  are  con- 
structed of  two  flat  side  plates,  i  inch 
thick,  flanged  outwards  at  each  end 
to  meet  the  plates  of  the  adjoining 
flues ;  the  top  and  hottom  of  each  flue 
is  formed  by  the  curved  connecting 
piece,  which  is  rivetted  to  each  side 


Fig.  3. 
(Scale,  one  sixth  size.) 


plate,  and  flanged  outwards  at  the  ends.  The  stays  or  studs,  are  1|  inch  diameter, 
and  are  rivetted  at  each  end  through  the  side  plates.  The  rivets  connecting  the  plates 
together,  and  the  stays,  are  all  put  into  their  holes  simultaneously,  and  rivetted  cold 
by  machinery.  These  rivets  have  countersunk  heads  and  points,  and  when  placed  in  their 
holes  in  the  plates,  a  steel  bar  is  inserted,  which  fills  up  the  space  between  the  heads  of  the 
two  rows  of  rivets,  and  acts  as  a  bolster  to  the  riveting  tool.  By  this  means,  one  strcke  of 
the  machine  closes  two  rivets  at  once,  and  in  the  most  efficient  manner.  The  flues  are 
afterwards  rivetted  together  with  covering  strips,  at  their  ends,  and  they  are  inserted 
into  the  boiler  in  sets  of  seven  or  eight,  according  to  the  size  of  the  furnace. 

Any  one  of  the  flues  can  he  readily  extracted  from  the  others  if  necessary,  by  cutting 
away  the  two  rows  of  rivets  each  end,  and  drawing  it  out  through  the  front  smoke-hox 
doors.  The  experience  which  they  have  had  of  the  durability  of  the  flues  has,  however, 
satisfied  those  who  have  employed  them,  that  unless  gross  negligence  of  the  engineer 
should  (through  want  of  water)  allow  them  to  get  red  hot,  the  flues  will  in  all  cases  outlive 
the  shells  in  which  they  are  inserted.  Drawings  of  the  Boilers  will  be  found  in  the  Artizan 
for  December,  1850. 

The  Chairman  observed,  that  he  regretted  Mr.  Lamb  was  not  able 
to  be  present  on  that  occasion,  to  have  given  them  further  practical 
information  on  the  construction  of  the  boiler  that  was  desirable.  He 
had  not  explained  in  the  paper  the  mode  of  fixing  the  flue-plates  to 
the  boiler  at  each  end,  and  the  mode  of  removing  and  replacing  the 
flues  when  required. 

Mr.  Shanks  said,  he  had  seen  some  of  the  boilers  on  that  plan 
making  at  Glasgow,  but  was  not  acquainted  with  the  practical 
details. 

Mr.  E.  Jones  thought  there  would  be  some  practical  difficulty 
in  removing  and  replacing  the  flue-plates  without  disturbing  the 
boiler. 

The  Chairman  remarked,  that  the  question  of  principle  in  the 
boiler  was  one  of  heating  surface,  and  there  was  certainly  a  consider- 
able advantage  in  having  only  the  small  horizontal  surface  at  the 
bottom  of  the  flues  for  the  deposit  to  collect  upon,  and  the  vertical 
position  of  the  plates  allowed  the  freest  fall  for  the  deposit  to  the 
bottom. 

Mr.  Cowper  said,  the  construction  of  the  boiler  reminded  him  of 
Hancock's  boiler,  which  was  invented  for  common  road  locomotives ; 
that  boiler  consisted  of  a  number  of  very  thin  flat  chambers,  with  a 
number  of  stays  passing  through  all  the  chambers,  which  were  in 
tension  instead  of  compression,  as  in  Mr.  Lamb's  boiler ;  these  stays 
passed  through  a  series  of  ferules,  or  very  short  tubes,  forming  struts 
both  inside  the  chambers  and  between  them.  The  boiler  was  very 
complicated,  from  having  so  great  a  number  of  joints,  and  was  con- 
sequently very  troublesome  to  keep  steam-tight ;  but  it  was  a  very 
effective  plan  for  generating  steam,  and  very  economical  of  space ; 
the  air  came  away  from  the  flues  as  cool  as  in  a  locomotive  chimney. 
A  short  narrow  flue  is  equal  to  a  long  wide  flue,  as  in  the  large  flue 
boilers,  for  extracting  the  heat  out  of  the  air  passing  through  it,  as  the 
whole  of  the  air  is  brought  so  much  sooner  in  contact  with  the  sides  of 
the  flue. 

Mr.  Middleton  said  that  the  boiler  described  in  the  paper  reminded 
him  of  another  boiler  somewhat  similar  to  Hancock's,  where  there 
was  great  difficulty  in  keeping  it  steam-tight.  The  bottom  of  the 
flues  was  not  considered  so  good  a  heating  surface  as  the  top  of  the 
flues,  and  therefore  in  Mr.  Lamb's  boiler  the  whole  of  the  sides  of  the 
flues  should  not  be  calculated  as  efficient  heating  surface ;  he  thought 
two  thirds  would  be  enough  to  take. 

Mr.  Cowper  observed,  that  would  be  merely  a  question  of  what 
value  was  put  upon  the  heating  surface  per  square  foot.  But  there 
would  be  more  loss  from  that  cause  in  tubes  than  in  Lamb's  flues,  as 
the  bottom  surface  of  each  tube  amounted  to  a  fourth  or  more  of  the 
whole  heating  surface ;  but  in  Lamb's  boiler  the  bottom  surface  of  the 
whole  flue  was  only  equal  to  the  bottom  of  one  tube. 

The  Chairman  considered  it  desirable  to  obtain  further  particulars 
from  Mr.  Lamb  respecting  the  boiler  and  its  relative  evaporating  effi- 
ciency as  compared  with  the  ordinary  tubular  boiler. 

Mr.  Shanks  said  that  Messrs.  Todd  and  McGregor  had  last  year 


1852.] 


Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


53 


built  for  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Co.  two  vessels  exactly  the  same 
in  every  respect,  except  that  one  had  tubular  boilers  and  the  other 
Lamb's  flue  boilers ;  they  were  both,  he  believed,  performing  their 
voyages  in  the  Indian  Ocean ;  and  they  would  supply  an  excellent 
means  of  making  a  comparison  between  the  two  constructions  of 
boilers,  and  he  hoped  Mr.  Lamb  would  report  the  results  of  this  trial 
to  the  Institution. 

Mr.  Allan  suggested  that  the  flues  might  be  put  in  with  a  flange  all 
round  at  each  end,  like  the  mid-feather  in  a  locomotive  firebox,  and 
fixed  by  two  rows  of  rivets  down  each  water  space.  The  rivet  heads 
might  then  be  readily  cut  off  all  round  any  one  flue,  and  the  flue  taken 
out  when  required ;  and  a  new  flue  might  then  be  inserted,  by  reach- 
ing down  the  water  spaces  between  the  flues  to  put  the  rivets  in. 

Mr.  Cowper  observed,  that  he  had  once  been  told  by  Mr.  Preston, 
of  Liverpool,  of  a  tubular  boiler  of  ordinary  construction  in  a  steamer 
on  the  Mersey,  which  did  not  make  steam  enough,  and  he  found  on 
examination  that  the  tubes  were  all  set  solid  together  with  the  deposit 
formed  between  them,  so  much  so,  that  he  cut  off  all  the  tubes  at  each 
end  inside  the  tube-plates,  and  took  them  all  out  in  one  mass. 

Mr.  Shanks  said  he  remembered  the  boilers  of  the  Caledonia 
steamer,  after  seven  years'  work  across  the  Atlantic,  were  found  to  be 
still  in  good  condition,  and  with  very  little  scale  upon  them ;  they 
were  common  flue  boilers,  and  were  kept  clean  chiefly  by  the  con- 
stant use  of  the  brine  pump.  He  inquired  whether,  in  stationary 
boilers,  Ritterbandt's  plan  of  using  muriate  of  ammonia  did  not  pre- 
vent incrustation  ? 

The  chairman  observed,  that  Ritterbandt's  process  only  removed  the 
carbonate  of  lime,  but  did  not  act  on  the  sulphate,  which  formed  a 
large  portion  of  the  deposit. 

Mr.  Cowper  said  he  remembered  trying  that  plan  in 
a  pair  of  stationary  engine  boilers,  but  after  finding  that 
it  caused  the  engines  to  get  quite  rusted,  the  plan  was 
abandoned. 

The  Chairman  proposed  that  the  discussion  on  the 
boiler  should  be  adjourned,  and  Mr.  Lamb  be  requested 
to  give  them  the  further  information  respecting  it  at 
the  next  meeting ;  he  proposed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr. 
Lamb  for  his  communication,  which  was  passed. 


giving  it  out  again  at  the  deficient  part  of  the  stroke ;  consequently, 
though  two  engines  are  often  employed  working  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  for  the  purpose  of  diminishing  the  variation  in  total  moving 
power,  the  expansion  principle  can  only  be  carried  to  a  portion  of  the 
extent  to  which  it  is  theoretically  applicable. 

Only  in  such  engines  as  the  large  Cornish  pumping  engines  can  the 
expansion  be  carried  practically  to  its  full  theoretical  limit,  as  the  varia- 
tion in  the  velocity  of  the  load  moved  is  of  much  less  importance  in 
those  engines,  and  the  very  unequal  amounts  of  moving  power  that  are 
developed  in  equal  times,  by  the  full  carrying  out  of  the  expansive 
principle,  which  would  produce  the  most  prejudicial  and  inadmissible 
variations  of  velocity  in  the  engine,  are  controlled  within  prescribed 
limits  by  the  great  weight  of  material  to  be  moved  by  the  engine  in  the 
pump  rods  and  balancing  machinery,  forming,  as  it  were,  a  distributing 
reservoir  for  the  moving  force  developed. 

In  the  locomotive  engine  there  are  practical  difficulties  in  carrying 
out  the  expansion  principle  efficiently,  beyond  a  moderate  extent,  in  a 
single  cylinder,  from  the  shortness  of  stroke,  and  rapidity  of  reciproca- 
tion, and  the  construction  of  the  valve  motion ;  but  the  ultimate  extent 
to  which  it  could  be  carried  would  be  limited  by  the  maintenance  of 
the  blast,  which  requires  that  the  jets  of  steam  discharged  from  the 
cylinder  into  the  blast-pipe,  should  not  be  reduced  below  a  certain 
pressure  at  the  moment  of  discharge.  Otherwise,  the  limit  to  which 
expansion  might  be  carried  would  be  the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere 
to  the  discharge  of  the  steam,  added  to  the  friction  of  the  engine,  say 
above  lOlbs.  per  inch  above  the  atmosphere. 

The  steam  is  cut  off  usually  by  the  link  motion  at  from  ^rd  to  f  rds 
of  the  stroke,  and  the  steam  is  consequently  discharged  into  the  blast- 
pipe  at  about  from  30  to  601bs  pressure  above  the  atmosphere,  sup- 


"  On  a  Continuous  Expansion  Steam  Engine," 
by  Mr.  James  Samuel,  of  London. 

The  economy  of  working  steam  expansively  is  well 
known,  but  the  application  of  the  expansion  principle  is 
practicable  only  to  a  limited  extent  in  most  forms  of 
engine,  from  practical  difficulties  in  their  mode  of  working, 
which  prevent  the  attainment  of  the  full  economy  of  which 
the  expansive  principle  is  capable. 

The  greatest  useful  effect  is  obtained  from  the  steam, 
when  it  is  allowed  to  expand  in  the  cylinder  until  its 
pressure  upon  the  piston  just  balances  all  the  useless 
resistances  of  the  friction  of  the  engine  itself,  and  the 
resisting  pressure  on  the  back  of  the  piston  (whether  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  in  a  high-pressure  engine,  or 
of  the  uncondensed  vapour,  in  a  condensing  engine),  the 
surplus  power  beyond  these  useless  resistances  being 
alone  available  for  the  purposes  to  which  the  engine  is 
applied. 

But  in  driving  machinery,  so  great  a  uniformity  of  mo- 
tion is  essential,  that  any  great  variation  in  the  movino- 
power  throughout  the  stroke  of  the  engine  is  inadmissible, 
as  the  fly-wheel  would  not  be  able  to  absorb  enough  of 
the  excess  of  power  to  equalise  the  velocity  sufficiently,  by 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  5. 


54 


Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


[March, 


posing  it  to  be  supplied  to  the  cylinders  at  lOOlbs.  per  inch  above  the 
atmosphere. 

It  appears  that  the  lower  of  these  pressures  is  sufficient,  or  more 
than  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  the  blast,  to  maintain  fully  the 
evaporative  power  of  the  boiler  under  general  circumstances,  and  that 
a  portion  of  the  steam  discharged  can  be  spared  from  the  blast,  to  be 
subjected  to  a  greater  extent  of  expansion. 

In  the  continuous  expansion  engine,  the  subject  of  the  present  paper, 
the  steam  from  the  boiler  is  supplied  only  to  one  cylinder :  a  portion 
of  it  is  expanded  into  the  second  cylinder,  which  is  of  proportionately 
larger  area,  so  as  to  equalise  the  total  moving  power  of  the  two  cylin- 
ders ;  and  it  is  there  further  expanded  down  to  the  fullest  useful  extent, 
and  then  discharged  into  the  atmosphere,  the  portion  of  steam  remain- 
ing in  the  first  cylinder  being  discharged  as  a  blast  at  nearly  the  same 
pressure  as  the  ordinary  engines.  The  economy,  therefore,  consists  in 
obtaining  from  such  portion  of  the  steam  as  can  be  spared  from  the 
blast,  the  additional  power  of  expansion  remaining  in  it,  which  is  thrown 
away  in  the  ordinary  engine. 

Fig  1  shows  the  continuous  expansion  engine,  as  applied  to  a  loco- 
motive. A  is  the  first  cylinder  into  which  the  steam  is  admitted 
from  the  steam-pipe,  C,  by  the  valve,  D,  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
the  ordinary  engines.  The  steam  is  cut  off  at  half  stroke,  and 
a  communication  is  then  opened  with  a  second  cylinder,  B,  through 
the  passages,  H  and  F,  by  the  opening  of  the  slide  valve,  G.  The  second 
cylinder,  B,  is  about  double  the  area  of  the  first  cylinder,  and  the  same 
length  of  stroke,  but  the  cranks  are  set  at  right  angles,  as  in  ordinary 
locomotives ;  consequently,  at  the  moment  of  the  steam  being  passed 
into  the  second  cylinder  from  the  first,  the  piston  of  the  second  cylinder 
is  at  the  commencement  of  its  stroke. 

The  steam  continues  expanding  in  the  two  cylinders,  until  the  first 
piston,  A,  has  nearly  completed  its  stroke,  when  the  valve,  G,  shuts  off 
the  communication  between  the  two  cylinders,  and  the  valve,  D,  opens 
the  exhaust  port,  and  communicates  with  the  blast-pipe,  L,  discharging 
the  steam  remaining  in  the  cylinder,  A,  to  form  the  blast  in  the  ordi- 
nary manner.  The  second  piston,  B,  has  then  arrived  nearly  at  half 
stroke,  and  contains  nearly  one-half  of  the  total  quantity  of  steam 
originally  admitted  to  the  first  cylinder ;  this  steam  is  further  expanded 
to  the  end  of  the  stroke,  and  then  discharged  into  the  blast-pipe,  L,  by 
the  valve,  E,  opening  the  exhaust  port. 

The  return  stroke  of  both  pistons  is  exactly  similar  to  the  foregoing 
so  that  about  \  cylinder  full  of  high-pressure  steam  (or  such  other  por- 
tion as  may  be  desired)  is  supplied  to  the  first  cylinder  at  each  stroke, 
and  between  \  and  f  rds  of  that  steam  is  discharged  at  the  pressure 
required  to  produce  the  blast,  and  the  remainder  of  the  steam  is  ex- 
panded down  in  the  second  cylinder,  so  as  to  give  out  all  the  available 
power  remaining  in  it. 

For  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  engine  to  exert  an  increased  power, 
if  required,  at  the  time  of  starting  a  train  or  otherwise,  the  slide  valve, 
I,  is  inserted  in  the  centre  passage,  F,  to  close  the  communication 
between  the  two  cylinders  for  a  short  time  when  required ;  and  the 
steam  from  the  boiler  is  then  admitted  by  a  pipe  and  cock  into  the 
steam-chest  of  the  second  cylinder,  B,  which  is  then  worked  inde- 
pendently of  the  other  cylinder,  like  an  ordinary  engine. 

The  comparative  quantity  of  steam  or  of  coke  required  to  perform  the 
same  work  in  the  several  engines,  under  the  circumstances  stated  above, 
is  given  by  calculation  as  follows  : — 

Continuous  expansion  engine         ..  ..  „.      100 

Ordinary  engine,  cutting  off  at  |rd   stroke  . .      120 

Ditto         ditto,  ditto        |       stroke  ..      154 

Ditto         ditto,  ditto         f  rds  stroke  ..      1S5 

Ditto         ditto,  ditto         gths  stroke  . .      220 

These  figures  represent  the  relative  economy  in  the  employment  of  the 


steam  in  the  several  engines ;  consequently,  the  ordinary  engine,  with 
the  best  degree  of  expansion,  or  cutting  off  the  steam  at  §rd  of  the 
stroke,  consumes  20  per  cent,  more  coke  than  the  continuous  expansion 
engine,  to  do  the  same  work,  and  from  54  to  85  per  cent,  more  coke 
with  the  more  usual  degrees  of  expansion ;  and  an  engine  cutting  off 
the  steam  at  only  ^-th  of  the  stroke  from  the  termination,  as  many 
engines  were  formerly  made,  would  consume  120  per  cent,  more  coke 
to  do  the  same  work. 

This  plan  has  been  tried  upon  two  locomotives  with  satisfactory 
results,  and  the  blast  was  found  to  be  quite  sufficient ;  but  the  trial 
has  not  been  sufficiently  complete  to  afford  a  definite  comparison  of 
consumption. 

In  the  application  of  the  expansion  principle  to  stationary  engines,  it 
is  requisite  to  consider  the  amount  of  variation  in  the  moving  power  or 
labouring  force  of  the  engine,  and  the  limits  within  which  it  is  necessary 
practically  to  confine  this  variation.  The  accompanying  diagrams  show 
the  variation  in  the  moving  power  that  takes  place  between  the  com- 
mencement and  the  end  of  the  stroke  in  each  of  the  several  engines,  all 
drawn  to  the  same  scale  and  on  the  same  principle,  so  that  the  com- 
parison of  the  diagrams  will  show  the  relative  effect  of  the  steam  in 
the  several  engines ;  the  same  total  power  being  represented  in  each 
case. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  variation  of  power  in  the  Cornish  engine,  when  the 
steam  is  expanded  down  to  the  limit  of  useful  effect ;  this  is  shown  by 
the  curved  line,  A  G  C.  The  vertical  height  of  the  first  division,  A  D, 
represents  the  relative  total  moving  force  developed  by  the  engine,  in 
the  direction  of  the  revolution  of  the  crank-pin,  during  the  first  15°  of 
revolution  from  the  commencement  of  the  stroke.  The  heights  of  the 
succeeding  divisions  in  fig.  3  represent  the  corresponding  amounts  of 
force  developed  by  the  engine  during  each  successive  motion  of  the 
crank  through  equal  angles  of  15°  each  to  the  end  of  the  stroke  C, 
and  the  half  revolution  of  180° ;  the  force  shown  being  in  all  cases 
the  amount  that  would  be  produced  in  the  circular  direction  of  the 
revolution  of  the  crank  pin,  not  in  the  rectilinear  direction  of  the 
piston.  If  the  amounts  of  force  in  these  several  divisions  were  all 
exactly  equal  to  one  another  (and  the  engine,  having  attained  its  state 
of  uniform  velocity,  were  employed  to  overcome  a  constant  resistance  to 
circular  motion,  such  as  driving  a  corn  mill  or  spinning  mill,  &c),  then 
the  crank  arm  would  have  a  perfectly  unvarying  velocity,  and  no  fly- 
wheel would  be  required.  And  the  approach  to  this  constancy  of  velo- 
city, in  any  engine  applied  to  overcome  resistances  to  circular  motion, 
will  clearly  depend  on  the  approach  to  equality  which  these  amounts  of 
work  produced  through  equal  angles  make  to  one  another. 

The  average  line,  D  E,  shows  this  average  equal  height  of  all  the 
several  divisions ;  consequently  the  rectangle,  A  C  E  D,  represents  the 
equivalent  uniform  development  of  power  that  would  produce  an  un- 
varying velocity  of  rotation,  and  therefore  the  area  of  the  shaded  space, 
being  the  deficiency  in  filling  up  this  rectangle  of  uniform  power  by  the 
actual  working  of  the  engine  (also  equal  to  the  portion  H  of  the  curved 
figure  that  is  above  the  average  hue,  D  E),  will  represent  the  total 
amount  of  variation  from  the  average  in  the  moving  force  of  the  engine 
throughout  the  stroke.  The  area  of  the  shaded  portion  in  this  diagram 
is  43  per  cent,  of  the  total  area,  consequently  the  total  variation  from 
the  average  in  the  moving  power  of  the  Cornish  engine  is  43  per  cent., 
and  the  greatest  variation  at  the  extreme  point  G,  amounts  to  189  per 
cent,  of  the  mean  power. 

The  total  variation  from  the  average  power  . .        43  per  cent. 
The  extreme  variation 1S9  per  cent. 

Fig.  4  shows  in  a  corresponding  manner  the  variation  of  moving 
power  throughout  the  stroke  in  the  continuous  expansion  engine,  where 
the  steam  is  cut  off  at  half  stroke  in  the  first  cylinder,  and  expanded  in 
the  larger  cylinder  down  to  the  limit  of  useful  effect. 


1852.] 


Institution  of  Civil  Engineers. 


55 


The  total  variation  from  the  average  power  is  only        13  per  cent. 
The  extreme  variation  . .  . .  . .  55  per  cent. 

consequently  the  total  variation  in  the  moving  power  in  the  Cornish 
engine  is  3  times  as  great  as  that  in  the  continuous  expansion  engine, 
and  the  extreme  variation  is  3^  times  as  great. 

The  dotted  line,  B  B,  in  fig.  3,  shows  the  effect  of  coupling  together 
two  Cornish  engines,  exactly  similar  to  that  shown  by  the  full  line  in 
fig.  3,  but  of  half  the  total  power  each. 

The  total  variation  from  the  average  power  is. .      20  per  cent. 
The  extreme  variation  . .  . .  . .  58  per  cent. 

The  total  variation  in  the  moving  power  being  1^-  times  as  great  as  in 
the  continuous  expansion  engine,  and  the  extreme  variation  about  equal. 
This  arrangement  would  of  course  be  much  more  expensive  than  the 
continuous  expansion  engine,  as  it  involves  two  complete  engines. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  variation  of  moving  power  in  a  Woolf's  double 
cylinder  engine,  where  the  pistons  work  simultaneously  in  the  two  cylin- 
ders, commencing  each  stroke  together,  and  the  steam  is  cut  off  at  half 
stroke  in  the  first  cylinder,  and  afterwards  expanded  in  the  larger  cylinder 
down  to  the  limit  of  useful  effect,  as  in  the  foregoing  Cornish  engine. 
The  total  variation  from  the  average  power  is. .      27  per  cent. 
The  extreme  variation  . .         . .  . .  90  per  cent. 

consequently  the  total  variation  in  the  moving  power  is  2  times  as 
great  as  in  the  continuous  expansion  engine,  and  the  extreme  variation 
If  times  as  great. 

The  dotted  line,  F  F,  on  fig.  4  shows  the  effect  of  coupling  together 
two  of  the  continuous  expansion  engines  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
and  the  result  of  this  arrangement  is  a  remarkably  near  approach  to 
perfect  uniformity  of  moving  power. 

The  total  variation  from  the  average  power  is  only      3  per  cent. 
The  extreme  variation         . .  . .  . .  8  per  cent. 

The  dotted  line,  F,  F,  on  fig.  3,  shows  in  a  similar  manner  the  effect 
of  coupling  together  three  of  the  Cornish  engines  with  cranks  at  120° 
to  each  other. 

The  total  variation  from  the  average  power  is  . .      9  per  cent. 
The  extreme  variation     . .  . .  . .  . .    22  per  cent. 

both  being  about  three  times  as  great  as  in  the  continuous  expansion 
engine. 

Fig.  5  shows  'also  by  the  dotted  line,  F  F,  the  effect  of  coupling 
together  two  of  the  Woolf's  engines  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 
The  total  variation  from  the  average  power  is  . .      5  per  cent. 
The  extreme  variation     . .  . .  . .  . .    13  per  cent. 

both  being  about  1^  times  as  great  as  in  the  continuous  expansion 
engine. 

The  comparative  amount  of  work  performed  by  the  several  engines, 
with  the  same  quantity  of  steam  or  of  coal  in  each  case,  under  the  circum- 
stances stated  above,  and  taking  the  pressure  of  the  steam  admitted  to 
the  first  cylinder  at   50  lbs.  per  inch  above  the  atmosphere,  is  given  by 
calculation  as  follows  : — 

Continuous  expansion  engine         . .  . .  . .      100 

Woolf's  engine         . .  . .  . .  . .  . ,      109 

Cornish  engine         ..  ..  ..  ..  ..      Ill 

The  general  result  of  the  above  comparisons  is,  that  the  Cornish 
engine  is  11  per  cent.,  and  Woolf's  engine  is  9  per  cent,  more  economical 
in  expenditure  of  fuel  than  the  continuous  expansion  engine,  when  the 
expension  of  the  steam  is  carried  to  the  extreme  limit  in  each  case; 
but  that  this  economy  cannot  be  obtained  practically  in  those  two 
engines,  on  account  of  the  great  irregularity  in  their  moving  power, 
the  average  irregularity  being,  in  the  Cornish  engine,  30  per  cent.,  and 
in  Woolf's  engine,  14  per  cent.,  greater  than  in  the  continuous  expan- 
sion engine ;  and  the  extreme  irregularity  being  134  and  35  per  cent. 
respectively  greater. 

Consequently,  it  appears  that,  although  the  expansion  of  the  steam 


cannot  be  theoretically  carried  to  so  great  an  extent  in  the  continuous 
expansion  engine  as  in  the  other  engines,  yet,  from  the  moving  power 
being  so  much  more  uniform  throughout  the  stroke,  the  expansion  can 
be  carried  practically  to  a  considerably  greater  exent ;  and  a  greater 
amount  of  economy  may  be  practically  obtained  within  the  same  limit 
of  uniformity  in  the  moving  power. 

A  working  model,  one  third  size  of  the  engine  as  applied  to  a  loco- 
motive, was  exhibited  to  the  meeting. 

Mr.  E.  Jones  observed  that  the  engine  appeared  to  be  a  step  quite  in 
the  right  direction,  but  further  practical  trial  was  requisite. 

Mr.  Peacock  wished  to  know  the  particulars  of  the  trials  that  had 
been  made. 

The  chairman  suggested  that  the  discussion  should  be  adjourned  to 
the  next  meeting,  as  Mr.  Samuel,  who  had  intended  to  be  present,  was 
unexpectedly  prevented  from  attending.  He  proposed  a  vote  of  thanks 
to  Mr.  Samuel,  which  was  passed. 

INSTITUTION  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS. 
10th  February,  1852. 

The  paper  read  was  "  The  Construction  and  Duration  of  the  Permanent 
Way  of  Railways  in  Europe,  and  the  modifications  most  suitable  to  Egypt, 
India,  &c,"  by  Mr.  W.  B.  Adams. 

This  paper  was  an  historical  record  and  critical  examination  of  the  various 
parts,  together  forming  the"  Permanent  Way,"  and  of  the  numerous  changes 
that  it  had  undergone,  The  requirements  that  had  been  gradually  deve- 
loped, as  necessary  for  accomplishing  this  object,  were  enumerated,  and  may 
be  concisely  stated  to  consist  in  a  well-drained  substructure,  regulated,  as 
regards  strength,  according  to  the  weight  of  the  engines  and  the  amount  of 
the  traffic,  firmly  seated  in  the  ballast,  the  rails  being  stiff  enough  to  resist 
deflection,  sufficiently  hard  not  to  laminate,  and  so  broad  as  not  to  crush; — 
smooth,  so  as  to  offer  the  least  friction,  and  properly  inclined,  especially  on 
curves,  so  as  to  fit  the  wheels,  and  the  joints  so  arranged  as  to  make  the  bars 
continuous,  and  yet  to  admit  of  contraction  and  expansion. 

The  different  kinds  of  rails,  from  the  flat  tire-bar  and  edge-rail,  used  on 
colliery  lines  at  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  railways — to  the  parallel  and 
bridge-shape  rails  now  generally  adopted,  were  examined;  and  also  the 
girder  rails,  for  doing  away  with  the  sleepers  and  other  extraneous  means  of 
support,  in  the  hopes  of  effecting  a  saving  in  the  cost  of  maintenance.  Of 
the  girder  rails,  the  saddle-back  pattern,  introduced  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Barlow, 
M.  Inst.  C.E.,  was  the  one  most  generally  known;  but  it  was  suggested, 
there  would  be  some  difficulty  in  the  packing  of  this  rail,  and  if,  as  was  as- 
serted, it  really  was  a  rigid  girder,  though  the  draught  might  be  lessened, 
the  tyre  of  the  wheels  would  roll  down  the  rails  to  a  corresponding  angle  with 
themselves.  The  mode  of  connexion  of  this  rail,  by  a  piece  of  nearly  similar 
section,  to  which  it  was  firmly  rivetted,  was  objected  to,  on  the  ground  of 
there  being  no  allowance  for  expansion  and  contraction  ;  the  strength  of  the 
joint  depending  entirely  upon  that  of  the  rivets.  Many  modifications  in  the 
form  of  the  girder-rail  were  suggested ;  among  them  a  T  section,  with  a 
rail,  or  rib,  on  the  upper  surface,  and  a  vertical  portion  below,  giving  stiff- 
ness, and  forming  a  solid  web  for  ramming  the  ballast  against. 

The  supports  for  the  rails  were  next  considered,  and  the  reasons  for  aban- 
doning stone  blocks  were  attributed,  in  some  degree,  to  their  hardness  and 
rigidity,  which  caused  much  noise,  but  principally  to  the  difficulty  of  packing 
and  maintaining  the  way,  owing  to  their  depth,  to  the  chairs  cutting  into  the 
stone,  and  the  spikes  working  loose.  The  adoption  of  timber  sleepers,  first 
on  newly  made  embankments,  afterwards  universally — their  size  and  num- 
ber to  each  length  of  rail,  and  the  proportionate  area  to  the  length  of  bear- 
ing— to  the  necessity  for  their  being  sunk  into  the  ballast,  and  yet  to  have 
such  an  amount  under  them  as  to  prevent  their  being  depressed  in  the  ground, 
was  also  treated  of,  and  a  comparison  instituted  between  cross-sleepers  and 
longitudinal  timbers,  from  which  it  appeared,  that  when  their  bearing  sur- 
faces were  equal  the  quantity  of  timber  used  in  each  would  be  the  same, 
and,  provided  the  quality  was  similar  in  both  cases,  which  it  ought  to  be,  the 
cost  of  this  portion  of  the  way  would  also  be  the  same.  The  longitudinal 
system  certainly  afforded  great  stiffness  to  the  rail,  and  offered  greater  faci- 


56 


Water-Tube  Boilers. 


[March, 


lities  for  packing;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  timber  was  more  crushed  than 
in  the  cross-sleepers,  the  fastenings  were  less  effectual,  and  were  more  diffi- 
cult of  access.  For  the  purpose  of  obtaining  greater  durability  in  this  por- 
tion of  the  way,  and,  at  the  same  time  to  preserve  the  elasticity  afforded  by 
the  timber  substructure,  Mr.  Reynolds  had  designed  a  combination  of  wood 
and  iron,  the  wood,  to  which  the  rails  were  attached,  being  placed  in  a  cast 
iron  trough,  triangular  in  section,  with  the  apex  downwards.  This  system, 
however,  did  not  meet  with  much  favour,  and  more  recently  various  contri- 
vances had  been  suggested,  and  in  some  instances  tried  successfully,  for 
doing  away  entirely  with  the  timber  work  in  the  substructure.  In  the  "  dish- 
cover"  cast-iron  sleeper,  invented  by  Mr.  Greaves,  of  Manchester,  and  now, 
it  was  said,  about  to  be  used  in  the  Egyptian  Railway,  the  packing  was  ac- 
complished from  the  surface,  through  two  small  holes;  and,  in  the  system 
introduced  by  Mr.  P.  W.  Barlow,  the  rail  was  held  in  two  cast-iron  vices, 
which  formed  so  rigid  a  road,  that  there  was  not  the  slightest  elasticity  in  it. 
A  modification  of  this  plan  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Barlow,  in  which  the  sleeper  was 
cast  in  one  piece,  with  a  chair- head  on  it,  and  into  which  the  rail  was  secured 
by  a  wooden  key,  was  a  slight  improvement  on  the  previous  method.  Mr. 
Samuel  had  proposed,  that  the  rail  should  be  held  in  a  compressed  wooden 
eushion,  or  vice,  set  in  a  cast-iron  sleeper,  or  trough,  but  not  continuous; 
and  Mr.  Hoby,  that  the  sleeper  should  consist  of  an  elongated  chair  of  the 
ordinary  form,  the  rail  being  fastened  in  it  by  means  of  a  pair  of  folding 
wedges.  From  what  had  been  done,  it  might  safely  be  concluded,  that  cast- 
iron  might  be  advantageously  employed,  provided  it  was  in  large  masses, 
and  formed  a  continuous  support;  unless,  indeed,  the  rails  were  so  strong  in 
themselves  as  to  be  non-deflecting. 

The  different  modes  of  fastening  the  rails  in  the  chairs  at  the  joint,  so  im- 
portant to  prevent  deraillement,  were  then  alluded  to,  and  the  failure  of  the 
wooden  keys,  at  first  used,  was  attributed  to  their  being  ridiculously  small; 
iron  spikes  were  substituted  for  them,  but  they  also  were  obliged  to  be  aban- 
doned, when  larger  wooden  keys  were  again  adopted;  in  some  instances 
they  were  compressed,  like  the  treenails,  by  the  process  of  Messrs.  Ransome 
and  May,  who  likewise  had  introduced  a  chair  to  be  used  with  them. 

The  last  point  to  be  noticed  in  the  formation  of  permanent  way,  was  the 
establishment  of  a  firm  connection  between  the  rails,  so  as  to  form  them  into 
one  continuous  bar,  and  to  remove  all  the  evils  attending  bad  joints.  On  the 
Blackwall  Railway  the  ends  of  the  rails  were  originally  scarfed — that  was 
previous  to  the  use  of  locomotives  on  this  line — but  this  weakened  the  ends, 
and  reduced  the  available  length  of  each  rail.  Subsequently  the  addition  of 
fishes  on  both  sides  of  the  rails  was  proposed;  various  modes  of  accomplish- 
ing the  same  object  were  given;  at  first  of  cast,  afterwards  of  wrought  iron, 
and  then  only  to  touch  at  the  top  and  bottom ;  these  fishes  were  laid  in  the 
channel  of  the  rail,  and,  in  the  first  place,  were  supported  at  the  ends  by 
chairs,  but,  as  fresh  castings  had  to  be  made  to  receive  them,  it  was  thought 
better  to  have  holes  in  the  rails  and  fishes,  and  to  pass  a  bolt  through  all,  the 
holes  in  the  rails  being  made  larger  than  those  in  the  fishes,  so  as  to  allow  of 
expansion  and  contraction.  To  meet  the  objection  to  the  increased  cost  of 
this  plan,  Mr.  Samuel,  in  1849,  proposed  that  a  chair  should  be  cast  with 
only  one  jaw  to  fill  one  channel  of  the  rail,  the  other  being  occupied  by  the 
fish. 

In  Egypt  the  dry  heat  of  the  atmosphere  was  fatal  to  timber,  and  the  soil 
along  which  the  line  would  be  carried,  would  vary  from  the  extreme  mois- 
ture of  irrigated  land  to  parched  dust.  Therefore  the  deeper  the  foundations 
of  a  discontinuous  sleeper-road  could  be  placed,  the  better  chance  there  was 
of  their  remaining  firm.  In  the  flat  parts  of  India  two  evils  had  to  be 
guarded  against;  the  one,  the  floating  up  of  a  line  during  rainy  seasons,  if 
much  timber  was  used ;  the  other,  the  ravages  of  the  white  ant,  which  might 
possibly  be  prevented  by  creosoted  timber;  but  this,  in  dry  weather,  would 
be  liable  to  be  fired  either  by  hot  coke,  or  the  burning  sun.  And  in  both 
these  countries,  as  well  as  in  the  Australasian  colonies,  where  fences  and 
police  could  not  well  be  maintained,  an  absence  of  anything  which  could  be 
easily  pilfered,  was  a  great  desideratum;  there  should  be  few  parts,  and 
easily  put  together,  so  as  to  require  little  skilled  labour,  where  such  labour 
would  be  dear. 

Under  all  these  circumstances,  it  was  submitted  that  an  iron  girder-rail,  of 
simple  construction,  hollow,  so  as  to  preserve  as  nearly  a  uniform  tempera- 
ture as  possible,  under  the  extreme  variations  of  temperature  between  day 
and  night,  would  be  the  most  efficacious,  the  simplest,  and  eventually  the 
cheapest. 


WATER-TUBE  BOILERS. 

Boilek-making,  after  being  for  many  years  considered  a  sort  of 
vulgar  mechanical  manipulation,  seems  at  length  to  stand  a  fair  chance 
of  being  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  science.  The  clangour  inseparable 
from  the  system  of  hand-rivetting,  caused  its  banishment  from  "  ears 
polite,"  and  the  ill-concealed  contempt  with  which  boiler-makers,  as 
a  class  of  workmen,  were  regarded,  was  not,  we  believe,  without  effect 
in  retarding  the  application  of  science  to  the  subject.  Thanks  to  Mr. 
Fairbairn's  rivetting  machine,  and  the  still  more  elegant  invention  of 
Messrs.  Garforth,  boiler-making  has  now  received  the  impetus  which 
the  application  of  self-acting  tools  never  fails  to  impart  to  all  branches 
of  mechanical  art ;  and  the  increased  use  of  high-pressure  steam  will, 
we  venture  to  predict,  produce  a  revolution  in  our  present  system  of 
boiler-making.  As  a  correspondent  very  justly  remarks  on  this  sub- 
ject (p.  Ill,  vol.  1851),  "It  appears,  then,  that,  other  circumstances 
being  similar,  the  quantity  of  fuel  necessary  to  vapourize  a  cubic  foot 
of  water  at  one  atmosphere  would  vapourize  the  same  quantity  at  four 
atmospheres,  so  that,  theoretically  speaking,  the  entire  force  that 
steam,  at  a  pressure  of  four  atmospheres,  creates  in  passing  to  a  pres- 
sure of  one  atmosphere,  is  gained  without  any  additional  expense  of 
fuel.  In  practice,  there  is  a  small  loss,  arising  chiefly  from  the  greater 
rapidity  of  cooling.  If  the  greatest  economy  is  desired,  it  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  combine  the  use  of  high  and  low  pressure  steam.  This 
principle,  applied  as  in  McNaught's,  is  now  making  great  advances  in 
the  manufacturing  districts ;  but  to  apply  it  safely,  there  must  be  a  de- 
cided change  in  the  system  of  boiler-making."  With  the  truth  of  this 
we  entirely  agree.  What  we  call  high-pressure  steam  now,  our  chil- 
dren will  smile  at  in  compassion  for  their  forefathers,  who  knew  not 
how  to  construct  boilers  to  work  at  lOOlbs.  on  the  square  inch,  just 
as  we,  now-a-days,  admire  the  discretion  of  James  Watt,  who  declined 
using  high-pressure  steam,  lest,  in  unskilful  hands,  it  should  have  re- 
tarded the  introduction  of  his  great  invention. 

At  p.  25,  vol.  1849,  we  stated  the  problem  thus,  "  A  boiler,  the 
heating  surface  of  which  shall  be  composed  of  thin  tubes,  to  allow  of 
the  rapid  transmission  of  heat, — which  shall  have  sufficient  area  of 
water  level  to  prevent  priming, — which  shall  require  as  few  stays  as 
possible, — be  economical  in  construction,- — and  be  easily  cleaned  out." 

These  conditions  suppose  a  system  of  boilers,  in  which  all  the  recep- 
tacles exposed  to  the  effect  of  heat  should  be  of  a  small  diameter,  to  ren- 
der their  bursting  innocuous.  All  the  joints  must  be  faced,  so  that  any  one 
defective  part  can  be  readily  removed  and  renewed.  Cylindrical  vessels 
must  be  made  of  thin  plates,  with  the  joints  welded  together  instead  of 
rivetted;  and,  in  fact,  the  apparatus  must  become  a  highly-finished 
piece  of  engineering,  rather  than  of  boiler  maker's  work.  A  near  ap- 
proach to  this  system  is  that  of  Dimpfel's  locomotive  boiler,  a  drawing 
and  description  of  which  will  be  found  at  p.  200,  vol.  1851.  In  this 
case,  the  shell  of  the  boiler  remains  as  usual,  but  the  smoke-box  be- 
comes a  water-space,  from  which  horizontal  tubes  run  to  the  front  of 
the  boiler,  entering  the  fire-box,  where  they  are  turned  up  and  pass 
through  the  roof  of  the  fire-box.  The  parts  most  exposed  to  wear  are 
obviously  those  portions  of  the  tubes  over  the  fire,  and  we  suspect  that 
the  pump  described  for  maintaining  a  circulation  through  them,  is 
rendered  necessary  by  their  length,  and  the  smallness  of  the  diameter, 
which  is  2  inches  outside,  and  probably  If  inch  inside. 

This  boiler  is  probably  as  strong  as  the  ordinary  boiler,  because  the 
weakest  point  of  all  locomotive  boilers,  the  roof  of  the  fire-box,  is  here, 
in  a  great  measure,  shielded  from  the  heat.  The  flat  roof  of  the  flue, 
in  the  barrel  containing  the  water-tubes,  is  weak,  but  is  also  protected ; 
and  to  this  we  attach  much  importance,  because  it  is  easy  to  stay  a  flat 
surface,  and  the  thing  most  to  be  feared  is,  such  a  surface  being  left 
bare  of  water,  when,  if  exposed  to  intense  heat,  all  the  stays  in  the 
world  will  not  prevent  a  rupture.      Still  this  boiler  has  two  radical  de- 


1852.] 


Progress  of  American  Invention. 


57 


fects :  it  requires  too  many  stays,  and  the  shape  of  the  tubes  renders 
them  difficult  to  clean  out.  Neither  is  it  suitable  for  boilers  on  a  large 
scale,  as  the  diameter  of  the  barrel  is  larger  than  is  consistent  with  high 
pressures. 

As  far  as  strength  and  convenience  of  renewal  are  concerned,  probably 
Dr.  E.  Alban's  boiler,  described  p.  165,  Artizan,  1848,  is  the  nearest 
approach  to  theoretic  excellence.  In  describing  this  boiler,  we  alluded 
to  the  want  of  provision  for  due  circulation  of  the  water,  which  rendered 
us  sceptical  of  its  durability  and  evaporative  powers.  We  perceive  that 
some  of  the  engineers  in  France  are  adopting  the  leading  points  of  these 
boilers,  and  we  shall  notice  them  for  the  sake  of  comparison. 

The  annexed  engravings*  represent  a  boiler  constructed  by  Messrs. 
Legavrian  and  Farinaux,  of  Lisle,  and  for  which  they  obtained  half  of  a 


Fig.  2. 

prize  of  10,000  francs,  offered  by  the  Society  of  Encouragement,  for 
improvements  in  boilers.  Fig.  1  is  an  elevation  in  section,  and  fig.  2  a 
plan  of  this  boiler.  It  consists  of  two  rows  of  generators,  a  a  and  b  b, 
lying  immediately  over  the  fire-bars,  and  communicating  at  their  back 
ends  with  the  receiver,  c.  The  front  ends  of  the  generators  are  supported 
by  a  cast-iron  frame,  as  shown.  The  brick-work  over  the  upper  row  of 
generators  is  supported  by  cast-iron  bridges  laid  between  the  generators ; 
this  system  leaving  the  upper  sides  of  the  generators  free  to  be  acted 
upon  by  the  heat.  The  lower  receiver,  c,  is  kept  full  of  water,  and 
communicates  with  an  upper  receiver,  d,  which  forms  the  steam-chest. 
The  flame,  after  playing  round  the  generators,  and  the  receiver,  c,  passes 
round  the  lower  side  of  the  receiver,  d,  and  through  the  flue,  e,  to  the 
chimney.  No  provision  appears  to  be  made  for  the  circulation  of  the 
water  through  the  generators. 

In  the  boiler  awarded  the  prize,  only  one  receiver  of  larger  diameter 
was  employed,  partly  filled  with  water,  and  surmounted  with  a  vertical 
steam  chest,  to  give  more  steam  room.  The  dimensions  and  perform- 
ance of  that  boiler  were  as  follows : — 


*  We  are  indebted  for  tills  information  to  the  Publication  Induslrielle,  which  may  he  had 
at  the  Artizan  office. 


Length  of  receiver       . .  . . 

Diameter  of  do. 

Length  of  the  four  lower  generators 

Length  of  the  four  upper  do. 

Diameter  of  generators 

Volume  occupied  by  the  water  • 

Do.  do.  steam 


9.84  feet. 

4.19  „ 
..  13.77  „ 
..       10.66    „ 

1.31  „ 
20  cub.  ft. 

...   ''7      * 

The  coal  consumed  during  the  trials  was  English,  large,  and  of  good 
quality.  In  the  first  experiment,  the  coal  consumed  per  horse  power 
per  hour  was  2.9  lbs.,  and  the  quantity  of  water  evaporated  by  1  lb.  of 
coal,  8.06  lbs. 

The  power  obtained  (indicated  ?)  was  32  horses. 

In  the  second  experiment,  the  consumption  was  reduced  to  2.77  lbs. 
per  horse  power  per  hour.  The  trial  lasted  ten  hours,  and  the  power 
obtained  was  39  horses.  It  is  obvious  that  the  consumption  per  horse 
power  depends  upon  the  engine ;  but  the  water  evaporated  gives  not  a 
bad  result. 

(To  be  continued.) 

PROGRESS  OF  AMERICAN  INVENTION. 

(Continued  from  p.  3/.) 

Two  couplings,  one  for  hose,  and  the  other  for  small  metallic  pipe,  have 
been  patented.  In  the  latter  device  the  pipes  are  cast  without  either  flange 
or  socket;  a  ring  is  attached  to,  and  surrounds  one  of  the  pipes  at  a  short 
distance  from  its  extremity.  Over  the  end  of  this  pipe,  and  projecting  be- 
yond it,  with  its  larger  end  abutting  against  the  before  named  ring,  is  slipped 
a  sleeve  of  soft  metal,  the  exterior  of  which  is  the  , frustum  of  a  cone ;  over 
this  sleeve  is  adapted  another  of  hard  metal,  closely  fitting  the  exterior  of 
the  former  one.  The  end  of  the  other  joint  of  pipe  is  now  inserted  into  the 
projecting  end  of  the  soft  metal  sleeve,  until  it  abuts  against  the  end  of  the 
first  named  joint.  The  hard  metal  sleeve  is  then  driven  by  a  hammer  over 
the  soft  one,  and  towards  it,  the  larger  end  thus  compressing  it  firmly  against 
the  periphery,  and  between  the  joints  of  the  pipes. 

This  coupling  is  cheap,  simple,  secure,  and  easily  attached  and  detached. 

Two  patents  have  been  issued  for  improvements  in  lead  pipe  machines  ; 
the  novelty  in  the  one  consisting  in  a  method  of  cooling  or  setting  the  lead 
in  the  cylinder  before  it  is  forced  through  the  dies;  and  the  other  depending 
for  its  patentability  upon  a  peculiar  shape  of  both  core  and  die.  Certain 
minor  improvements  in  the  process  for  making  copper  pipe  without  a  seam 
have  also  been  patented. 

In  the  subdivision  of  this  class,  under  which  are  examined  applications  for 
patents  in  nail  and  screw  machinery,  many  patents  have  been  granted; 
among  which  are  two  for  cutting  the  threads  of  wood  screws,  and  one  for 
nicking  the  blanks.  The  improvements  in  these  machines  would  appear 
trivial,  if  not  valueless,  to  those  unacquainted  with  the  fact,  that  apparently 
slight  differences  produce  important  changes  in  the  action  of  machines,  which 
are  required  to  perform  such  nice  and  accurate  work  as  these  execute.  To 
those  who  have  traced  step  by  step  the  improvements  in  such  machinery, 
which  have  resulted  in  the  production  of  the  deep  threaded,  highly-finished 
American  screw,  which  has  taken  the  place  of  the  rough  imported  article, 
but  little,  if  any,  superior  to  a  nail,  the  improvements  serving  as  the  basis  of 
these  patents,  will  present  themselves  as  important  inventions. 

The  nail  machines  present  no  very  important  changes  or  improvements. 
One  of  the  two  patented  machines,  for  feeding  nail  plates  to  the  cut-nail 
machine,  deserves  special  notice.  It  has  long  been  a  desideratum  to  con- 
trive some  apparatus  which  should  take  the  place  of  the  nailor,  as  he  is  now 
termed,  who  feeds  into  the  jaws  of  the  machine  the  heated  iron  plate,  lifting 
it  upwards,  drawing  it  backwards,  turning  it  half  round,  and  advancing  it 
again,  each  time  that  the  machine  makes  a  nail.  These  mechanics,  by  long 
practice,  become  so  expert  as  to  repeat  this  set  of  motions  300  times  every 
minute.  None  of  the  many  mechanical  feeders  that  have  been  contrived, 
have  answered  in  practice.  The  one  here  noticed,  carries  the  nail  plate 
through  all  the  motions  above  cited,  and  is  comparatively  simple;  as  far  as 
can  be  determined  by  examination,  it  appears  to  approach  much  nearer  to 


58 


Progress  of  American  Invention. 


[March, 


the  desideratum  than  those  which  have  preceded  it;  whether  or  not  this 
opinion  be  a  correct  one,  practice  alone  can  decide. 

A  machine,  which  the  inventor  confidently  asserts  will  supersede  manual 
labour,  as  employed  for  beating  gold  into  leaves,  has  also  been  patented. 
The  gold  in  sheets,  and  protected  by  animal  membrane,  as  is  usual,  is  ad- 
justed in  layers  within  a  frame,  which  is  supported  by  a  marble  slab.  A 
trip-hammer,  worked  by  machinery,  beats  upon  the  pile,  which,  in  its  enclos- 
ing frame,  is  moved  hither  and  thither,  and  back  and  forth,  under  the  ham- 
mer, by  means  of  cams  and  levers. 

The  idea  is  not  a  new  one;  machines  of  a  similar  character  having  been 
long  since  employed  in  Trance,  and  I  believe  abandoned.  The  claims,  there- 
fore, rest  upon  the  particular  devices  employed  by  the  inventors,  to  give  the 
requisite  motions  to  the  bundle  of  leaves. 

Two  improvements  in  the  surface  condenser  are  worthy  of  notice;  in  one  of 
these  a  receiving  vessel  for  the  exhaust  steam  and  the  water  resulting  from 
the  condensation  of  the  same,  is  combined  with  the  condenser  proper  in  such 
manner,  that  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  heat  contained  in  any  one  portion 
of  exhaust  steam  is  absorbed  by  the  water  which  has  resulted  from  the  con- 
densation of  a  previous  portion  of  the  same.  Hotter  water  is  thus  supplied 
to  the  boilers,  and  a  smaller  quantity  of  fuel  is  required  to  evaporate  an 
equal  bulk  of  water. 

The  other  condenser  has  for  its  object,  to  relieve  the  tubes  in  which  the 
steam  is  condensed  from  pressure,  thus  obviating  one  of  the  great  practical 
difficulties  incident  to  the  use  of  the  condenser,  familiarly  known  as  Hall's. 
The  tubes  in  this  latter  condenser  contain  exhaust  steam  and  water,  resulting 
from  its  condensation  ;  their  interior  surface  is  in  vacuo,  or  nearly  so:  their 
exterior  is  surrounded  by  a  constantly  changing  body  of  cold  water,  which 
presses  upon  the  tubes,  tending  to  collapse  them,  with  a  force  due  not  only  to 
the  atmospheric  pressure,  but  to  the  height  of  the  column  of  fluid.  These 
tubes  are  of  small  size,  and  their  collective  length  in  some  steamers  is  more 
than  a  mile;  there  are  consequently  many  joints,  and  these  are  liable  to  be 
broken  by  unequal  expansion  and  contraction,  or  by  the  straining  of  the  vessel. 
"When  a  leak  occurs,  the  cold  water  rushes  with  great  force  to  the  interior  of 
the  tubes,  and  a  small  leak  is  sufficient,  as  it  is  technically  termed,  to  drown 
the  condenser,  filling  the  tubes  to  such  an  extent  with  water,  as  to  forbid 
access  to  the  exhaust  steam,  and  rendering  the  condenser  useless.  To  obviate 
this  difficulty,  and  to  render  practicable  the  employment  of  thin  tubes,  this 
patentee  originated  the  idea  of  admitting  the  water  to  the  outside  of  the  tubes 
in  such  a  manner,  that  in  one  of  his  arrangements  they  should  be  exposed  on 
their  exteriors  to  the  pressure  due  to  the  height  of  the  water  only  ;  that  in 
the  other  arrangement,  the  pressure  on  both  sides  of  the  tubes  should  be  ex- 
actly equal,  and  leakage  in  consequence  produce  no  evil  whatever. 

In  this  last  arrangement,  the  case  containing  the  tubes  is  air-tight  and  suf- 
ficently  strong  to  resist  atmospheric  pressure;  cold  water  is  admitted  to  the 
top  of  it,  and  falls  in  a  continuous  shower  through  a  perforated  plate  upon 
the  cluster  of  tubes,  cooling  their  surfaces,  and  condensing  the  steam  within 
them;  as  it  collects  at  the  bottom  it  falls  by  gravity  into  the  well  of  a  pump, 
which  latter  lifts  out  the  water.  Openings  are  made  through  the  tubes, 
connecting  the  space  outside  with  that  inside  them,  and  thus  an  absolute 
uniformity  of  vacuum  in  the  two  spaces  is  maintained.  This  condenser 
has  been  in  actual  use  for  several  months  ;  report  speaks  highly  of  its  per- 
formance, and  it  is  stated  that  it  is  as  little  liable  to  injury  as  the  ordinary 
injection  condenser,  while  it  at  the  same  time  returns  back  to  the  boiler  the 
steam  condensed  and  unmixed  with  salt  or  impure  water,  as  is  the  case  in 
Hall's  condenser. 

Navigation  and  Maritime  Implements. — In  this  class,  some  six-and- 
twenty  patents  have  been  granted,  among  which  is  one  for  a  peculiar  form 
of  vessel,  scow-bottomed  with  keels  at  the  sides  projecting  below  the  bottom, 
and  below  the  water-line  at  both  bow  and  stern.  By  such  a  form,  a  wedge, 
as  it  were,  of  air  with  its  edge  towards  the  vessel  is  enclosed  at  the  bow,  by 
the  keel,  by  that  portion  of  the  bottom  which  projects  over  the  water,  and  by 
the  surface  of  the  water  itself.  As  the  vessel  is  forced  onwards,  and  waves 
strike  in  this  wedge-shaped  space,  each  one  in  its  turn  forces  a  quantity  of 
air  under  the  bottom,  and  below  the  surface  of  the  water;  this  air  is  retained 
in  contact  with  the  same  until  it  makes  its  way  out  astern,  being  prevented 
from  issuing  at  the  sides  by  the  keels  before  cited.    A  patent  was  some  years 


since  granted  for  applying  air  to  the  bottom  of  vessels;  thus,  in  fact,  support- 
ing them  on  a  thin  layer  of  air,  and  alleviating  the  friction  arising  from  the 
passage  of  water  along  the  outside  planking,  which  friction  has  of  late  years 
been  discovered  to  form  an  important  element  among  the  resistances  which 
oppose  the  progress  of  vessels.  A  vessel  built  on  this  better  plan,  in  which 
the  air  is  discharged  under  the  bottom  by  powerful  pumps,  is  now  in  actual 
use  in  the  harbour  of  New  York,  and  with  fair  success.  The  patent  granted 
the  present  year  has  been  presented  as  an  improvement  on  this  plan,  and  the 
inventor  states  that  his  peculiar  model  will  enable  him  to  dispense,  not  only 
with  the  pumps,  but  with  the  power  necessary  to  work  them. 

An  arrangement  of  two  flexible  bars  connected  to  each  other,  and  to  a 
rigid  bar  between  them  by  means  of  cross  pieces,  which  are  free  to  slide  on 
the  rigid  bar,  and  can  be  clamped  to  it  at  any  required  point,  has  been  pa- 
tented. The  whole  apparatus  constitutes  a  rule,  the  outer  edges  of  which 
can  be  made  to  assume  many  different  curves.  Its  object  is  to  save  the 
wood  and  labour  employed  in  making  the  patterns  or  moulds,  from  which 
timbers  for  vessels  are  cut.  The  rule  is  set  to  the  chalk  lines  on  the  laying 
down  floor,  and  the  position  of  the  cross  pieces  with  respect  to  the  rigid  bars 
is  noted  and  marked;  it  is  then  set  to  the  lines  representing  another  timber, 
and  so  on  for  any  convenient  number.  The  rule  is  then  carried  to  the  yard, 
re-set  by  the  marks  in  its  previous  positions,  and  the  outline  of  its  edges 
marked  on  various  sticks  of  timber. 

Fire  Arms,  Implements  op  War,  &c. — Similar  causes  to  those  which 
led  to  a  diminution  of  the  numbers  of  the  gold  washers,  presented  to  this 
office  for  examination,  have  acted  upon  the  minds  of  those  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  or  improvement  of  fire  arms,  and  but  fifteen  patents  have  been 
granted  during  the  past  year  in  this  class.  Two  of  these  are  for  improve- 
ments in  the  sliding  piston  breech  gun,  one  of  them  being  for  a  method  of 
moving  and  holding  the  piston,  and  the  other  for  certain  apparatus  for 
preventing  accidental  explosion  of  the  charge,  while  the  operation  of  loading 
is  proceeding. 

Several  patents  have  been  granted  for  modifications  of  those  arms  familiarly 
known  as  Cochrane's  and  Colt's. 

Two  of  the  latter  have  been  issued  to  the  original  inventor,  one  of  them 
being  for  certain  improvements  in  the  form  of  the  locking  notches  of  the  re- 
volving breech,  which  prevents  any  one  chamber  of  the  same  form  being 
thrown  past  the  axial  line  of  the  barrel,  and  for  arrangements  rendering  it 
impossible  for  the  charge  to  explode  when  the  pistol  receives  a  violent  fall  or 
jar.  The  other  consists  in  permitting  the  spindle  on  which  the  cylinder 
revolves  to  pass  only  partially  through  the  hole  in  the  latter,  and  in  closing 
up  that  end  of  the  same,  which  is  nearest  to  the  barrel.  The  improvements 
claimed  under  both  patents  will  remedy  certain  defects  of  the  pistol,  as  at 
present  manufactured,  and  the  one  last  noticed  is  believed  to  be  especially 
important,  as  it  prevents  all  smoke ,  dirt,  small  pieces  of  lead,  &c,  from  en- 
tering between  the  spindle  and  the  cylinder,  and  obstructing,  if  not  entirely 
preventing  its  revolution. 

Patents  have  been  granted  for  several  improvements  in  that  class  of  locks 
in  which  the  hammer  is  raised  and  discharged  by  the  same  trigger.  One  of 
these  is  based  upon  such  an  arrangement  of  the  parts,  that  one  pull  cocks  the 
lock  and  leaves  all  the  parts  held  in  position,  as  in  an  ordinary  lock  when 
cocked ;  a  second  pull  of  the  same  trigger,  but  requiring  much  less  force,  will 
then  discharge  the  piece.  Two  advantages  result  from  this  arrangements 
when  applied  to  fire  arms  with  revolving  barrels;  one  being  that  the  arm  is 
not  thrown  out  of  the  line  of  aim  by  the  violent  pull  on  the  trigger  in  the  act 
of  discharging;  the  other  that  the  barrel  is  at  rest  before  it  is  discharged,  and 
the  ball  has  only  the  motion  derived  from  the  explosive  force  of  the  powder, 
and  not  the  compound  motion  derived  both  from  it  and  from  the  revolution 
of  the  barrel,  as  is  usually  the  case. 

Agriculture. — A  patent  was  granted  for  a  Seed  Planting  Barrow.  In 
this  the  gist  of  the  invention  lies  in  the  device  for  receiving  and  transmitting, 
or  distributing  the  seed.  It  is  so  constructed  that  the  reciprocating,  semi- 
rotating,  horizontal  seeding  disk,  takes  the  seed  from  the  hopper  above  it  into 
its  seed  measuring  cups,  in  which  cups  the  seed  is  carried  around  on  the 
surface  of  the  under  lying  plate,  until  it  is  brought  over  a  hole  in  the  said 
under  plate,  through  which  it  falls  into  the  furrow.  The  patentee  claims  the 
devices  for  moving  the  seed  disk  in  combination  with  the  disk  itself. 


1852.] 


Progress  of  America?!  Invention. 


59 


A  patent  was  granted  for  the  construction  of  a  drill  tooth,  so  that  when  it 
should  meet  with  a  fast  rock  or  stump,  or  other  fixed  obstruction,  it  might  dis- 
engage itself  without  the  danger  of  being  broken.  Devices  for  accomplish- 
ing this  result  are  rather  common  within  the  last  year  or  two.  The  tooth  in 
this  case  is  so  made,  as  to  be  hung  by  a  pivot  at  its  top,  and  to  be  grasped 
at  its  front  and  middle  part  by  the  lips  of  a  pair  of  tongs,  the  jaws  of  which 
project  horizontally  backwards,  and  hold  the  tooth  with  sufficient  force  to  re- 
sist the  action  of  ordinary  soils;  but  if  the  drill  tooth  meets  with  any  fast 
obstruction,  it  pulls  away  from  the  grip  of  the  tongs,  and  swings  back  on  its 
pivot,  and,  when  it  has  past  the  obstruction,  may  be  pressed  between  the  jaws 
of  the  tongs  by  the  attendant. 

A  patent  was  also  granted  for  a  Planting  Cylinder,  in  which  the  invention 
consists  in  the  device  for  varying  the  size  of  the  seed  cavities  in  its  periphery. 
This  is  done  by  means  of  an  arrangement  of  radial  bars  or  rods  like  the 
spokes  of  wheels  running  towards  the  periphery,  and  extending  into  the 
bottoms  of  the  seed  cavities,  and  thus  filling  them  up  in  the  whole  or  in  part 
only.  The  radial  arms  or  rods  are  moved  in  mortised  grooves  outward  and 
inward,  by  means  of  cams  working  in  screw  thread  depressions.  The 
cylinder  being  composed  of  two  short  cylinders  or  disks  on  the  same  shaft, 
one  having  the  cams,  and  the  other  the  screw  thead  depressions,  so  that 
by  rotating  the  inner  faces  of  the  disks  upon  each  other,  the  radial  arms  are 
advanced  or  retarded,  so  as  to  vary  the  size  of  the  cavities  in  the  seeding 
rollers. 

A  patent  was  granted  for  a  Seed  Distributing  Apparatus,  in  which  the  inven- 
tion consists  in  the  use  of  cogs  of  wheels  having  their  peripheries  pass  through 
the  hopper  of  a  seed  planter,  and  each  cog  takes  up  and  carries  over  a  small 
quantity  of  seed  and  deposits  it  in  the  seed  drills;  there  being  one  drill  tooth 
for  each  cog-wheel. 

Another  patent  was  granted,  the  gist  of  which  consists  in  the  arrange- 
ment and  in  the  working  of  the  seed  valves  in  the  bottom  of  the  hopper,  in 
combination  within  one  of  the  sides  of  the  hopper,  so  made  as  to  slide  up  and 
down,  and  thus  vary  the  capacity  of  the  seed  measuring  space,  contained 
between  the  upper  and  lower  slide  valves,  by  causing  the  valves  to  recede  from 
or  approximate  towards  each  other.  In  sowing  seed,  the  two  series  of  valves 
move  alternately,  the  upper  being  opened  first,  lets  down  its  charge  upon 
the  lower  one,  while  the  latter  is  yet  shut,  and  as  soon  as  the  upper  one  is 
closed,  the  lower  one  is  opened,  and  the  seed  falls  into  the  furrow.  The 
upper  and  lower  valves,  each  is  worked  by  a  separate  set  of  cams  on  the 
driving  axle. 

Cart  for  Spreading  Manure. — A  patent  was  granted  for  this  apparatus, 
consisting  of  the  sides  and  ends  of  a  manure  cart  body  on  a  pair  of  wheels 
on  the  axle  of  which  the  body  is  capable  of  being  slided  rearward,  or  run 
back  on  rollers  for  the  purpose  of  the  discharge  of  its  contents.  The  bottom 
part  of  the  said  cart-body,  or  box,  is  made  to  consist  of  an  endless  apron  on 
a  series  of  rollers,  the  forward  end  of  the  apron  is  made  fast  to  the  forward 
end  of  the  box,  while  the  near  end  of  the  apron  winds  up  on  a  roller  situate 
underneath  and  near  the  rear  end  of  the  cart.  It  discharges  the  contents  as 
the  body  of  the  cart  moves  or  slides  backward.  The  manure  is  spread  by 
winding  up  the  rear  end  of  the  apron  on  the  under  roller,  which  process 
brings  the  contents  slowly  backward,  and  distributes  them  broadcast  or 
otherwise,  at  the  rear  of  the  cart  body. 

Harvesters. — Under  this  division,  fifteen  patents  have  been  granted.  For 
the  last  two  years  much  attention  has  been  given  to  this  class  of  agricultural 
machines.  At  first  they  were  confined  to  the  cutting  of  grain  chiefly,  then  to 
grain  and  grass,  and  now  they  have  been  extended  to  almost  every  herbaceous 
growth  of  the  soil.  Thus  we  have  grain  and  grass  harvesters,  corn  harvesters, 
cornstalk  harvesters,  cotton  harvesters,  cotton  stalk  harvesters,  cloverhead 
harvesters,  hemp  harvesters,  &c.  I  shall  notice  several  of  these,  as  they  pre- 
sent something  of  interest,  to  prairie  farmers  especially. 

The  first  machine  which  I  shall  mention  in  this  class,  is  a  machine  to  har- 
vest Cotton  Stalks  in  the  field.  It  is  a  machine  having  two  horizontal  shafts 
running  from  side  to  side.  The  upper  and  forward  one  has  radial  knives  or 
beaters,  which  rotate  rapidly,  and  beat  down  the  stalks,  while  the  rear  shaft 
is  supplied  with  radial  longitudinal  knife  edges  extending  from  side  to  side, 
and  as  the  blades  come  down  they  chop  the  stalks  in  pieces. 

The  second  machine  noticed  under  this  division,  is  a  Grain  and  Grass  Har- 
vester, presenting  two  principal  points  of  invention.      First,  the  cutters, 


which  consist  of  two  horizontal  saw  blades,  lying  flat  upon  each  other,  with 
the  teeth  looking  forwards,  and  vibrating  upon  each  other  as  the  face  of  the 
saws  is  pushed  forward  against  the  standing  grass.  The  peculiarity  of  these 
teeth  consists  in  their  being  made  concave  on  their  inner  faces,  so  that  when 
they  slide  past  each  other,  they  cut  somewhat  on  the  scissors  principle,  and 
are,  to  some  extent,  self-sharpening.  Secondly,  there  are  what  are  called  cyma- 
reversa  fingers,  working  in  combination  with  certain  rake  teeth,  designed  to 
hold  the  charge  while  the  fingers  take  it  and  deposit  it  upon  the  ground. 

The  third  machine  of  this  division  is  a  Corn  Stalk  Harvester,  the  frame  of 
which  resembles  a  low  three-wheeled  truck,  and  bearing  upon  its  upper  sur- 
face, near  its  middle  part,  two  broad  metallic  disks,  armed  with  teeth  on  their 
peripheries,  which  teeth  slightly  overlap  each  other,  and  are  capable  of 
seizing  and  holding  within  their  grasp  any  herbaceous  matter,  and  as  the 
machine  moves  forward,  to  tear  it  up  by  the  roots.  The  meeting  of  these 
teeth  is  near  the  central  part  of  the  machine,  anterior  to  which  the  space  is 
perfectly  clear,  so  that  when  the  machine  is  driven  over  a  row  of  the  corn 
stalks,  the  latter  are  successively  brought  against  the  teeth  of  the  metallic 
disks,  and  drawn  out  of,  and  deposited  on,  the  ground. 

The  fourth  machine  is  an  ingenious  contrivance  for  distributing  the  cut 
grain  of  a  harvester  into  suitable  parcels  for  bundles,  by  the  weight  of  the 
grain.  It  is  called  a  grain  binder.  It  consists  of  a  self-regulating  rotary 
cylinder,  mounted  on  the  rear  end  or  extreme  right  side  of  the  machine,  and 
baring  its  axle  parallel  with  the  rear  end  of  the  machine.  This  cylinder  is 
supplied  with  catches  and  springs,  and  so  arranged  that  when  a  certain  weight 
of  grain  is  received  into  one  of  its  three  compartments,  it  performs  a  third  part 
of  a  revolution,  and  deposits  the  amount  received  for  a  bundle,  while  the  next 
compartment  of  the  cylinder  is  being  charged  for  a  second  bundle,  and  so  on. 

One  patent  has  been  granted  for  a  machine  to  harvest  hemp,  a  prominent 
peculiarity  of  which  consists  in  the  method  of  severing  the  stalk,  by  means  of 
an  oblique  chop  stroke  of  the  cutters  falling  obliquely  across  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  fingers,  and  upon  the  edge  of  the  finger  on  the  further  extremity  of 
the  finger  space  ;  the  oblique  stroke  being  given  by  the  shaft  on  which  all  the 
cutters  are  arranged,  which  shaft  is  semi-rotated  in  screw  thread  bearings,  so 
that  the  shaft,  in  so  rotating  and  re-rotating  as  to  raise  and  depress  the  cutters, 
should,  in  performing  this  operation,  give  the  oblique  motion  which  severs 
the  stalk,  as  set  forth. 

Two  machines,  adapted  to  harvest  maize  have  been  patented.  The  first 
of  these  contains  a  thresher  to  husk  and  shell  the  grain.  The  harvester  con- 
sists of  a  machine,  in  its  general  arrangement  not  unlike  a  clover  head  har- 
vester. But  it  has  a  series  of  pairs  of  rollers,  one  pair  between  every  pah-  of 
teeth,  to  seize  the  stalks  and  pull  them  downwards,  until  the  ear  is  drawn 
against  the  tops  of  the  fingers  by  which  the  ear  is  severed  from  the  stalk. 
The  ear  then  rolls  down  an  inclined  plane  to  the  thresher.  A  second  machine 
for  harvesting  maize  or  grain  has  also  been  patented.  The  gist  of  this  inven- 
tion consists  in  the  construction  of  the  grain  reel,  made  with  rows  of  fingers, 
projecting  radially,  and  rotating  over  or  through  the  standing  grain.  The 
stalks  being  received  between  the  fingers,  the  ears  are  pulled  off  and  depo- 
sited on  an  inclined  endless  apron.    . 

A  Grass  Harvester  of  a  novel  construction  has  been  patented,  which  it  will 
be  difficult  to  describe  without  the  aid  of  drawings.  Some  idea  of  its  general 
character,  however,  may  be  formed,  by  supposing  a  flat  washer-like  ring  of 
metal  to  be  cut  out  of  a  sheet  of  metal,  and  placing  it  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion. Now  place  upon  its  surface,  symmetrically,  a  series  of  sharp  razor- 
blades,  a  few  inches  apart,  having  the  shank  confined  to  the  ring  by  a  screw 
or  rivet,  and  the  ends  of  the  blades  projecting  beyond  the  periphery  of  the 
ring.  If  now  the  ring  be  rotated,  so  that  the  cutting  faces  of  the  blades  be 
forward,  and  in  this  state  be  brought  against  the  standing  grass,  it  is  con- 
tended by  the  inventor  that  the  machine  will  be  a  successful  instrument.  The 
cutting  blades  are  supported  in  their  position  by  suitable  contrivances,  and 
the  ring,  with  its  cutters,  has  also  suitable  devices  for  supporting  it,  and  rota- 
ting it  as  the  carriage  moves  forward,  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  refer  to  here. 

Horse  Rakes. — Only  one  apparatus  under  this  division  is  regarded  worthy 
of  notice,  although  six  patents  have  been  granted. 

This  invention  is  denominated  a  machine  for  Binding  Grain.  The  frame 
of  it  resembles  the  platform  of  an  ordinary  harvester,  so  constructed  that 
curved  rake  teeth,  projecting  upward  through  the  floor,  and  passing  across  the 
same  from  side  to  side,  collect  the  grain  at  the  opposite  side,  where  it  is 


60 


The  Smoke  Question. 


[March, 


brought  against  a  curved  arm,  between  which  arm  and  teeth  the  grain  is 
pressed,  and  at  the  same  moment  another  curved  finger  rises  through  the 
floor  from  behind,  to  support  that  half  of  the  bundle,  while  at  the  same  time, 
the  curved  rake  teeth,  by  means  of  the  machinery,  fall  backward  through 
the  floor,  and  are  carried  back  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  platform,  or  to  the 
starting  place,  for  a  new  charge. 

The  gearing  could  not  be  explained  without  a  drawing.  The  only  part 
required  of  the  attendant  with  the  machine,  is  to  tie  the  band  for  each  bundle 
or  sheaf. 

Thrashing  Machines  and  Grain  Separators. — Five  patents  have  been  gran- 
ted ;  two  thrashing  machines,  and  three  for  separating  the  grain  from  the  straw, 
or  for  carrying  away  the  straw  after  thrashing.  I  shall  notice  only  one  of 
these,  namely,  a  thrashing  cylinder.  This  cylinder  is  constructed  in  short 
sections  or  rings,  in  such  manner  as  to  be  slipped  over  a  solid  cylinder,  and 
made  moveable  on  it,  so  that  when  any  one  section  receives  a  stone  or  other 
hard  body  between  the  teeth,  instead  of  its  breaking  out  the  teeth,  the  ring 
will  slip  round  the  solid  cylinder,  and  thus  allow  the  obstruction  to  pass 
through  the  machine  without  doing  injury. 

(To  be  continued.) 

THE  SMOKE  QUESTION. 

(Continued  from  page  32.) 

Our  articles  on  this  subject  have  drawn  down  upon  us  the  wrath  of 
more  than  one  patentee ;  some,  because  we  have  not  noticed  them 
favourably,  and  some  because  we  have  not  noticed  them  at  all.  To 
one  of  the  last  we  must  do  justice  on  the  present  occasion. 

We  have  described  Godson's  patent  furnace,  in  which  the  coal  is 
introduced  from  below,  and  the  smoke  is  consumed  in  passing  through 
the  red-hot  fuel.  The  one  before  us — Mr.  Coupland's — is  on  the  same 
principle,  but  differs  in  the  arrangement  of  the  bars,  and  is,  we  think, 
so  far  better  than  the  other.  Fig.  1  is  an  elevation  of  the  front  of  the 
furnace  of  a  waggon  boiler,  and  fig.  2  is  a  plan  of  the  furnace  in  sec- 
tion. From  the  plan  it  will  be  perceived  that  in  the  centre  of  the 
fire-grate  there  is  a  series  of  bars  below  the  level  of  the  rest  of  the  bars, 
which  are  marked  g,  in  the  elevation.  This  series  of  bars  is  lowered  in 
the  following  manner  : — A  series  of  false  bars,  f,  are  arranged  so  as  to 
slide  up  and  down  in  a  cast-iron  box  below  the  fire-grate.  Motion  is 
communicated  to  these  by  a  segment,  c,  moved  by  a  pinion  and  handle,  I 
a.  When  the  bars,  g,  are 
lowered,  they  form  the  bot- 
tom of  the  box,  which  is 
then  filled  with  coal,  and 
the  grating  is  gradually 
raised  as  the  coal  is  con- 
sumed. The  form  of  the 
lower  grating,  /,  affords 
admission  for  a  supply  of 
air  to  the  centre  of  the  fur- 
nace— an  advantage  which 
is  not  obtained  in  Mr.  God- 
son's arrangement. 

The  centre  bars  can  be 
sustained  in  their  position 
by  catches,  so  as  to  con- 
vert the  furnace  into  an. 
ordinary  one,  and  provision 
is  made  in  case,  on  lower- 
ing the  bars,  the  fuel  above 
them  should  not  be  suf- 
ficiently coked  to  sustain 
its  position  ;  this  consists 
in  a  few  bars,  k  k,  which 
can  be  moved  transversely 


across  the  opening,  by  a  lever  to  the  left  of  the  furnace.  Mr. 
Coupland  has  applied  his  plan  to  a  cylindrical  boiler,  at  Whitbread's 
brewery,  and  we  shall  take  an  early  opportunity  of  inspecting  it  and 
report  progress. 

(To  be  continued). 


Fig.  1. 


1852.] 


Notes  by  a  Practical  Chemist. 


61 


NOTES    BY   A    PRACTICAL    CHEMIST. 

Test  for  Urea. — If  a  solution  of  pure  urea  is  made  highly  alkaline 
by  means  of  caustic  potassa,  and  a  solution  of  perchloride  of  mercury 
gradually  added,  a  compound  of  urea  with  the  peroxide  of  mercury  is 
thrown  down  in  the  form  of  a  shining  white  precipitate.  A  weak  solu- 
tion of  perchloride  of  mercury  may  be  mixed  with  bicarbonate  of 
potassa  in  excess,  without  immediate  precipitation ;  but  if  a  solution  of 
urea  be  added,  the  above-mentioned  precipitate  is  at  once  thrown 
down.  In  this  manner,  l-5000th  of  urea  can  be  detected  in  a  liquid. 
The  whole  of  the  urea  contained  in  urine,  and  other  animal  fluids, 
may  thus  be  precipitated. 

Active  ingredient  of  Ergot. — Dr.  Winckler  has  extracted  from 
the  ergot  of  rye,  a  new  volatile  organic  alkali,  very  similar  to  conia. 
It  is  to  this  substance,  and  not  as  commonly  supposed  to  ergotina,  that 
the  remarkable  effects  of  ergotised  rye  are  to  be  ascribed. 

ANSWERS    TO    CORRESPONDENTS. 

"A  Pharmaceutist.''  Your  question  does  not  admit  of  a  satisfactory 
answer  in  the  present  state  of  chemical  science.  Dr.  Runge  proposes 
the  law,  that  colouring  matters,  when  pure,  are  tasteless  and  inodorous, 
and  have  little  or  no  action  upon  the  animal  economy ;  whilst,  on  the 
other  hand,  bodies  possessed  of  intense  taste,  odour,  and  powerful  phy- 
siological action  are  chiefly  colourless.  Of  the  latter  class  of  bodies, 
the  organic  alkalies,  and  their  salts,  are  a  striking  instance.  Excep- 
tions to  this  law  are  meanwhile  not  wanting ;  but  it  is  far  from  impro- 
bable that  many  of  them  may  disappear  on  a  more  rigid  examination. 
"We  think  it  at  all  events  certain,  that  great  solubility  and  high  tinctorial 
power  are  very  rarely  found  united. 

"  Zeta."  Peroxide  of  barium  may  be  formed  by  passing  a  current 
of  oxygen  gas  over  the  protoxide  at  a  very  gentle  red  heat.  Atmos- 
pheric air  may  be  used  instead  of  oxygen,  if  previously  freed  from  car- 
bonic acid,  by  means  of  hydrate  of  lime. 

"  Senex."  Any  views  you  may  bring  forward,  if  based  upon  ex- 
periment, will  claim  and  receive  respectful  consideration,  how  widely 
soever  they  may  differ  from  received  notions.  But  if  you  appeal  to 
"  authority"  you  nonsuit  yourself  at  once.  No  assertions,  and,  we  may 
add,  no  a  priori  reasoning,  can  avail  against  the  facts  of  an  analysis. 

"  S.  P.,  Coventry."  "We  are  acquainted  with  the  process,  but,  for 
obvious  reasons,  cannot  divulge  it.  If  you  try  you  may  discover  it,  or 
perhaps  something  better. 

"  Cleanliness."  All  attempts  to  prepare  chlorinated  soaps  have 
hitherto  proved  unsuccessful.  Washing  powders  consist  of  carbonate 
of  soda,  with  a  sufficient  amount  of  lime  to  render  the  soda  caustic. 
All  that  we  have  examined  have  a  pernicious  effect  upon  linen  and 
cotton  goods.  S. 


SPECIFICATION  OF  IRON  STEAMERS  FOR  CARRON 
COMPANY. 

We  had  an  opportunity,  a  few  days  since,  of  inspecting  one  of  two 
sister  vessels,  the  Carron  and  Clyde,  built  and  fitted  by  Messrs.  Smith 
and  Rodger,  for  the  Carron  Company.  They  are  iron  auxiliary  screw 
vessels,  and  have  an  average  speed  of  8  to  9  knots.  The  engines  are 
on  the  four-piston-rod  plan,  with  toothed  gearing,  and  are  very  credi- 
table specimens  of  workmanship.  The  intermediate  shaft  looked  rather 
slight,  across  the  arms  of  the  crank  for  working  the  air-pump  ;  but 
the  engineers  have  had  so  much  experience,  that  we  doubt  not  they  are 
of  the  same  proportions  as  they  have  found  stand  in  other  boats.  The 
starting  gear  might  be  improved  to  a  slight  extent,  to  give  the  engineer 
more  command  over  the  engines.  The  locomotive  plan  of  the  link  does 
not  appear  to  find  much  favour  on  the  Clyde. 


The  following  particulars  are*  extracted,  from  the  specification,  and 
will  be  found  useful. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore  rake       160  feet. 

Breadth  of  beam 23     „ 

Depth  of  hold 14£  „ 

Keel  of  hammered  iron        5  in.  x  2  in. 

Stem  ditto  5  in.  X  2  in. 

Stern  post,  ditto  6  in.  X  3  in. 

Inner  stern  post,  ditto  6  in.  X  3  in. 

Iron  in  hull :  best  Staffordshire  plates  and  angle  iron,  or  iron 
equal  in  quality  thereto.  Rivets  in  keel  and  stern  posts  of  Lowmoor 
or  Bowling  iron,  remainder  of  best  rivet  iron. 

Frames  of  angle  iron,  4  X  3  x  f ,  18  inches  from  centre  to  centre. 

Plating:  the.  garboard  strake  to  be  ^  inches  for  60  feet  amidships, 
rest  half  an  inch.  Fifty  feet  of  bottom  amidships  to  round  off  bilge, 
half  an  inch;  remainder  of  bottom  and  sides  to  the  10  feet  water 
line  to  be  Z,  and  not  less  than  two  feet  in  breadth.  The  whole  to  be 
lap-riveted  horizontally  with  flush  vertical  joints. 

Riveting:  bottom  to  five  feet  water  line  to  be  double  riveted  hori- 
zontally ;  remainder  single  riveted,  except  the  vertical  joints  of  shear 
strake  for  80  feet  amidships,  which  shall  have  four  rows  of  rivets. 

Floorings :  one  to  every  frame,  15  inches  deep  X  f  inches  thick, 
with  angle  iron  3  X  3  X  f ,  running  up  the  bilge  to  the  six  feet 
water  line;  every  alternate  frame  to  have  a  reverse  angle  iron  up 
to  deck,  2|-  x  2^  X  i,  to  take  ceiling.  Floors  to  extend  nine  feet  on 
each  side  of  keel. 

Keelson:  a  plate  put  in  fore  and  aft  between  the  floorings,  or 
keel,  of  same  depth  as  floorings,  with  a  double  angle  iron,  3  X  3  X  f 
running  horizontally  fore  and  aft  whole  length  of  ship,  and  riveted  to 
reverse  angle  iron  of  each  floor. 

Sister  keelsons :  two  in  number,  about  60  feet  in  length,  same  depth 
as  floors  at  their  termination. 

Stringers  :  main-deck  stringers  of  angle  iron,  3  X  3  X  ^,  with  plates 
16  inches  X  f  inches,  running  all  round  the  ship.  'Tween  deck 
stringers  of  angle  iron,  5x3,  back  to  back,  to  run  fore  and  aft. 

Main  and  'tween  deck  beams  of  angle  iron,  6  X  3  x  f ',  one  to  every 
alternate  frame  ;  ceilings  in  proportion.  Each  beam  secured  to  ship's 
side  by  §  in.  hanging  knee,  18  inches  both  ways.  Stanchions  fitted  to 
every  alternate  beam. 

Bulkheads :  four  in  number,  of  ^  mca  plates,  well  stiffened  with 
three-inch  angle  iron,  and  made  perfectly  water-tight.  Rudder  of 
best  hammered  iron,  stock  four  inches  diameter,  plated  with  fg  inch 
plates,  well  secured. 

Engines :  two  engines,  cylinders  36  inches  diameter,  3  feet  stroke ; 
air-pump  chambered  with  brass  ;  buckets,  valves,  &c,  of  brass  ;  air- 
pump  rod,  covered  with  brass  ;  full-sized  feed  and  bilge  pumps,  with 
brass  plungers,  one  of  each  to  each  engine  ;  one  pump  to  be  fitted  so 
as  to  throw  water  on  deck  for  the  purpose  of  extinguishing  fire.  The 
whole  to  be  of  strength  to  carry  20  lbs.  steam  per  square  inch  over  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  and  to  be  finished  in  a  manner  equal  to 
that  of  the  first-rate  engine  make,  wrought-iron  being  adopted  where 
preferable. 

Boiler  to  be  tubular,  of  strength  to  support  20  lbs.  per  square  inch 
pressure  of  steam,  and  to  be  of  capacity  to  supply  steam  at  from  12  lbs. 
to  15  lbs.  pressure  per  square  inch  at  full  stroke  and  speed,  with  mer- 
cury gauge  and  gauge-cocks  complete. 
Coal  bunker  to  stow  80  tons  coals. 

All  materials  to  be  of  best  quality  and  workmanship,  &c,  &c. 
To  be  equal  in  finish  and  speed  to  any  vessel  of  similar  dimensions 
and  power  hitherto  built  on  the  Clyde. 


62 


Dimensions — Pioneer  and  Pittsburgh. 


[March, 


STEAM-SHIP  BUILDING  IN  THE  UNITED 

STATES. 

(Communicated  by  Chas.  W.  Copeland,  Esq., 

Engineer,  U.  S.  N.) 

SCREW  STEAM  SHIPS  "  PIONEER  "  AND  "  CITT  OF 
PITTSBURGH." 

The  former  built  to  run  between  New  York  and 
Liverpool,  the  latter  between  Philadelphia  and 
Liverpool.  The  engines  and  boilers  designed  and 
constructed  at  the  West  Point  Foundry. 

City  of 
Pioneer.     Pittsburgh. 
Ft.     In.  Ft.    in. 

Length  of  keel        213     0        245    0 

Do.  on  deck  225     0         250     0 

Beam  out  to  out      43     0  40    0 

Depth  of  hold  24     0  24     0 

Do.  to  top  of  house  ...       31     0  31     0 

Each  vessel  is  fitted  with  a  pair  of  vertical  trunk 
engines. 

Diameter  of  cylinders        ...        0  85^  0  85| 

Diameter  of  trunk  ...         3     3  3     3 

Effective  diameter  of  piston  0  76  0  76 

Length  of  stroke     ...         ...         4     3  4     3 

Diam.ofpropeller(three-bladed)16     0  16     0 

Length  of  do.  fore  and  aft ...        5     0  5     0 


Ft. 
34 
27 
108 
1 


Ft. 

36 

29 

108 

1 


In. 

0 

6 

0 

5 


Pitch  of  propeller  at  periphery 

Do.  at  hub  

Area  in  square  feet 
Diameter  of  propeller  shaft... 
Whole  amount  of  fire  surface 

in  square  feet       7,279     0      8,028     0 

Area  of  fire-grate  ...     217     0        226     0 

Estimated  number   of   revolutions  —  average   36, 

maximum,  41. 
Average  pressure  of  steam,  15  lbs.  cut  off  at  half 

stroke. 

The  Pioneer  has  two  iron  boilers,  each  29  feet 
long,  16  feet  wide,  9  feet  9  inches  high.  Cylindrical 
steam  chests,  with  chimney  through,  8  feet  9  inches 
diameter  X  18  feet  high.  Four  furnaces  in  each 
boiler,  8  feet  6  inches  long  X  3  feet  4  inches  wide. 
The  tubes  are  behind  the  furnaces,  and  each  furnace 
has,  first,  two  tubes  18  inches  diameter;  secondly, 
twelve  return  tubes  about  8  inches  diameter;  and, 
thirdly,  two  tubes  at  the  bottom,  18  inches  diameter, 
which  carry  the  draft  back  to  the  common  smoke- 
box.  Area  of  first  flues, 29  square  feet;  second  do., 
30.4  square  feet ;  third  do.,  27.25  square  feet. 
Area  of  chimney,  32  square  feet  ;  height  of  do. 
above  grate,  59  feet  6  inches. 

The   City  of  Pittsburgh  has  three  boilers,  of  a 


similar  construction  to  the  last,  each  30  feet  long, 
9  feet  9  inches  wide,  and  11  feet  10  inches  high. 
Three  furnaces  in  each,  8  feet  6  inches  long  X  3 
feet  4  inches  wide.  Area  of  first  flues,  28.4  square 
feet ;  second  do.,  37.6  square  feet ;  third  do.,  28.4. 
Area  of  chimney,  37.6  ;  height  of  do.  above  grate, 
59  feet  6  inches. 


Now  Building 


Boston. 
Ft.  In. 
165    0 


New  York.  New  vessel. 


Length  of  keel 

Length  on  deck      ...         

Beam  moulded         26    0 

Beam  out  to  out       

Hold 11     3 

Engines,  inverted  cylinder  0  34 

Stroke  0  30 

Diameter  cf  propeller,  3  Wades  9  9 
Length  fore  and  aft  . .  3  6 
Pitch  at  periphery  ...  21  6 
Do.  at  hub     19    0 


Ft.  In. 
165    0 

26"'o 

ll"°3 

0  30 
0  30 
9  6 
3  3 
21  0 
IS    6 


Ft.  In. 

175    0 

28  0 
11  6 
0  44 
0  33 


"  JAMES    ADGER." 

Length  of  keel,  215  feet;  beam  moulded,  33  feet; 
hold,  21  feet.  One  side  lever  engine,  75  inches 
cylinder  X  8  feet  stroke.  Water  wheels,  28  feet 
diameter  over  buckets  X  8  feet  face,  and  21  inches 
bucket.     22  arms  and  buckets. 

These   vessels   are   all    fitted  with   Allen    and 
Noyes'  patent  metallic  packing. 


THE  U.  S.  SCREW  PROPELLER  STEAMSHIP  OF  WAR, 
SAN  JACINTO, 

By  Chief  Engineer  B.  F.  Isherwood,  U.  S.  Navt. 

This  fine  war  steamer  has  just  been  completed  and  her  trial  trip  made.  A 
correct  account  of  the  vessel  and  her  performance  will  be  of  general  interest, 
and  also  professionally  valuable. 

The  San  Jacinto  is  one  of  the  four  steamships  of  war  commenced  by  the 
U.  S.  Government  in  1847,  viz.,  the  Powhattan,  Susquehanna,  Saranac,  and 
San  Jacinto,  all  of  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  first  named,  have  been 
completed.  With  the  exception  of  the  last  named,  they  all  have  thecommon 
paddle  wheel.  The  Saranac  and  San  Jacinto  are  of  precisely  the  same  di- 
mensions and  model,  the  intention  of  the  government  being  to  make  the  two 
vessels  as  nearly  identical  as  posssible,  in  order  to  try  the  relative  merits  of 
the  two  systems  of  propulsion. 

It  was  originally  contemplated  to  use  for  the  stern  arrangement,  a  combina- 
tion, patented  by  Ericsson,  in  1849,  the  claim  on  which  is  as  follows: — 

"  What  I  claim  as  my  invention  and  desire  to  secure  by  letters  patent  is, 
the  above  described  location  or  arrangement  of  the  propeller  shaft,  in  com- 
bination with  the  rudder  made  with  a  slot  or  recess  to  admit  of  the  play 
thereof,  substantially  in  the  manner  and  for  the  purpose  specified." 

Which  purpose  and  manner  is  specified  in  the  said  patent  as  follows  : — 

"  Prior  to  my  invention,  the  leading  objections  to  the  use  of  a  propeller  at 
the  stern  of  a  ship,  was  the  weakening  of  the  ship  by  cutting  the  stem  to  form 
a  recess  for  the  propeller  forward  of  the  rudder,  and  thus  carrying  the  stern 
post,  or  the  part  with  which  the  rudder  is  connected,  so  far  back  as  greatly  to 
reduce  the  stability  of  the  structure.  To  avoid  this,  the  useof  two  propellers,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  run  of  the  ship,  was  essayed,  but  this  is  well  known  to  be 
even  more  objectionable,  as  the  shafts  in  that  case  must  pass  out  through  the 
run  of  the  ship  so  far  from  the  stern  post  and  keelson,  to  have  sufficient  room 
between  the  axis  of  the  propeller  and  the  run  of  the  ship  for  the  semi- 
diameter  of  the  propellers,  as  greatly  to  strain  the  ship,  and  requiring,  in 
addition  to  the  complexity  consequent  on  two  propellers,  outriggers  at  the 
sides  for  the  support  of  the  projecting  part  of  the  shafts,  which  for  sea  pur- 
poses is  highly  objectionable. 

"  Another  serious  objection  was,  the  difficulty  of  access  [to  the  propeller 
for  the  purpose  of  repairs,  and  the  resistance  presented  by  it  when  sailing 
alone. 

"  To  obviate  these  and  other  minor  objections,  not  necessary  to  enumerate, 
was  the  object  of  my  invention,  the  principle  or  character  of  which  consists 
in  passing  the  shaft  of  the  propeller  through  the  run  of  the  ship,  and  by  the 
side  of  the  stern  post,  that  one  of  the  bearings  may  be  attached  thereto  for 


strength  and  stability,  the  propeller  being  placed  abaft  the  rudder,  and  as 
this  location  of  the  shaft  would  of  necessity  interfere  with  the  play  of  the 
rudder,  this  part  of  my  invention  consists  in  combining  the  location  of  the 
shaft  and  the  propeller  with  the  rudder  made  with  a  slot  commencing  at  the 
outer  edge,  that  it  (the  rudder)  may  have  the  requisite  play." 

The  above  arrangement  was  so  far  from  being  a  novelty  or  invention  by 
Ericsson,  that  it  was  proposed  to  the  French  minister  of  marine  in  a  memoir 
addressed  to  him  in  1841,  by  the  commandant,  Henry  Labrousse,  and  printed 
in  1843.  On  page  75  of  the  appendix  to  this  memoir,  under  the  head  of 
Hull,  will  be  found  the  following: — 

"  Si  le  faux  etambot  etait  en  bois,  il  faudrait,  pour  qu'il  ne  fut  pas  affaibli 
outre  mesure,  par  l'ouverture  nScessaire  au  passage  de  l'arbre,  lui  donner 
une  6paisseur  considerable,  ce  qui  nuirait  a  Taction  de  la  vis  et  a  la  marche, 
par  suite  du  remous  occasionne  en  arriere;  on  pourrait  neanmoins  faire 
passer  l'arbre  tangentiellement  a  l'un  des  cotes  du  massif." 
Which  I  translate  literally  as  follows  : — 

"  If  the  false  stern  post  were  of  wood,  it  would  be  necessary,  in  order  that 
it  be  not  too  much  weakened  by  the  hole  for  the  passage  of  the  shaft,  to  give 
it  considerable  thickness,  which  would  be  injurious  to  the  action  of  the  screw, 
and  the  speed  (of  the  vessel),  by  reason  of  the  eddy  caused  astern;  one 
could,  nevertheless,  pass  the  shaft  tangentially  by  one  of  the  sides  of  the 
dead  wood." 

It  may  also  be  as  well  to  remark,  en  passant,  that  the  use  of  two  propellers 
was  never  proposed,  except  for  vessels  of  very  light  draft  proportionally  to 
their  displacement,  and  then  the  reason  for  using  them  was,  to  obtain  sufficient 
propelling  surface ;  furthermore,  the  passing  of  the  propeller  shaft  through 
the  dead  wood  of  the  vessel,  tangentially  by  the  side  of  the  stern  post,  weak- 
ens the  stern  of  the  vessel  quite  as  much  as  passing  the  shaft  through  the 
stern  post,  while  the  serious  inconvenience  follows,  of  throwing  the  engines 
and  shaft  of  the  propeller  out  of  the  centre  of  the  ship.  In  the  San  Jacinto, 
the  axis  of  the  propeller  shaft  is  20  inches  to  port  from  the  centre  of  the 
ship. 

The  foregoing  plan  of  Ericsson's  was  persevered  in  by  the  late  engineer  in 
chief  of  the  navy,  Chas.  H.  Haswell,  who  designed  the  boilers,  engines,  and 
propeller  (proposed  not  executed  propeller),  as  late  as  December  last,  when  he 
was  superseded  by  the  present  Engineer  in  Chief,  General  Charles  B.  Stuart, 
who,  disapproving  the  propeller  and  general  stern  arrangement  of  the  vessel, 
which  was  not  then  completed,  though  the  engines  and  boilers  were  finished 
and  in  their  places,  a  Board  of  the  chief  engineers  of  the  navy  was  ordered 
by  the  Navy  Department  to  examine  the  vessels,  and  propose  whatever  modi- 
fication they  deemed  judicious.  The  report  of  this  Board  fully  sustained, 
seriatim,  the  objections  of  General  Stuart,  and  proposed  the  present  plan  of 
stern  arrangement  and  propeller,  which  was  at  once  executed. 


1852.] 


The  Screw  Propeller  "  San  Jacinto? 


63 


In  this  arrangement,  the  propeller  (of  entirely  different  proportions  from 
that  designed  by  Mr.  Has  well)  was  placed  next  the  stern  post  of  the  vessel, 
and  a  metallic  rudder  was  curved  over  and  abaft  the  propeller,  being  at- 
tached to  the  stern  post  above  and  below  the  propeller.  The  invention  of 
this  stern  arrangement  was  made  by  myself,  and  adopted  by  the  Board. 

Engines: — The  engines  consist  of  two  inclined  cylinders  with  vertical  air- 
pumps;  the  cross-heads,  being  placed  at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  cylinders, 
are  connected  to  a  double  set  of  cranks  by  two  connecting  rods  to  each 
cross-head.     The  engines  are  connected  by  drag  links. 

The  cylinders  are  62£  inches  diameter  and  4  feet  2  inches  stroke  of  piston. 
Space  displacement  of  both  pistons  per  stroke,  179.54  cubic  feet. 

Cost  of  engines  (exclusive  of  boilers  and  propeller)  . .     105,247  dol. 

Total  breadth  occupied  by  engines,  between  extreme  points  . .       29  ft. 

Total  length  23  1.6 

Total  length  from  centre  shaft  to  top  of  steam  pipe     . .  . .         9j 

Boilers. — The  boilers  are  of  copper,  and  three  in  number;  they  contain,  in 
the  aggregate,  195|  square  feet  of  grate,  and  5,250  square  feet  of  heating 
surface.  They  are  of  the  double  return  drop  flue  variety.  Cross  area  or 
calorimeter  of  first  flues,  35  square  feet;  of  second  flues,  35  square  feet ;  of 
third  flues,  32  square  feet ;  area  of  smoke  chimney,  34  square  feet ;  height 
of  ditto  above  grate,  65  feet;  proportion  of  heating  surface  per  cubic  foot  of 
cylinder,  17f  square  feet;  aggregate  weight  of  copper  in  the  three  boilers, 
214,575  pounds;  cost  of  ditto,  53,054.56  dollars;  cost  of  labour  on  boilers, 
39,705.53  dollars;  making  the  total  cost  of  boilers  92,760.09  dollars. 

The  different  kinds  of  copper  were  furnished  in  the  following  qualities  and 
prices  : — 
157,892  pounds  of  plates  at       ..  ..         ..  ..      28  cents  per  pound. 

38,386         „  bolts     „ 25      „  „ 

18,297         „  rods    „ 25|    „  „ 

The  three  copper  boilers  of  the  Saranac,  containing  5,127  square  feet  of 
heating,  and  188  square  feet  of  grate  surface,  designed  by  Chas.  W.  Copeland, 
contained  the  following  quantities  of  copper  at  the  annexed  prices: — 

137,703  pounds  of  plates  at    ..  ..  ..     28  cents  per  pound. 

28,331         „  bolts    „ 25     „  „ 

27,927         „  rods     , 26     „  „ 

Jotal,  193,961  pounds. 

The  boilers  of  the  Saranac  are  of  the  same  length,  breadth,  and  height  as 
those  of  the  San  Jacinto ;  cost  of  materials  in  the  boilers  of  the  Saranac, 
53,150.27  dollars;  of  labour  on  ditto,  23,747.55  dollars;  making  their  total 
cost  76,897.82  dollars,  or  15,882.27  dol.  less  than  those  of  the  San  Jacinto. 

Propeller. — The  propeller  originally  designed  by  Mr.  Haswell,  and  con- 
demned by  the  Board  of  chief  engineers,  was  14^  feet  diameter,  4f  feet  long 
on  axis  at  periphery,  with  an  initial  pitch  of  35  feet,  expanding  to  40  feet  at 
the  posterior  end.  The  area,  viewed  as  a  disc,  was  115^  square  feet.  The 
helicoidal  area  was  399  square  feet;  number  of  blades,  six. 

The  propeller  recommended  by  the  Board,  and  executed  for  the  vessel, 
was  14 1  feet  diameter,  4  feet  long  on  axis  at  periphery,  4  feet  long  on  axis, 
at  a  diameter  of  7:^  feet,  thence  tapering  to  2\  feet  long  on  axis  at  hub,  with 
an  initial  pitch  of  40  feet,  expanding  to  45  feet  at  the  posterior  end.  The 
area,  viewed  as  a  disk,  was  65.48  square  feet.  The  helicoidal  area  was 
112,677  square  feet;  number  of  blades,  four;  space  between  the  front  edge  of 
the  propeller  and  the  stern  post  of  the  vessel  (left  for  the  rudder),  six  feet. 

The  reason  why  the  Board  recommended  the  increased  pitch  was,  that 
the  engine  would,  with  that  pitch,  consume  all  the  steam  that  the  boilers 
could  generate,  cutting  off  at  one-third  the  stroke  of  piston  from  the  com- 
mencement ;  while  the  complex  design,  with  the  numerous  joints  and  con- 
nexions of  the  engines,  rendered  it  unsafe  to  work  them  at  the  velocity 
required  in  order  to  make  the  proper  speed  of  the  vessel,  with  the  lower  pitch 
of  Mr.  Haswell.  The  reduction  in  length  was  for  the  purpose  of  diminishing 
the  surface  of  the  screw,  practice  and  theory  both  demonstrating  the  posterior 
portion  of  the  blade  to  be  of  small  efficiency  compared  to  the  anterior  portion. 
In  Mr.  Haswell's  propeller,  a  large  portion  of  the  surface  of  each  blade  over- 
lapped or  reacted  on  the  one  following,  which  portion  was  useless  for  pro- 
pulsive effect,  and  detrimental  from  its  friction  on  the  water.  The  six  blades 
of  Mr.  Haswell's  propeller  were  too  numerous,  not  allowing  sufficient  space 


for  solid  water  to  enter  between  them,  being  as  objectionable  in  this  respect 
as  too  many  paddles  in  a  common  paddle-wheel,  where  it  is  well  known  that 
with  the  usual  proportions,  each  alternate  paddle  can  be  left  out  without 
sensibly  increasing  the  slip  of  the  wheel.  Besides,  with  the  six-bladed  pro- 
peller, there  is  encountered  one-half  more  direct  resistance  from  the  thickness 
of  the  advancing  edges  of  the  blades,  than  with  the  four-bladed  propeller,  and 
the  six  blades  have  also  one-half  more  resistance  to  overcome  from  the  ad- 
hesion of  the  water  to  be  divided  by  the  blades.  That  this  latter  resistance 
is  considerable,  is  proven  by  the  experiments  of  Faraday,  who  ascertained 
"  that  the  cohesive  of  every  square  inch  of  water  is  equal  to  several  hundred 
pounds." 

The  alteration  of  the  relative  positions  of  the  rudder  and  propeller  was  for 
the  purpose  of  diminishing  the  leverage  of  the  propeller  weight  on  its  shaft 
and  on  the  stern  of  the  vessel,  as  it  had  no  out-board  support.  These  were 
the  principal  reasons  that  controlled  the  Board  in  their  proposed  changes. 
The  Board  also  estimated  the  slip  of  the  propeller  at  22  per  cent. 

The  weight  of  the  bronze  propeller,  as  cast  and  placed  in  the  vessel,  is 
14,894  pounds;  cost  of  ditto,  7,457  dollars. 

The  weight  of  the  Stevens'  bronze  propeller  for  the  U.  S.  steam-ship, 
Princeton,  was  15,970  pounds.  It  was  14^-  feet  diameter,  5  feet  long  on  axis 
at  periphery,  and  composed  of  six  blades,  having  a  pitch  of  32.44  feet. 

Performance. — The  San  Jacinto  being  brought  to  a  draft  of  15  feet  7  in. 
forward,  and  15  feet  9  inches  aft,  was  tried  in  New  York  Bay,  Oct.  1st,  1851. 
She  made,  in  running  a  distance  of  17j  statute  miles,  taken  from  the  chart 
published  by  the  U.'  States  Survey  Office,  9.95  statute  miles  per  hour  against 
a  strong  wind  on  the  port  bow,  estimated  by  the  experienced  pilot  on  board 
as  equivalent  to  a  reduction  of  speed  of  one  mile  per  hour.  The  tide  was 
about  slack  when  starting,  but  towards  the  close  was  ahead.  The  speed  of 
the  vessel  in  smooth  water  and  a  calm,  would  therefore  be  11  statute  miles 
per  hour.     Mean  revolutions  of  the  screw  per  minute,  31. 

With  the  initial  pitch  of  the  screw  40  feet,  the  slip  would  be  as  follows: — 
40  X  31  X  60  =  74,400  feet  per  hour  =  speed  of  screw. 


5,280  X  11  =  58,080 


=z  speed  of  vessel. 


16,320         „  =  slip  of  screw, 

or  21-935  per  cent. 

With  the  final  pitch  of  the  screw  45  feet,  the  slip  would  be  as  follows  : — 
45  X  31  x  60  =  83,700  feet  per  hour  =  speed  of  screw. 
5,280  X  11  =  58,080  „  =  speed  of  vessel. 


25,620  „  =  slip  of  screw. 

or  30609  per  cent. 

21-935 -j- 30-609 

The  mean  slip  would  therefore  be =  26-27  per  cent. 

2 

The  mean  effective  steam  pressure  on  the  pistons,  by  indicator  diagrams 
taken  from  top  and  bottom  of  each  cylinder,  was  16'29  pounds  per  square 
inch;  the  horse  power  developed  by  the  engines  would  therefore  be  as 
follows  : — 

3067-9  X  16-29  X  4|  X  (31  X  2) 

=  782-45 

33,000 

A  dynamometer  was  fitted  to  the  screw  shaft,  and  gave  a  mean  thrust  of 

12,815  J  pounds;  the  power  exerted  in  propelling  the  vessel  would  therefore  be 

12815J  X  968  (speed  of  vessel  in  feet  per  minute) 


=  375-92  horses. 


33,000 

If  we  now  estimate  the  power  required  to  work  the  engines,  overcome  the 
load  on  the  air  pump,  &c,  at  two  pounds  per  square  inch  of  steam  piston,  an 
estimation  that  will  probably  vary  but  little  from  the  truth,  we  shall  have 
96-06  horse  power  absorbed  in  working  the  engines  alone. 

Taking  from  Morin's  experiments,  the  friction  of  the  load  at  7|  per  cent, 
of  the  power  applied,  and  considering  the  power  applied  to  be  that  developed 
by  the  engines,  minus  that  absorbed  in  working  the  engines,  we  have  for  the 
power  absorbed  in  the  friction  of  the  load  51-48  horses. 

Collecting  the  above,  we  have  the  following  for  the  disposition  of  the 
power  in  the  Sa?i  Jacinto: — 


64 


'  Correspondence —  Reviews. 


[March, 


'Slip  of  the  screw 26-27  per  cent,  or 

Propelling  the  vessel      48-04        „ 
"Working  the  engines      12-28  '     „ 
Friction  of  the  load...      6*58        „ 
Leaving  to  be  absorbed  in 
friction  of  the  screw  surface 
on  the  water,  and  the  di- 
rect resistance  of  the  edges 
of  the  blades,  &c 6-83        „ 


205-55'  he 

rse  power. 

375-92 

)> 

96-06 

» 

51-48 

» 

53-44 


100-00  782-45 

Prom  the  above  table  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  total  losses  of  power  by 
the  screw  were  26-27  per  cent,  of  the  total  power  developed  by  the  engines 
in  slip,  and  6-83  per  cent,  in  the  friction  of  the  screw  surface  in  the  water, 
&c.,  making  33-l  per  cent. 

It  may  be  supposed  that  the  slip  of  the  San  Jacinto's  screw  was  too  great 
for  the  best  economical  effect,  and  that  if  greater  surface  had  been  given  to 
it,  a  better  result  would  have  followed.  This  opinion,  though  plausible,  is 
not  sustained  by,  experiment. 

The  best  proportioned  screws,  ascertained  from  a  trial  of  many,  for  giving 
the  highest  speeds  of  vessels,  were  found  in  the  small  experimental  vessels, 
Archimedes  and  Dwarf,  which  have  slips  of  25  and  30\  per  cent.  The  screw 
giving  the  highest  result  in  the  experimental  vessel,  Napoleon,  had  also  a  slip 
of  25  per  cent.,  which  was  likewise  about  the  slip  of  the  sorew  giving  the  best 
result  in  the  Rattler. 

(To  be  continued.) 

CORRESPONDENCE. 


THOUGHTS  ON  HEAT. 

To  the  Editor  of  the  Arlizan. 

Sir, — On  reading  over  some  of  the  last  numbers  of  the  Artizan, "  Thoughts 
on  Heat,"  by  J.  M.,  attracted  my  attention,  and  as  I  saw  that  his  propositions 
were  considered  a  puzzle  by  some  df  your  correspondents,  I  set  to  work  to 
find  it  out,  but  instead  of  there  being  any  puzzle  in  the  matter,  I  believe 
J.M.  to  be  simply  wrong.  In  the  September  number  of  the  Artizan  he 
states,  that  an  enormous  quantity  of  heat,  381,600°,  becomes  sensible  when 
water  is  converted  into  steam.  Sensible  heat  he  afterwards  defines  to  mean, 
the  space  multiplied  by  the  temperature  of  these  381,600°;  he  considers 
that  380,400°  (being  the  difference  between  381,600°  and  1,200)  had  been 
latent  in  the  water.  Unfortunately  for  his  theory,  however,  he  completely 
overlooks  the  conditions  under  which  one  volume  of  water  becomes  1,800 
volumes  of  steam. 

These  are,  in  the  first  place,  that  a  certain  quantity  of  heat  be  applied  to 
the  water;  and  secondly,  that  the  space  into  which  the  steam  passes  be  at 
the  temperature  of  212°,  otherwise  the  steam  cannot  be  formed.  So  that  the 
381,600°  of  sensible  heat  must  exist  before  there  is  any  steam  formed. 

The  only  result  deducible  from  his  "  Thoughts  "  in  the  December  number 
is,  that  it  requires  236  times  as  much  heat  to  raise  1,800  cubic  feet  of  water 
to  the  boiling  point  from  62°,  as  it  does  to  convert  one  cubic  foot  of  water  at 
the  same  temperature,  into  steam.  In  other  words,  that  a  boiler  capable  of 
converting  one  cubic  foot  of  water  per  minute,  at  the  temperature  of  62° 
into  steam,  will  require  236  minutes  to  raise  1,800  cubic  feet  of  water  to  the 
boiling  point  from  the  same  temperature.    A  notable  discovery  truly  ! 

I  remain,  yours  truly, 

Feb.  11,  1852.  D.  J.  W. 

SMOKE  CONSUMING  FURNACES. 
To  the  Editor  of  the  Arlizan. 

Sik, — The  fire-grate  to  which  you  have  referred  in  several  of  your  jour- 
nals, under  the  name  of  "  Juckes'  Pire-grate,"  is  in  reality  the  invention  of 
Mr.  John  George  Bodmer,  and  was  claimed  by  him  in  a  patent  dated  May, 
1834.  I  am  quite  prepared  to  prove  the  correctness  of  this  assertion,  and  I 
may  add  that  the  question  whether  Mr.  Juckes  had  infringed  Mr.  Bodmer's 
patent  was  decided  against  Mr.  Juckes,  by  arbitration,  some  years  ago. 

There  is  very  little  doubt  that  Mr.  Bodmer  was  the  first  who  insisted  upon 
the  necessity  of  machine  firing,  and  contrived  proper  apparatus  to  effect  the 
purpose,  although  his  ideas  upon  this  point  were  completely  at  variance 
with  those  of  one  of  the  most  eminent  engineers  in  Manchester. 


Mr.  Bodmer  has  since  made  many  and  important  improvements  upon  his 
first  invention,  by  which  he  is  not  only  enabled  to  spread  the  coals  over  the 
bars  in  the  most  regular  and  uniform  manner,  and  at  any  suitable  speed  and 
depth,  but  also  to  keep  the  fire-bars  perfectly  free  from  clinkers,  to  render 
stoking  and  the  opening  of  the  fire-door  quite  unnecessary,  and  to  preserve 
the  bars  from  the  injurious  effects  of  over-heating. 

Mr.  Bodmer  is  also  the  inventor  and  patentee  (under  the  above-mentioned 
patent)  of  a  compensating  slide  valve,  consisting  of  a  piston  placed  opposite 
to,  and  connected  by  links  with  the  valve,  and  the  size  of  which  piston  is  so 
adjusted  as  to  counterbalance  the  pressure  upon  the  slide  valve  to  any  de- 
sirable extent.  I  am  induced  to  make  this  observation  because  I  find  that 
the  invention  has  been  repeated  at  least  four  times. 

If  you  could  find  space  for  this  communication  in  the  next  number  of  the 
Artizan,  you  would  much  oblige, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

London,  Feb.  12,  1852.  C. 

REVIEWS. 


A  Treatise  on  the  Marine  Boilers  of  the  United  States.  By  B.  H. 
Bartol,  Engineer.  Royal  8vo.  pp.  143.  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  Bar- 
nard and  Sons. 
The  title  of  this  book  is  a  misnomer.  It  should  have  been  "  Com- 
parative Dimensions  of  the  Hulls  and  Machinery  of  Sixty-four  American 
Steamers,  with  drawings  of  ♦the  Boilers,"  which  would  have  given  a 
better  idea  of  its  contents.  The  data  given  are  nearly  the  same  as  those 
of  the  Pioneer,  at  another  page,  with  sketches  of  the  boilers  drawn  to 
an  uniform  scale  of  -^  inch  to  a  foot,  in  addition.  The  consumption  of 
fuel  is  also  given,  and  the  evaporative  economy  of  the  boilers  is  also 
calculated,  although,  as  the  author  frankly  states,  this  only  gives  a  rough 
comparative  test,  as,  for  want  of  more  minute  information,  he  has  as- 
sumed the  pressure  of  steam  to  be  the  same  in  both  boiler  and  cylinder, 
and  has  thrown  out  the  loss  of  steam  at  each  end  of  the  cylinder,  and 
the  loss  sustained  by  blowing  out  the  boilers.  We  do  not  know  whether 
we  are  right  in  supposing  that  the  dimensions  published  in  the  Artizan 
have  given  Mr.  Bartol  the  hint,  but  we  imagine  so,  and  we  will,  there- 
fore, take  leave  to  suggest  to  him  that,  in  a  second  edition,  the  follow- 
ing data  would  add  very  much  to  the  value  of  his  labours.  First — 
Indicator  diagrams  off  the  engines.  Secondly — The  speed  of  the  vessel  • 
in  still  water  with  a  given  draft  of  water ;  and,  thirdly,  the  area  of  the 
immersed  section  of  the  vessel.  On  a  future  occasion  we  will  discuss 
the  merits  of  the  boilers  here  figured.  To  the  marine  engineer  and 
shipbuilder  it  will  prove  a  very*  useful  work  of  reference,  and  we  can 
only  regret  that  the  high  price  put  upon  it  by  the  importers  will  in- 
evitably prejudice  the  sale  of  it  in  this  country. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Slide  Rule,  with  description  of  Lalanne's  Glass  Slide 
Rule.  By  the  Rev.  W.  Elliott,  M.A.  Sold  by  W.  Elliott  and  Sons, 
56,  Strand. 
Those  who  have  faith  in  slide-rule  calculations  will  feel  much  indebted 
to  Mr.  Elliott  for  his  introduction  of  this  ingenious  invention,  which  is 
composed  of  glazed  paper  and  pasteboard,  and  has  the  scales  protected 
by  glass.  An  immense  number  of  gauge  points  are  given,  and  the  scales 
being  printed  off  copper  plate,  are  very  superior  in  fineness  and  distinct- 
ness to  the  ordinary  box-wood  rule.  We  must  confess,  however,  that 
for  own  part,  we  prefer  a  table  of  figures  and  a  little  pencil  and  paper 
work  to  all  the  refinements  of  the  calculating  machine,  at  least  for  the 
purposes  of  every-day  life.  The  treatise,  accompanying  the  rule,  ap- 
pears likely  to  be  useful,  apart  from  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  specially 
designed. 

The  Machinery  of  the  Nineteenth  Century.     By  G.  D.  Dempsey,  C.E. 

London :  Atchley  and  Co. 
The  melancholy  exhibition  of  machinery  in  the  Illustrated  Catalogue 
has,  we  have  no  doubt,  spurred  on  the  publishers  of  this  work  to  retrieve 
the  national  reputation.     They  state  "  that  the  objects  aimed  at  are  to 


1852.1 


Notes  on  Recent  English  Patents* 


65 


preserve  a  worthy  record  of  the  admirable  machinery  by  which  the 
manufacturing  arts  are  now  facilitated  in  this  country,  and  to  embody 
a  correct  description  of  the  splendid  specimens  shown  at  the  Exhibition 
of  the  Works  of  Industry  of  All  Nations."  The  plates  of  the  present 
number  are— two  of  Bishopp's  Patent  Disc  Engine,  as  constructed  by 
Messrs.  Rennie,  for  Messrs.  Marshall  and  Co.,  of  Leeds;  one  of  Mr. 
Clayton's  Patent  Brick,  Tile,  and  Pipe  Machine  ;  one  of  Mr.  Fairbairn's 
Patent  Wrought  Iron  Tubular  Crane ;  and  one  of  Clymer  and  Dixon's 
Patent  Columbian  Printing  Press.  We  perceive  it  is  proposed  to  pub- 
lish the  plates  with  the  text  also  in  French,  which  is  a  good  idea.  The 
plates  are  very  clearly  delineated  in  lithograph,  by  Messrs.  Martin  and 
Hood,  and  the  text,  though  small  in  quantity,  is  up  to  the  mark  in. 
quality. 

Exhibition  Lectures  at  the  Society  of  Arts. 
We  are  glad  to  see  the  Society  of  Arts  taking  up  the  position  justly 
due  to  it  from  its  intimate  connection  with  the  Great  Exhibition.  The 
present  series  of  lectures,  suggested  by  Prince  Albert,  are  so  interesting 
that  we  regret  that  we  cannot  give  them  entire.  As  it  is  we  must  con- 
tent ourselves  with  a  few  selections  from  the  more  prominent  topics. 

Professor  Owen  gives  the  following  account  of  a  comparatively  new 
branch  of  art,  which  promises  to  prove  of  great  importance  :— <• 

Gelatines. — Such  productions  as  coral,  shell,  and  pearl,  are  naturally 
attractive  by  their  intrinsic  beauty  or  rarity.  But  the  most  refuse  and  unin- 
viting, and  seemingly  most  worthless  parts  of  animal  bodies,  are  turned  to 
uses  of  the  most  unexpected  kind  by  the  inventive  skill  and  science  of  man. 

The  raw  materials  chiefly  used  in  manufactures  derived  from  the  gela- 
tinous textures  of  animal  bodies,  may  be  divided,  as  regards  their  commercial 
value  and  application,  into  two  kinds: — 

1st.  The  gelatines  and  glues,  properly  so  called,  derived  from  the  dissolu- 
tion of  certain  animal  tissues,  and  especially  from  the  waste  residue  of  parts 
of  animals  which  have  served  for  food,  or  for  the  operations  of  tanning,  or 
for  the  fabrication,  as  from  bones,  of  articles  in  imitation  of  ivory,  or  from 
the  waste  particles  in  the  carving  of  ivory  itself. 

2nd.  The  cleaned  and  dried  membranes  of  different  species  of  fish,  more 
especially  of  the  sturgeon  family  (Acipenseridce),  preserving  a  peculiar  tex- 
ture, on  which  their  value  in  the  refining  of  fermenting  liquors  more  espe- 
cially depends;  such  membranes  are  called  "  isinglass." 

The  most  remarkable  progress  in  the  economical  extraction  and  prepara- 
tion of  pure  gelatines  and  glues  from  the  waste  remnants  of  the  skins,  bones, 
tendons,  ligaments,  and  other  gelatinous  tissues  of  animals,  has  been  made 
in  France,  where  the  well-organized  and  admirably  arranged  establishments 
for  the  slaughter  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  in  large  towns,  give  great  and 
valuable  facilities  for  the  economical  applications  of  all  the  waste  parts  of 
animal  bodies.  Among  the  beautiful  productions  of  this  industry,  the  speci- 
mens exhibited  by  its  chief  originator,  M.  L.  F.  Grenet,  under  No.  247, 
merited  peculiar  approbation.  They  included  different  kinds  of  gelatine  in 
thin  layers,  adapted  for  the  dressing  of  stuffs,  and  for  gelatinous  baths,  in 
the  clarification  of  wines  which  contain  a  sufficient  quantity  of  tannin  to 
precipitate  the  gelatine;  pure  and  white  gelatines  cut  into  threads  for  the  use 
of  the  confectioner:  very  thin  white  and  transparent  sheets  called  "papier 
glace"  or  ice  paper,  for  copying  drawings;  and,  finally,  a  quantity  of  objects 
of  luxury  or  ornaments  formed  of  dyed,  silvered,  or  gilt  gelatines,  adapted 
to  a  variety  of  purposes,  and  to  the  fabrication  of  artificial  or  fancy  flowers. 
M.  Grenet,  who  was  the  first  to  fabricate  on  a  large  scale,  out  of  various 
residues  of  animal  bodies  of  little  value,  these  beautiful  and  diversified  pro- 
ducts, many  of  which  previously  had  been  derived  from  the  more  costly  sub- 
stance— isinglass,  was  deemed  by  the  jury  to  merit  the  award  of  the  council 
medal. 

Many  manufacturers  in  France  have  risen  to  great  eminence  in  this  line 
by  following  the  processes  of  M.  Grenet.  H.  Castelle,  of  Paris,  exhibited 
(No.  107)  a  still  more  varied  assortment  of  the  modifications  of  gelatine, 
amongst  which  were  particularly  deserving  of  notice  the  very  large  sheets  of 
transparent  gelatine,  colourless,  white,  of  various  well-defined  colours,  and 
embossed  or  stamped  with  elegant  patterns. 


Jacob  Bell>  Esq.,  M.P,,  in  his  lecture  on  pharmaceutical  processes 
and  products,  gives  a  furious  illustration  of  the  extent  to  which  the 
consumer  is  prejudiced  by  the  obstacles  which  intervene  hetween  him- 
self and  the  producer : — 

An  ingenious  Application  of  the  science  of  chemistry  consists  in  the. manu- 
facture of  artificial  essences  of  pears,  pine-apples,  and  other  fruits.  A  few 
specimens  "which  I  have  received  from  Mr.  Piper,  of  Upper  Winchester 
Street,  Pe  ntonville,  are  on  the  table.  In  the  concentrated  form,  the  sraell  is- 
rather  "acrid,  but  when  diluted,  the  resemblance  to  the  fruit  is  recognised.. 
Tho  best  imitations  are  the  pine-apple  and  the  jargonelle  pear ;  the  green . 
g'lge,  apricot,  black  currant,  and  mulberry,  when  properly  mixed,  are  fair 
imitations.  They  are  quite  innocuous  in  the  proportions  used,  namely,- a' 
drop  or  half  a  drop  to  the  ounce.  I  have  been  informed,  that  some  of  the 
ices  furnished  in  the  Great  Exhibition  were  flavoured  with  these  £Ssenc£S< 
The  introduction  of  these  preparations  originated,  I  believe,  in  the  discovery  • 
of  the  fact,  that  the  peculiar  flavour  of  "  pine-apple  rum  "  was  due  Jo,  butyric 
ether,  which  has  since  been  obtained  from  the  fruit  itself.  Further  experi- 
ments led  to  the  discovery  of  other  artificial  essences. 

Here  is  a  series  of  specimens  of  scammony  from  the  English  collection. 
No.  1  is  pure;  the  others  are  more  or  less  adulterated,  down  to  No.  5,  which 
is  not  worthy  of  the  name  of  scammony.  In  the  Turkish  collection,  where 
we  might  have  expected  to  find  scammony  unusually  fine,  No.  1  is  about  on 
a  par  with  No.  3  in  those  above  mentioned,  and  No.  5  would  not  be  recog- 
nised as  scammony  except  by  the  label  on  the  bottle.  It  is  only  within  a 
few  years  that  pure  scammony  has  been  known  in  England,  and  its  intro- 
duction arose  from  the  circumstance  of  several  samples  of  scammony  being 
analysed,  and  found  to  be  adulterated  (chiefly  with  starch  and  chalk)  to  an 
extent  varying  from  about  15  to  60  per  cent.  The  fact  being  reported  to 
the  merchant  abroad,  he  replied,  that  he  made  it  to  suit  the  demand,  and 
mixed  it  according  to  the  price.  He  said  he  would  send  it  pure  if  desired, 
but  it  would  be  dear  in  proportion.  From  that  time,  "  virgin  scammony,"  as 
it  is  called,  has  been  in  the  English  market,  but  it  has  not  yet  found  its  way 
to  the  continent  of  Europe.  Several  foreign  professors,  lecturers  on  materia 
medico,  and  possessors  of  extensive  museums,  had  never  seen  pure  scam- 
mony until  they  saw  it  at  the  Great  Exhibition,  and  were  glad  to  obtain  a 
few  ounces  as  a  specimen,  to  take  home  with  them  as  a  curiosity.  Similar 
remarks  may  be  made  with  regard  to  opium,  of  which  we  had  specimens 
from  various  localities.  This  is  a  drug  which,  like  many  others,  is  adultera- 
ted to  suit  the  demand. 

NOTES  ON  EECENT  ENGLISH  PATENTS. 

Levi  Russell,  of  New  York,  engineer,  for  certain  new  and  useful  improvements 
in  the  means  of  sustaining  travelling  carriages  and  other  vehicles,  which  im- 
provements are  applicable  to  other  like  purposes.     Aug.  5th,  1851. 
These  improved  springs  consist  of  pieces  of  wood  of  the  usual  shape,  cut 

transversely  on  the  convex  side  in  a  number  of  places,  the  spaces  thus  formed 

being  filled  up  with  metal,  wood,  or  yielding  material,  as  may  be  required ; 

or  the  wood  may  be  held  together  by  a  plate  of  metal,  bolted  on  to  the 

convex  side  of  the  wooden  spring. 

E.  Deeley  and  R.  M.  Deeley,  Stourbridge,  glass  manufacturers,  for  certain 
improvements  in  the  construction  of  furnaces  for  the  manufacture  of  glass. 
August  6th,  1851. 

The  object  of  these  improvements  is  to  cause  the  flame  of  the  furnace  to 
play  directly  on  the  sides  of  Che  glass  melting  pots.  With  this  view,  the  bars 
are  set  at  an  angle  of  about  45°.  The  bridge  at  the  back  of  the  bars  being 
also  inclined,  the  flame  rises  freely  round  the  sides  of  the  pot. 

Alphonse  de  Normandy,  of    Judd-street,   gentleman,  and  Richard  Fell, 
engineer,  for  improved  methods  of  obtaining  fresh  water  from  salt  water, 
and  of  concentrating  sulphuric  acid.     August  7th,  1851. 
We  see  but  little  new  in  this  patent.     The  distilling  apparatus  consists  of  a 
series  of  chambers  communicating  with  each  other,  and  placed  one  above  the 
other  in  a  cylinder  heated  by  steam.     The  salt  water  is  admitted  at  the  top, 
and  makes  its  way  down  to  the  bottom,  being  distilled  in  its  passage.  Atmos- 
pheric air  is  admitted  to  aerate  the  distilled  water.     The  same  principle  is 
applied  to  the  sulphuric  acid  still,  the  cylinder  being  placed  horizontally,  and 


66 


Recent  American  Patents. 


[March, 


formed  of  platinum,  glass,  porcelain,  or  other  substance  capable  of  resisting 
the  acid. 

L.  Bunn,  of  Walbrook,  merchant,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of 

Kamptulicon.     August  7th,  1851. 

Kamptulicon,  as  will  be  found  by  referring  to  the  early  volumes  of  the 
Artizan,  is  composed  of  cork-dust  and  caoutchouc,  and  promised  to  be  a  very 
useful  material  as  a  substitute  for  floor  cloth,  for  deadening  concussion,  &c, 
but  its  introduction  has  been  retarded  by  circumstances  not  dependent  on  its 
merits.  The  first  improvement  consists  in  combining  with  it,  sheet  metal  or 
wire  gauze,  to  render  it  more  durable.  The  second,  in  forming  a  coloured 
article  by  dyeing  the  cork  which  forms  one  of  the  materials.  The  third,  in 
making  Mosaic  patterns  by  combining  coloured  strips,  in  any  required 
pattern,  the  mass  so  formed  being  then  cut  transversely  into  layers,  which 
may  be  used  by  themselves,  or  combined  with  the  ordinary  material. 

Stephen  Moulton,  of  Bradford,  "Wilts,  India  rubber  manufacturer,  for  certain 
improvements  in  the  preparation  of  gutta  percha  and  caoutchouc,  and  in  the 
application  thereof.     August  14th,  1851. 

The  patentee  claims  combining  with  gutta  percha,  or  with  a  mixture  of 
gutta  percha  and  caoutchouc,  a  mixture  of  hyposulphite  or  sulphite  of  lead 
or  zinc,  and  artificial  sulphuret  of  lead  or  zinc,  which  when  submitted  to  a 
high  temperature  produces  a  compound,  which  the  inventor  calls  "  cured" 
gutta  percha,  and  which  remains  unaffected  by  changes  of  temperature  and 
various  solvents,  the  operation  resembling  the  vulcanizing  of  India  rubber. 
It  also  gives  to  the  gutta  percha  a  degree  of  elasticity  which,  in  its  native 
state,  it  does  not  possess.  The  patentee  also  proposes  to  use  Paris  white  or 
chalk  mixed  with  the  above  ingredients. 

Thomas  Skinner,  of  Sheffield,  for  improvements  in  producing  ornamental  sur- 
faces on  metal,  and  other  materials.  August  14th,  1851. 
The  ornamenting  process  consists  in  transferring  to  the  object  the  design 
in  ink  from  a  copper  plate  on  which  it  has  first  been  engraved.  The  ground 
of  the  pattern  is  then  stopped  out  with  varnish,  and  the  ink  pattern  removed 
with  turpentine,  leaving  the  pattern  traced  on  the  unprotected  metal.  This 
is  then  bitten  in  with  dilute  acid,  and  by  the  electrotype  process,  gold  or 
silver  is  deposited  on  the  pattern.  The  process  may  be  transposed  to  form  a 
pattern  in  relief.  Bone  and  ivory  may  be  ornamented  by  transferring  the 
pattern,  and  embuing  the  etched  lines  with  suitable  dyes  or  composition. 
This  process  promises  to  be  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  ornamental  arts. 

EECENT  AMERICAN  PATENTS. 
For  an  improvement  in  hand  stamps;  Stephen  P.  Buggies,  Boston,  Massa- 
chusetts, September  23. 

"  The  nature  of  my  invention  consists  in  so  constructing  a  hand  stamp, 
that  by  moving  it  in  the  arc  of  a  circle,  such  as  would  be  naturally  made  by 
the  rising  and  falling  of  the  arm,  it  will  come  down  upon  the  paper  at  all 
points  of  its  surface,  although  it  may  strike  at  an  angle  with  the  plane  upon 
which  the  material  to  be  stamped  is  placed,  and  at  all  times  make  a  fair  and 
perfect  impression,  whether  moved  in  a  perpendicular  or  oblique  line  to  the 
same." 

Claim. — "  Having  thus  fully  described  the  nature  of  my  invention,  what  I 
claim  therein  as  new  is,  securing  the  plate  of  a  hand  stamp  to  the  shank  or 
handle,  by  means  of  a  universal  ball-and-socket  or  other  joint,  so  as  to  allow 
the  stamp  to  make  a  fair  impression  at  whatever  angle  it  may  strike  the 
material  to  be  stamped,  as  herein  fully  set  forth  and  explained." 

For  an  improvement  in  instruments  for  the  cure  of  stammering;  Robert  Bates, 

Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  September  30. 

"  The  nature  of  my  invention  consists  in  the  employment  of  a  tube  in  the 
mouth,  for  the  passage  of  air  from  the  mouth,  when  the  muscles  that  close  the 
orifice  of  the  mouth  and  stop  the  egress  of  air,  in  speaking,  are  suddenly 
contracted  by  spasmodic  action  ;  and  in  the  employment  of  a  strap  around 
the  throat,  provided  with  a  spring  pad,  regulated  by  a  screw,  which  pad  presses 
against  the  throat,  and  keeps  the  glottis  or  larynx  of  the  throat  open,  thereby 
allowing  a  free  passage  of  air  through  the  throat  and  mouth,  from  the  lungs; 
the  arrest  of  which  air,  by  the  spasmodic  action  of  the  throat  and  mouth, 
causes  stammering,  and  its  escape  by  means  of  my  instrument  cures  the 
spasmodic  action,  and  consequently  cures  stammering." 


Claim. — "  Having  thus  fully  described  my  instruments  for  the  cure  of 
stammering,  and  their  application  and  method  of  use,  what  I  claim  as  my 
invention  is,  1st,  the  employment  of  a  tube  in  the  mouth,  which  will  admit 
of  speaking,  and  of  the  passage  of  air,  when  either  the  tongue  or  lips  would 
prevent  the  passage  of  air,  substantially  as  herein  above  set  forth. 

"  2nd,  The  employment  of  the  adjustable  spring  pad,  substantially  as 
herein  above  set  forth. 

"  3rd,  The  joint  employment  of  the  mouth  tube  and  the  adjustable  spring 
pad,  at  the  same  time  curing  the  guttural,  lingual,  and  labial  disease  of 
stammering,  substantially  as  herein  above  set  forth." 

For  an  improvement  in  fountain  pens;  Newell  A.  Prince,  New  Gloucester, 

Maine,  September  30. 

Claim. — "  What  I  claim  as  my  invention  is,  the  improvement  of  the  hollow, 
flexible,  and  long  extension  of  the  reservoir  or  tube,  to  extend  up  and  be 
secured  to  the  arm  of  the  writer,  substantially  in  manner  and  for  the  purpose 
as  specified." 

For  an  improvement  in  shields  for  valves;  Alexander  Jimason,  Parkesburgh, 

Pennsylvania,  September  30. 

"  This  improvement  consists  in  furnishing  the  valve  with  a  shield,  to  pro- 
tect it  from  the  action  and  reaction  of  the  fluid  which  surrounds  it,  when  in 
operation,  thus  preventing,  in  a  great  measure,  the  rapid  destruction  of  the 
valves,  valve-seats,  and  chambers,  in  which  the  valve  is  generally  made  to 
work." 

Claim. — "  What  I  claim  is,  surrounding  the  valve  by  a  shield,  constructed 
substantially  in  the  manner  as  herein  described  and  set  forth,  and  fitting 
closely  enough  to  regulate  the  ingress  and  egress  of  the  water  or  steam,  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  prevent  the  slamming  of  the  valve,  in  opening  and 
closing." 

For  an  improvement  in  tanning;  Nathaniel  C.  Towle,  "Washington,  D.C., 

October  7. 

Claim. — "  What  I  claim  as  my  invention  or  discovery  as  a  new  and  useful 
improvement  is,  the  use  of  arsenic  or  arseneous  acid,  substantially  in  the 
manner  and  for  the  purposes  herein  set  forth.  The  peculiar  properties  of 
arsenic,  by  which  it  tends  to  suspend  the  natural  tendency  of  the  animal  fibre 
to  decomposition  upon  the  extinction  of  animal  life,  are  well  known,  and  of 
course  they  are  not  patentable ;  but  their  application  to  the  processes  of 
tanning,  and  otherwise  preparing  skios  and  hides  for  useful  purposes,  by 
which  they  are  rendered  stronger  and  more  durable,  is  believed  not  to  have 
been  heretofore  known  and  used. 

"  I  do  not,  therefore,  intend  to  limit  my  claim  to  any  particular  mode  or 
period  of  using  the  article ;  but  I  shall  apply  it  in  such  form  or  in  such 
strength  of  solution  as  the  nature  of  the  case  may  require,  to  effect  the  objects 
named.  Workmen  should  guard  against  the  absorption  of  the  poisonous 
qualities  of  the  arsenic,  while  immersing  or  handling  the  skins  in  the  liquor, 
by  using  tools  or  wearing  India-rubber  gloves.  After  the  skins  are  taken  out 
of  the  liquor  aud  rinsed  thoroughly,  the  danger  ceases." 

For  an  improvement  in  devices  for  sowing  in  a  seed  planter;  W.  P.  Clements, 

EUerslie,  Georgia,  October  7 

"  The  nature  of  my  invention  consists  in  the  novel  manner  of  availing  of 
the  natural  motion  of  the  shoulders  of  a  horse  or  other  animal,  while  walking 
or  propelling  a  drill,  to  operate  the  seed  dischargers,  so  that  at  each  step  of 
the  animal,  its  shoulder  blades  shall  act  alternately  upon  levers,  reciprocating 
the  arms,  working  inside  the  hopper,  so  as  to  discharge  the  desired  quantity 
of  seed,  without  the  aid  of  wheels,  cams,  or  any  other  machinery  than  the 
simple  arrangement  represented  in  the  drawings,  which  is  not  more  compli- 
cated or  more  liable  to  get  out  of  order  than  an  ordinary  plough. 

Claim. — "What  I  claim  as  new  is,  the  novel  manner  of  discharging  the 
seed  by  the  natural  motion  of  the  horse  or  animal,  while  in  the  act  of  walking 
and  propelling  the  drill,  without  the  aid  of  wheels,  with  the  arrangement  of 
levers,  arms,  &c.  for  discharging  the  seed,  or  their  equivalents,  operating  ir 
the  manner  and  for  the  purpose  herein  fully  set  forth  and  represented." 
For  an  improvement  in  apparatus  for  warming  air  and  water  for  dwellings: 

Le  Grand  C.  St.  John,  Buffalo,  New  York,  Ooctober  7. 

"  The  nature  of  my  invention  consists  in  making  a  fire-proof  apartment, 
with  either  circular  or  rectangular  sides,  from  the  lowest  extremity  of  the 


1852.] 


Novelties. 


67 


house  to  the  roof.  At  the  bottom  of  this  apartment  are  furnaces,  the  heat  of 
which  enters  the  apartment.  The  pipes  of  stoves  enter  the  same  apartment, 
and  wind  around  its  sides  to  a  chimney  near  the  roof.  In  cold  weather 
the  heat  is  taken  from  this  apartment  in  pipes  to  warm  the  house,  and  in 
warm  weather  it  is  turned  out  of  the  house,  through  the  chimney.  Any  re- 
quisite degree  of  heat  may  be  made  without  waste  of  fuel.  If  the  fire  from 
the  cooking  stove,  which  passes  through  the  pipe,  does  not  warm  the  house 
sufficiently,  the  heat  of  one  or  more  furnaces  may  be  added.  The  top  of 
the  apartment  has  a  bowl  in  the  roof,  from  which  the  water  may  pass  down 
in  a  pipe  in  the  apartment  to  a  reservoir,  or  pass  into  a  structure,  filling  cis- 
terns opposite  the  different  stories,  and  the  surplus  then  pass,  by  pipes,  into 
a  reservoir,  from  whence  it  may  be  re-elevated  for  the  supply  of  upper 
rooms." 

Claim. — "  What  I  claim  as  my  invention  is,  the  construction  of  a  fire- 
proof apartment  in  houses,  extending  from  the  lowest  extremity  of  the  house 
to  the  roof,  with  furnaces  at  the  bottom  ;  the  smoke  pipes  of  other  fires, 
entering  it,  and  winding  along  its  walls  to  a  chimney  at  the  top,  and  with 
openings  to  let  the  heat  in  the  apartment  into  the  house  or  up  the  chimney ; 
and  also  for  the  construction  of  cisterns  within  the  fire-proof  apartment,  with 
the  pipes,  as  above  described." 

NOVELTIES. 


Weight's  Improved  Circular  Bel- 
lows.— Messrs.  Wright  and  Co.  have 
submitted  to  us  specimens  of  their  im- 
proved circular  bellows,  of  which  the 
accompanying  engraving  will  give  a 
good  idea.  They  are  very  compact 
and  powerful,  being  double-acting, 
whilst  from  their  portability  they  are 
well  calculated  for  general  use,  the 
colonies,  &c. 


New  American  Rudder.— A  new  screw  steamer,  called  the  South 
Carolina,  of  1,300  tons  register  and  600  horse  power,  has  been  launched  at 
New  York.  She  is  destined  as  the  pioneer  of  the  projected  line  between 
Charleston  and  Liverpool.  She  has  three  decks,  is  full  ship-rigged,  and 
built  in  the  most  substantial  manner.  Her  engines  were  built  at  the  West 
Point  foundry.  Her  rudder  is  of  peculiar  construction  ;  it  is  a  balanced 
one,  the  rudder-post  forming  stern-post  and  rudder-post,  and  is  held  by  an 
iron  knee  projecting  under  the  propeller  at  the  bottom,  and  by  an  iron-brace 
just  over  the  propeller  ;  is  in  shape  like  the  paddle  of  an  Indian  canoe,  and 
revolves  completely  round,  fitting  into  the  bottom  of  the  arms  of  the  pro- 
peller, the  after  part  of  the  rudder  being  a  little  in  excess  of  the  forward 
part.  It  always  accommodates  itself  to  the  motion  of  the  ship,  and  in  going 
astern,  the  after  part  of  the  rudder  takes  the  place  of  the  forward  part,  when 
the  ship  would  be  going  a-head.  It  is  geared  with  a  cog  and  pinion  wheel 
upon  the  head  of  the  rudder-post.  The  whole  apparatus  is  said  to  be  simple 
in  its  construction  and  arrangements.  The  size  is  13  feet  by  2  feet  3  inches, 
being  from  one  foot  in  breadth  at  the  extremities,  to  three  feet  at  the  centre 
of  the  rudder,  and  directly  opposite  the  propeller  shaft. 

Giles' PrRAcousT.— This  is  intended  to  give  an  alarm  in  case  of  burglary 
or  Fire.  In  the  former  case,  a  bolt  is  attached  to  the  door  or  windows, 
which,  on  being  moved,  presses  on  and  breaks  a  glass  globule  containing 
sulphuric  acid,  which  ignites  a  fulminating  mixture  placed  in  a  receiver 
•beneath.  This  appears  a  round-about  way  of  doing  the  thing.  In  a  simple 
invention  previously  described  in  our  pages,  the  globule  is  the  detonating 
hall,  and  the  same  end  is  at  once  attained.  The  fire  alarm  is  on  a  similar 
principle,  but  the  acid  is  set  free  by  the  melting  of  a  wax  cover  on  the 
mouth  of  the  globule. 


Hodges'  Safety  Kettles,  are  a  praiseworthy  attempt  to  improve  this 
useful  appendage  to  the  fire-side.  The  nose  of  the  spout  is  closed  by  a 
cover,  which  can  be  opened  by  depressing  a  button  on  the  handle.  The 
cover,  instead  of  being  under  is  behind  the  handle,  and  easily  accessible,  and 
the  steam  is  allowed  to  blow  off  through  an  orifice  at  the  back  of  the  handle. 
No  one  can  deny  that  these  are  great  improvements,  but  the  force  of  preju- 
dice is  strong — very  strong. 

Prismatic  Gas  Refractors. — Mr.  Boggett  has  recently  patented  an 
arrangement  for  increasing  the  light  given  out  by  a  gas  burner,  by  arranging 
around  it  two  or  more  vertical  gas  prisms,  each  of  which  multiplies  the  flame 
by  three,  according  to  the  position  of  the  spectator. 

Oil  for  lubricating  Machinery. — Boil  500lbs  of  American  potash  in 
125  gallons  of  water  in  an  iron  vessel,  by  means  of  steam,  or  in  any  other 
convenient  way,  until  the  potash  is  dissolved  ;  after  which  add  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  water  to  supply  the  loss  caused  by  evaporation.  Let  stand  for 
twelve  hours,  and  then  draw  off  the  clear  solution  for  use.  Next,  place  in  a 
suitable  iron  vessel  four  tons  of  southern  oil  and  one  ton  of  cocoa-nut  oil  or 
lard  oil,  and  to  it  gradually  add,  with  constant  agitation,  the  potash  solution 
made  as  above  stated;  continue  the  agitation  for  two  hours  after  the  addition 
of  the  potash;  then  let  the  whole  stand  for  twenty- four  hours,  at  the  end  of 
which  time  draw  off  the  oil  from  the  dregs,  and  heat  it  by  means  of  free 
steam  in  a  wooden  vessel  with  half  its  weight  of  water  ;  after  standing  twelve 
hours,  draw  off  the  water,  and  repeat  the  operation  a  second,  or  even  a  third 
time  if  necessary.  Should  the  southern  oil  employed  contain  a  large  quan- 
tity of  gummy  matter,  a  larger  proportion  of  cocoa-nut  oil  or  lard  oil  should 
be  used. — Chemical  Record. 

Cod  Liver  Oil. — The  official  examiner  of  the  American  patent  office, 
states  that  "  a  large  quantity  of  sperm  and  whale  oil  is  now  consumed  to 
manufacture  the  celebrated  cod  liver  oil,  which,  as  now  sold,  is  about  one- 
third  part  cod  liver  and  other  fish  liver  oils,  and  the  remainder  fish  and 
whale  oil." 

Blundell's  Patent  Road-Sweeping  Machine. — Whitworth's  street- 
sweeping  machines  have  not,  we  find,  been  pecuniarily  successful  in  Man- 
chester, and  we  are  very  doubtful  whether  the  present  modification  will  be 
more  fortunate.  It  has  the  defect  of  not  raising  the  mud  into  a  receiver,  but 
merely  lays  it  on  one  side.  It  consists  of  a  cart,  carrying  a  rotating  brush, 
placed  diagonally  at  about  45°  with  the  line  of  motion.  The  mud  is  thus 
laid  in  a  continuous  line  by  the  side  of  the  track  of  the  machine.  Provision 
is  made  for  raising  and  lowering  the  revolving  brush  to  suit  the  road.  One 
of  Mr.  Crosskill's  manufacture  has  been  tried  in  Hull,  and  report  speaks 
favourably  of  its  performance. 

LIST  OF  ENGLISH  PATENTS. 

From  23rd  January,  to  14th  February  1852. 

Six  months  allowed  for  enrolment,  unless  otherwise  expressed. 

Thomas  Richardson,  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of 
magnesia  and  some  of  its  salts.    January  23. 

George  Stacey,  of  Uxbridge,  Middlesex,  machinist,  for  certain  improvements  in  machinery 
for  reaping,  mowing,  and  delivering  dry  or  green  crops.    January  24. 

William  Pidding,  of  the  Strand,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  the  manufac- 
ture, preparation,  and  combination  of  materials  or  substances  for  the  production  of  fuel,  and 
for  other  useful  purposes  to  which  natural  coal  can  be  applied.    January  24. 

Joseph  Jones,  of  Bilston,  Stafford,  furnace  builder,  for  an  improvement  or  improvements 
in  furnaces  used  in  the  manufacture  of  iron.    January  24. 

Richard  Ford  Sturges,  of  Birmingham,  Warwick,  manufacturer,  for  an  improved  method 
or  improved  methods  of  ornamenting  metallic  surfaces.    January  24. 

John  Hinks,  of  Birmingham,  manufacturer,  and  Eugene  Nicolle,  of  Birmingham  afore- 
said, civil  engineer,  for  certain  improved  machinery  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  nails, 
rivets,  bolts  or  pins,  and  screw-blanks.    January  24. 

Peter  Armand  Lecomte  de  Fontainemoreau,  of  South-street,  Finshury,  for  certain  im- 
provements in  lithographic,  typographic,  and  other  printing-presses,  which  improvements 
are  also  applicable,  with  certain  modifications,  to  extracting  saccharine,  oleagineous,  and 
other  matters,  and  to  compressing  in  general.    (Being  a  communication.)    January  24. 

James  Gathercole,  of  Eltham,  Kent,  envelope  manufacturer,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  and  ornamenting  of  envelopes,  parts  of  which  improvements  are  applicable  to 
other  descriptions  of  stationery ;  and  in  the  machinery,  apparatus,  or  means  to  be  used 
therein.    January  24. 

Arad  Woodworth,  and  Samuel  Mower,  of  Massachusetts,  United  States,  for  certain  new 
and  useful  improvements  in  machinery  for  manufacturing  bricks,  tiles,  or  other  articles  of 
a  similar  character.    January  24. 

Alfred  Richard  Corpe,  of  Kensington,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  trouser- 
strap  fasteners.    January  24. 

George  Kent,  of  the  Strand,  for  certain  improvements  in  apparatus  for  sifting  cinders, 
and  in  apparatus  for  cleaning  knives.    January  24. 

Joseph  Maudslay,  of  the  Arm  of  Maudslay,  Sons,  and  Field,  of  Lambeth,  Surrey,  engineers, 
for  improvements  in  steam  engines,  which  are  also  applicable,  wholly  or  in  part,  to  pumps 
and  other  motive  machines.    January  26. 

Edward  Simons,  of  Birmingham,  tallow-chandler,  for  certain  improvements  in  lighting. 
January  27. 

William  Brindley,  of  Queenhithe,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  flocked 
fabrics,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  buttons.    January  27. 


68 


List  of  English  Patents. 


[March,  1852. 


William  Dray,  of  Swan-lane,  Upper  Thames-street,  London,  agricultural  implement 
maker,  for  improvements  in  reaping  machines.    (Being  a  communication.)    January  27. 

George  Duncan,  of  New  North-road,  Hoxton,  and  Arthur  Hutton,  of  Herhert-street,  New 
North-road,  Hoxton,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  casks.    January  27. 

Nelson  Smith,  of  New  York,  United  States,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  the  con- 
struction of  violins,  and  other  similar  stringed  musical  instruments.  (Being  a  communica- 
tion.)   January  27. 

Jean  Benjamin  Coquatrix,  of  Lyons,  France,  merchant,  for  improved  apparatus  for  lubri- 
cating machinery.    January  27. 

James  Joseph  Brunet,  of  the  Canal  Iron-works,  Poplar,  Middlesex,  engineer,  for  certain 
improved  combinations  of  materials  in  ship-building.    (Being  a  communication. J  Jan.  27. 

Alexander  Mills  Dix,  of  Salford,  brewer,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  method  of  ven- 
tilating apartments  or  buildings,  and  in  the  apparatus  connected  therewith.    January  27. 

Thomas  J.. :mbert,  of  Hampstead-road,  Middlesex,  piano-forte  manufacturer,  for  certain 
improvements  in  piano-fortes.    January  27. 

Julian  Bernard,  of  Guildford-street,  Russell-square,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  improve- 
ments in  tine  manufacture  or  production  of  boots  and  shoes,  and  in  materials,  machinery, 
and  apparatus  connected  therewith.    January  27. 

Joseph  'Vincent  Melchior  Raymondi,  of  Paris,  France,  machinist,  for  certain  improved 
statistic  arid:descriptive  maps.    January  27. 

Isaac  laevris  Pulvermacher,  of  Vienna,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  galvano-electric, 
magnetb-eleotric,  and  electro-magnetic  apparatus,  and  in  the  application  thereof  to  lighting, 
telegraphic,  and  motive  purposes.    January  29. 

Frangois  Jules  Munceaux,  of  Paris,  France,  gun-manufacturer,  for  improvements  in  fire- 
arms, and  in  instruments  and  apparatus  used  in  connection  therewith.    January  29. 

Isham  Baggs,  of  Liverpool-street,  Middlesex,  electrical  engineer,  for  improvements  in 
crushing  gold  quartz  and  metallic  ores.    January  29. 

Joseph  Maximilian  Ritter  von  Winiwarter,  of  Surrey-street,  Strand,  Middlesex,  Doctor  of 
Law,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  locks  of  fire-arms  and  cannon,  and  in  gun-matches, 
or  in  the  mode  of  igniting  gunpowder  used  in  guns,  and  in  machinery  for  manufacturing 
the  same.    January  20. 

William  Smith,  of  Kettering,  Northampton,  agricultural  implement  maker,  for  improve- 
ments in  apparatus  for  cutting  or  breaking  lump  sugar,  and  other  vegetable  substances. 
January  29. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  pigments  or  paints.    ( Being  a  communication.)    Jan.  29. 

Edward  Highton,  of  Clarence  villa,  Regent's-park,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improve- 
ments in  electric  telegraphs.    January  29. 

William  Longmaid,  of  Beaumont-square,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in 
obtaining  gold.    January  30. 

Owen  Williams,  of  Stratford,  Essex,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  preparing  composi- 
tions to  be  used  in  railway  and  other  structures,  in  substitution  of  iron,  wood,  and  stone. 
(Being  a  communication.)    January  31. 

Charles  Cowper,  of  Southampton-buildinss,  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  for  improvements 
in  multiplying  motion  applicable  to  steam  engines,  saw-mills,  and  other  machinery  in 
which  an  increase  of  velocity  is  required.    (Being  a  communication.)    January  31. 

Martyn  John  Roberts,  of  Woodbank,  Gerrard's-cross,  Bucks,  esq.,  for  improvements  in 
agricultural  instruments.    January  31. 

Alexander  Hediard,  of  25,  Rue  Taitbout,  Paris,  France,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in 
propelling  and  navigating  ships,  boats,  and  vessels,  by  steam  and  other  motive  power. 
January  31. 

Joseph  Haythorne  Reed,  late  of  the  17th  Lancers,  Harrow-road,  Middlesex,  gentleman, 
for  improvements  in  propelling  vessels.    January  31. 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  the  firm  of  J.  C.  Robertson  and  Company,  of  Fleet-street, 
London,  patent  agents,  for  improvements  in  the  purification  and  decoloration  of  oils,  and 
in  the  apparatus  employed  therein.    (Being  a  communication.)    January  31. 

William  Squire,  of  High-holborn,  late  of  George-street,  Euston-square,  both  in  Middlesex, 
pianoforte-maker,  for  improvements  in  the  construction  of  pianofortes.    January  31. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  im- 
provements in  machinery  for  weaving  coach-lace,  Brussels  tapestry,  and  velvet  carpeting, 
andotherpiledfabrj.es.    (Being  a  communication.)    January  31. 

Frederick  Philip  Thompson,  of  Waterworks-chambers,  Orange-street,  Trafalgar-square, 
engineer  and  surveyor,  for  improvements  in  filtering  and  preserving  water.    February  2. 

George  Spencer,  of  Lacey-terrace,  Islington,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  the  springs  of 
railway  carriages,  trucks,  and  waggons.    February  2. 

Samuel  Cunliffe  Lister  and  James  Ambler,  both  of  Manningham,  in  the  parish  of  Brad- 
ford, York,  manufacturers,  for  improvements  in  preparing  and  combing  wool  and  other 
fibrous  materials.    February  2. 

Emanuel  Charles  Theodore  Croutelle,  manufacturer,  of  Rheims,  for  certain  improve- 
ments in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  preparing  woollen  threads  and  other  filaments. 
February  3. 

Robert  Hesketh,  of  Wirapole-street,  Marylebone,  Middlesex,  for  improvements  in  appa- 
ratus for  reflecting  light  into  rooms  and  other  parts  of  buildings  and  places.    February  3. 

Peter  Claussen,  of  Gresham-street,  London,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  the  manu- 
facture of  saline  and  metallic  compounds.     February  3. 

George  Torr,  of  the  Chemical-works,  Frimley's-lane,  Rotherhithe,  animal  charcoal-burner, 
for  improvements  in  reburning  animal  charcoal.    February  3. 

John  Feather,  of  Keighley,  York,  worsted  spinner  and  manufacturer,  and  Jeremiah 
Driver,  of  the  same  place,  iron  and  brass  founder,  for  certain  improvements  in  screws. 
February  9 ;  two  months. 

Auguste  Neuberger,  of  Rue  Vivienne,  Paris,  France,  lamp  manufacturer,  for  certain  im- 
provements in  lamps.    February  9. 

William  Beckett  Johnson,  of  Manchester,  Lancashire,  manager  for  Messrs.  Ormerod  and 
Son,  engineers  and  ironfounders,  for  improvements  in  railways,  and  in  apparatus  for 
generating  steam.    February  9. 

Sanders  Trotman,  of  Clarendon-road,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in 
fountains.    February  9. 

John  Dennison,  of  the  firm  of  John  Dennison  and  Son,  of  Halifax,  York,  and  David  Peel, 
of  the  same  place,  manufacturers,  for  an  improved  lubricating  compound.    February  9. 

Ralph  Errington  Ridley,  of  Hexham,  Northumberland,  tanner,  for  improvements  in 
cutting  and  reaping  machines.    February  9. 

Martyn  John  Roberts,  of  Woodbank,  Gerrard's-cross,  Bucks,  esq.,  for  improvements  in 
galvanic  batteries,  and  in  obtaining  chemical  products  therefrom.    February  10. 

John  Smith  Hutton,  of  Bolton-le-Moors,  Lancashire,  bleacher,  and  Joseph  Musgrave,  of 
the  same  place,  engineer,  for  a  certain  improvement  or  improvements  in  apparatus  used  in 
the  bleaching  of  yarns  and  goods.    February  12. 

Christian  Schiele,  of  Oldham,  Lancashire,  machinist,  for  certain  improvements  in  obtain- 
ing and  applying  motive  power.     February  12. 

William  Edward  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements 
in  the  heddles  or  harness  of  looms  for  weaving,  and  in  the  machinery  for  producing  the 
same.    (Being  a  communication.)     February  12. 

John  Stephens,  of  Kennington,  Surrey,  esq.,  for  improvements  in  obtaining  and  applying 
motive  power.    February  12. 

John  Mollady,  junior,  of  Denton,  Lancashire,  hat-manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements 
in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  manufacturing  hats  or  caps.    February  12. 

Charles  Louis  Barbe,  of  Mulhouse,  France,  for  improvements  in  the  reproducing  of 
drawings,  and  in  the  mode  of  obtaining  designs,  to  be  principally  used  in  the  engraving 
surfaces  for  printing  fabrics.    February  12. 

Edmund  Morewood,  of  Enfield,  Middlesex,  and  George  Rogers,  of  the  same  place,  for  im- 


provements in  the  manufacture,  shaping,  and  coating  of  metals,  and  in  the  means  of  apply- 
ing heat.    February  13. 

Annet  Gervoy,  of  Lyons,  France,  director  of  the  Lyons  Railway,  for  means  to  prolong 
the  durability  of  the  rails  on  railways.     February  13. 

Hermann  Turck,  of  Broad- street-buildings,  London,  merchant,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  rosin-oil.     (Being  a  communication.)    February  14. 

Arthur  Wellington  Callen,  of  Peckham,  Surrey,  gentleman,  and  John  Onions,  of  South- 
wark,  in  the  same  county,  engineer  and  ironfounder,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture 
of  certain  parts  of  machinery  used  in  paper-making,  and  certain  parts  of  railways,  railway, 
and  other  carriages.    February  14. 

LIST  OF  SCOTCH  PATENTS. 
Feom  26th  of  December,  1851,  to  the  16th  of  January,  1852. 

James  Macnee,  of  Glasgow,  Lanark,  North  Britain,  merchant,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  or  production  of  ornamental  fabrics.    December  26. 

Jean  Antoine  Farina,  Paris,  proprietor,  for  a  process  for  manufacturing  paper  from  a 
certain  material.    December  26. 

Francis  Hastings  Greenstreet,  of  Albany-street,  Mornington-crescent,  Middlesex,  for  im- 
provements in  coating  and  ornamenting  zinc.    December  29. 

Frederick  Rosenborg,  Esq.,  of  the  Albany,  Middlesex  for  improvements  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  casks,  barrels,  and  other  like  articles,  and  the  machinery  employed  therein. 
January  2. 

James  Aikman,  of  Paisley,  calenderer,  for  improvements  in  the  treatment  or  finishing  of 
textile  fabrics  and  materials.    January  6. 

James  Gathercole,  ofEltham,  envelope  manufacturer,  for  improvements  in  the  manu- 
facture and  ornamenting  of  envelopes,  parts  of  which  improvements  are  applicable  to 
other  descriptions  of  stationery,  and  in  the  machinery,  apparatus,  and  means  to  be  used 
!  therein.    January  8. 

Edwin  Rose,  of  Manchester,  engineer,  for  certain  improvements  in  boilers  for  generating 
steam.    January  9  ;  four  months. 

Thomas  Richardson,  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  and 
preparation  of  magnesia,  and  some  of  its  salts.    January  1 2. 

James  Warren,  of  Montague-terrace,  Mile-end-road,  gentleman,  for  improvements  appli- 
cable to  railways  and  railway  carriages,  and  improvements  in  paving.    January  13. 

Alexander  Parkes,  of  Birmingham,  for  improvements  in  separating  silver  from  other 
metals.    January  13. 

Alexander  Hediard,  of  26,  Rue  Taitbout,  Paris,  for  improvements  in  propelling  and  navi- 
gating ships,  boats,  and  vessels,  by  steam,  and  other  motive  power.    January  16. 

LIST  OF  IRISH  PATENTS. 
Feom  21st  of  December,  1851,  to  the  3ed  of  January  1852. 

Alphonse  Rene  Le  Mire  de  Normandy,  of  Judd-street,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  and  Richard 
Fell,  of  the  City-road,  in  the  same  county,  engineer,  for  improved  methods  of  obtaining 
fresh  water  from  salt  water,  and  of  concentrating  sulphuric  acid.    December  22. 

Charles  Watt,  of  Kennington,  Surrey,  chemist,  for  improvements  in  the  decomposition  of 
saline  and  other  substances,  and  separating  their  component  parts,  or  some  of  them, 
from  each  other ;  also,  in  the  forming  certain  compounds  or  combinations  of  substances,  and 
also  in  the  separating  of  metals  from  each  other,  and  in  freeing  them  from  impurities. 
December  22. 

Matthew  Gibson,  of  Wellington-terrace,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  for  improvements  in 
machinery  for  pulverising  and  preparing  land.    January  3. 

Antoine  Dominique  Sisco,  of  Slough,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  chairs,  and 
in  combining  iron  with  other  metal  applicable  to  such,  and  other  manufacture.  January  3. 

DESIGNS  FOR  ARTICLES  OF  UTILITY. 
From  the  22nd  January,  to  the  18th  February  1852,  inclusive. 
January   22,  3090,  George  P.  Cooper,  Suffolk-street,  Pall-mall,  "  Elliptic  gussett." 

„    28,  3091,  W.  C.  Wright,  South-quay,  Regent's-canal  Dock,  "  Machine  for  screen- 
ing coals." 
„    28,  3092,  Brierley  and  Sons,  Cheapside,  Halifax,  "  Fastening  for  braces,  &c." 
„    29,  3093,  T.  Fotherby  and  Son,  Leeds,  "  Setting  up  brush." 
„    29,  3094,  J.  Shaw,  Southover  Laves,  "  Dried  fruit  dressing  machine." 
„    29,  309.i,  H.  A.  Hall,  Spalding,  "  Pump  and  fire  engine." 
„    30,  3096,  T.  H.  Ryland,  Birmingham,  "  Joint  for  parasol  handle." 
„    30,  3097,  H.  Field  and  Son,  Glasgow,  "Domestic  gas  apparatus." 
„    30,  3098,  A.  Hewlett,  Burlington  Arcade,  "Caliendrum  (wig.)" 
„    31,  3099,  T.  Woolley,  Nottingham,  "  Parts  of  the  action  of  a  piano-forte." 
February    2,  3100,  J.  Bedington,  Birmingham,  "  Hat  and  coat  guard." 

,,      2,  3101,  J.  Jacquier,  Wood-street,  Spitalfields,  "  Jacquard  machine." 

„      2,  3102,  Wolf  and  Baker,  Sambrook-court,  "Revolving  fusee-box." 

„      3,  3103,  W.  Jefford  and  S.  Turner,  New  Radford,  Nottingham,  "Improvements 

in  twist  lace  brass  bobbins." 
„      3,  3104,  S.  F.  Cottam,  Manchester,  "  Bearings  for  spindles  of  spinning,  doubling, 

and  winding  machines." 
„      3,  3105,  T.  Smith  and  Sons,  Birmingham,  "  Wick-holder  and  elevator  for  Argand 

lamps." 
„      4,  3106,  J.  H.  Fiedler,  Addle-street,  "Travellers'  expanding  bag." 
„      4,  3107,  M.  Hyams  and  Co.,  Long  lane,  "  Exhibition  cigar." 
,,      4,  3108,  J.  Warner  and  Sons,  Jewin-crescent,  "  High-pressure  valve." 
„      5,  3109,  Westley  Richards,  Birmingham,  "  Rifle  sight." 
„      5,  3110,  Frederick  York,  Augustus-street,  Regent's-park,  "Box  knife,  fork,  and 

metal-cleaning  machine." 
„      6,  3111,  John  McDougall,  Kelso,  "  Cooking  apparatus." 

„      6,  3112,  Joseph  and  Thomas  Todd,  Caunonmills,  Edinburgh,  "  Expanding  cap." 
„      7,  3113,  Edmond  Fogden,  East  Dean,  Chichester,  "  Manure  distributor." 
„      7,  3U4,  John  Powell,  High-street,  Eton,  "Windsor  oven." 
„      9,  3115,  W.  and  C.  Kearthland,  Mill-street,  Lambeth,  "Frame  for  drying  stock- 
ings and  socks." 
„    10,  3116,  Jamieson  and  Kenworthy,  Ashton-under-Lyne,  "Expanding  or  con- 
tracting '  wraith,'  or  comb  for  sizing,  warping,  and  beaming  machines ." 
„     10,  3117,  Kenworthy  and  Jamieson,  Blackburn,  Lancashire,  "Spiral,  expanding, 
and  contracting  'wraith,'  or  comb  for  sizing,  warping,  and  beaming 
machines." 
„     11,  3118,  A.  D.  Lamb,  Berwick-on-Tweed,  "  Gas  regulator." 
„    12,  3119,  M.  Thompson,  Plymouth.  "  Telescopic  Slush  and  tallow  lamp." 
„     12,  3120,  W.  Pink,  Fareham,  "  Saddle  strap-bar." 
„    13,  3121,  J.  C.  Bucknill,  Exminster,  "  Bullet  mould." 
„     13,  3122,  C.  Smith,  A.  Smith,  and  I.  Longbottom,  Keighley,  '■  Spool  motion  for  a 

worsted  spinning  frame." 
„     14,  3123,  J.  Emery,  Preston,  "  Wicker-work  skip  with  wooden  bottom." 
„    14,  3124,  W.  Magcough,  Grenville  Priest-house,  Dublin,  "  Apparatus  to  ascertain 

the  vertical  height  of  clouds." 
„    16, 3125,  Lambert  and  Co.,  Portman-street,  "  Vertical  pianoforte  brace." 
„    16,  3126,  Dunn,  Hattersley  and  Co.,  Manchester,  "  Railway  turn-table  and  break 

applied  thereto." 
„    18,  3127,  W.  Muir  and  H.  Goss,  Salford,  "  Theodolite." 
„    18,  3128,  W.  Gaves,  and  J.  Hopkinson,  New  Wharf-road,  "  Smoking-tube." 


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THE  ARTIZA1T   JOURNAL,  1852 


THE    ARTIZAN 


No.  IV.— Vol.  X.— APRIL  1st,  1852. 


ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN  TUBULAR  BOILERS. 

Illustrated  "by  Plate  5. 

We  promised,  when  noticing  Mr.  Bartol's  work  on  American  marine 
boilers  (ante  p.  64),  to  return  to  this  important  subject.  The  chief 
characteristics  of  the  American  boilers  are,  an  immense  width  of  furnace, 
from  4  feet  9  inches  downwards,  and  the  use  of  large  tubes,  or,  to  speak 
more  correctly,  of  circular  flues,  in  two  or  three  tiers.  The  diameter  of 
those  running  into  the  fire-box  appears  to  vary  from  15  to  18  inches, 
and  that  of  the  lower  tiers  from  7  to  9  inches.  They  can  hardly  there- 
fore be  called  "'tubular  boilers,"  in  our  sense  of  the  word.  A  few  are 
made  with  circular  flues  behind  the  furnaces,  and  then  a  mass  of  small 
tubes  over,  returning  the  draft  to  the  front  of  the  boiler.  This  makes 
the  small  tubes  a  great  length.  In  the  Baltimore  they  are  3§  inches 
inside  diameter  and  16  feet  6  inches  long,  and,  as  wood  is  used,  do  not, 
we  presume,  choke  up. 

They  may  be  divided  into  two  distinct  classes :  tbose  in  which  the 
return  flues  are  over  the  furnaces,  and  those  in  which  they  are  below 
them.  The  latter  are  called  "drop-flue"  boilers,  and  we  have  engraved 
one  of  the  Franklin's  boilers  as  a  specimen.  The  following  particulars 
of  her  will  be  found  useful : — 

The  Franklin  merchant  steamer,  running  between  New  York  and 
Havre,  engines  and  boilers  designed  and  constructed  by  Stillman, 
Allen,  and  Co.,  New  York. 

it.    In. 
Length  on  deck . .  . .         . .  . .         . .     263    0 

Breadth  of  beam  ..  ..  ..  ..        41   10 

Depth  of  hold  26    0 

Tonnage  ..  ..  ..         2,410  tons 

Average  draft  of  water  ..  ..  ..  ..        18     0 

Two  side  lever  engines 

Diameter  of  cylinders    . .  . .  . .  . .  7     9 

Length  of  stroke  . .  . .         . .         . .         8    0 

Diameter  of  paddle-wheels        . .  . .  . .        32    2 

Length  of  paddles  . .  . .  . .  . .        118 

■Depth  of  do.  2     0 

Number  of  paddles  in  each  wheel         . .  28 

Average  dip  of  wheel     ..  ..  ..  .  6     9 

Average  number  of  revolutions  . .  13 

Average  pressure  of  steam        . .  . .  15  lbs. 

Cutting  off  at 3     0 

Four  iron  boilers  (back  to  back) 

Whole  amount  of  fire  surface   . .  . .  . .  8,528  sq.  ft. 

„  „  grate  300    „ 

Ratio  of  fire  surface  to  cubic  foot  of  cylinder,  1  1-ft  to  1 

„         grate  surface  . .  . .  28^  to  1 

Area  of  1st  flues  ..  ..  ..  ..        57  sq.  ft. 

„       2nd  „ 46      „ 


Area  of  3rd  flues 43J  sq.  ft. 

„        chimney  50       „ 

Height  of  do.  above  grate         . .  . .  . .        63  ft. 

Consumption  of  bituminous  coal  per  hour      . .  6,160  lbs. 

Water  evaporated  by  1  lb.  of  coal        . .  . .  5     „ 

Coal  per  hour  to  square  foot  of  grate  . .  . .        20£  „ 

Fig.  4  is  longitudinal  section,  and  fig.  4  a  a  transverse  section  of  one 
of  the  boilers.  As  an  apparatus  for  utilizing  a  given  quantity  of  heat, 
we  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  this  arrangement  of  flues  is 
superior  to  our  ordinary  tubular  boilers,  where  the  greatest  heat  is  ap- 
plied at  the  bottom,  and  the  tubes  are  surrounded  with  a  mixture  of 
water  and  steam  generated  by  the  furnaces.  In  these  boilers,  the  furnaces 
are  unusually  capacious  (as  if  intended  for  burning  wood),  and  the 
heat  is  applied  near  the  water-level,  so  that  the  steam  has  but  a  short 
distance  to  rise  before  it  escapes  from  the  water,  and  the  water-level 
has  an  extended  area.  The  draft  descends  as  the  air  becomes  cooler, 
so  that  the  caloric  is  effectually  abstracted  by  the  colder  water  at  the 
bottom  of  the  boiler.  This  advantage,  however,  is  not  obtained  with- 
out a  drawback.  How  a  fresh  tube  is  to  be  got  in  without  cutting  the 
boiler  to  pieces,  Mr.  Bartol  does  not  inform  us.  Access  is  obtained  to 
the  smoke  boxes  by  making  the  top  and  bottom  rows  of  tubes  of  such 
a  diameter  that  a  man  can  pass  through  them ;  but  the  space  is  too 
confined  to  admit  of  doing  much  in  them.  As  regards  strength,  this 
boiler  is  dependent  upon  stays  for  the  sides  and  tops  of  the  furnaces ; 
but  there  is  no  difficulty  in  applying  them.  Owing  to  the  great  height 
of  the  furnaces,  the  water-level  is  necessarily  high,  and  very  little  room 
is  left  for  steam,  the  steam -chest,  although  high,  having  very  little  ca- 
pacity. The  cylindrical  form  of  the  shell  renders  it  independent  of  stays, 
except  for  the  ends.  This  form,  however,  does  not  appear  to  be 
generally  adopted,  the  furnace  end  being  commonly  made  with  flat 
sides  and  bottom,  to  give  more  room  in  the  furnaces.  It  will  be  re- 
marked, that  the  evaporation  appears  very  small,  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  this  is  very  doubtful,  as  there  is  no  knowing  whether  the 
point  of  cut-off  is  adhered  to ;  nor  is  there  any  allowance  made  for 
blowing  off. 

With  this  boiler  we  may  contrast  one  also  constructed  with  a  cy- 
lindrical shell,  by  Messrs.  Penn  and  Son,  for  H.M.S.  Hydra. 

This  vessel  is  818  tons,  and  has  a  pair  of  side  lever  engines  by  Messrs. 
Boulton  and  Watt,  of  220  horse  nominal  power.  Cylinders  about  56 
inches  diameter  X  5  feet  stroke,  and  make  16|  revolutions.  From  the 
new  Edition  of  Tredgold  on  the  Steam  Engine,  we  learn  that  the  shells 
are  9  feet  10  inches  diameter  X  16  ft.  8  in.  long.  Each  contains  398 
tubes,  2f  inches  diameter,  and  5  ft.  3  in.  long.  Furnaces  2  ft.  8  in. 
diameter. 
Heating  surface  in  tubes  ..  ..    2619.825 

Do  in  furnaces  . .     429.686 

Total  heating  surface        . .         . .    3049.511=13.861  per  horse  power 

Grate  bar  surface 117.730=5.35  do. 

10 


70 


The  Smoke  Question. 


[April, 


Water  surface  262.208  square  ft.=2.227  per  sq.  ft.  of  grate  bar  surface. 
Steam  room     471.796  =4.007  do.  do. 

Weight  of  water  992.376  cubic  feet=27-72  tons. 
Contents  of  boilers,  2530.32=11.04  cubic  feet  per  horse  power. 

Fig.  5  is  a  side  elevation,  and  fig.  5  a  a  transverse  section  at  the  fur- 
naces and  tubes,  at  a  scale  of  jg  inch  to  a  foot.  This  boiler  requires 
fewer  stays  than  any  other  tubular  marine  boiler  we  have  yet  seen. 
The  furnaces,  a  a,  as  well  as  the  shell,  are  cylindrical,  and  the  small 
diameter  of  the  former  would  enable  them  to  resist  a  high  pressure. 
The  arrangement  of  the  furnaces  in  two  tiers  allows  of  a  large  area  of 
fire-grate  being  obtained  in  a  narrow  width  of  shell.  The  position  of 
the  tubes  across  the  boiler,  makes  them  as  accessible  as  in  an  ordinary 
boiler,  and  they  can  be  renewed  with  equal  facility. 

Leaving  other  points  out  of  consideration,  Mr.  Penn's  boiler  is  evi- 
dently stronger  than  the  American  form ;  and  a  good  high  pressure 
marine  boiler  is  the  great  desideratum. 

Whilst  on  this  subject  we  may  remark  on  an  extraordinary  instance 
of  the  way  in  which  our  American  friends  tempt  Providence,  as  re- 
ported in  a  late  number  of  the  Franklin  Journal.  A  boiler  of  5  feet 
diameter  was  constructed  at  the  factory  of  Messrs.  J.  P.  Morris  and  Co. 
for  a  steam-boat,  and  designed  to  work  at  100  lbs.  on  the  square  inch. 

The  shell  was  .3  of  an  inch,  or  bare  -j|  thick,  but  that  is  a  trifle  com- 
pared with  what  follows.  A  steam  chest  4  feet  diameter  was  put  on, 
and  a  hole  4  feet  diameter  cut  out  of  the  shell,  almost  cutting  it  in 
halves.  It  was  being  proved  in  the  shop  to  150  lbs.  by  getting  up 
steam,  and  just  after  that  pressure  had  been  attained,  it  exploded  and 
killed  two  people.  The  hole  in  the  shell  might  have  been  18  inches 
in  diameter,  and  would  then  have  been  ample  as  far  as  regards  the 
passage  of  the  steam,  unless,  as  is  most  probable,  there  was  little  steam 
room  in  the  shell,  and  then,  carrying  the  steam  through  such  a  limited 
area,  might  have  induced  priming.  In  this  case  an  additional  pipe 
might  have  been  taken  from  over  the  furnaces,  where  the  production  of 
steam  was  most  vigorous  to  the  top  of  the  steam-chest,  or  a  perforated 
pipe  on  Hawthorn's  plan  might  have  been  used — anything,  in  short, 
rather  than  commit  such  a  monstrous  error  as  cutting  a  4  foot  hole  in  a 
5  foot  boiler.  A  still  better  plan,  which  we  adopt  with  land  boilers,  if 
of  extra  length,  is  to  put  two  steam-chests  of  moderate  diameter,  so  as 
to  take  the  steam  off  quietly  from  each  end  of  the  boiler. 


THE  SMOKE  QUESTION". 

(Continued  from  page  60.) 

THE    SELF-FEEDING    FURNACES    OF    MONS.    MOUXFARINE. 

Illustrated  by  Plate  5. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  several  self-feeding  furnaces,  which  ac- 
complish both  a  saving  of  fuel  and  a  prevention  of  smoke,  but  which 
have  the  defects  of  complexity  and  great  expense.  The  one  least 
liable  to  these  objections  is  Brunton's  revolving  grate,  an  improved 
form  of  which  was  constructed  for  the  Bank  of  England  by  Messrs. 
Boulton  and  Watt,  which  has  worked  there  since  1843  with  great  ad- 
vantage. The  objection  peculiar  to  this  plan  is,  that  it  requires  a 
fire-box,  which  there  is  no  difficulty  in  applying  to  a  low  pressure 
boiler,  but  which  becomes  expensive  and  hazardous  when  constructed 
so  as  to  resist  high  pressures.  Boilers  with  internal  furnaces  now 
have  the  general  preference  in  this  country,  and  we  are  not  aware  of 
any  variety  except  the  locomotive  boiler,  which  combines  adequate 
strength  with  facility  for  the  adoption  of  the  revolving  furnace.  A 
boiler,  combining  these  requisites,  is  a  desideratum  which  it  is  left  to 
some  future  inventor  to  supply.  In  the  mean  time  we  take  this  op- 
portunity of  introducing  to  our  readers  a  modification  of  Brunton's 
grate,  which  has  been  devised  and  constructed  in  a  very  complete 


manner  by  Mons.  Moulfarine,  engineer,  of  Paris.  For  the  drawing 
and  description  we  are  indebted  to  Mons.  Armengaud,  C.E. 

In  the  instance  before  us,  the  revolving  grate  is  applied  to  a  boiler, 
having  two  generators  below  the  shell,  which  is  commonly  used  on  the 
continent,  and  is  well  calculated  for  high  pressures.  (See  p.  260,  vol. 
1851.)  Fig.  1  is  a  front  elevation ;  fig.  2  a  longitudinal  section  ;  and 
fig.  3  a  transverse  section.  The  fire  bars,  a,  form  a  circular  grate, 
and  their  ends  rest  on  a  cast  iron  ring  attached  to  a  wrought  iron 
funnel,  b.  The  weight  of  the  grate  is  sustained  by  arms  within  the 
ring,  having  a  centre  boss,  c,  which  carries  a  brass  bush,  and  revolves 
upon  the  fixed  spindle,  d.  This  spindle  is  hollow  for  its  entire  length, 
and  a  small  jet  of  steam  is  admitted  through  it  by  means  of  a  pipe  e, 
communicating  with  the  boiler.  This  jet  of  steam,  which,  if  the  bear- 
ing be  properly  fitted,  will  be  but  small  in  amount,  serves  to  lubricate 
the  bearing  and  keep  it  clear  of  dust.  The  bottom  of  the  funnel  has 
a  cylindrical  form,  and  is  kept  in  position  by  cast  iron  arms  and  a  boss, 
moving  on  the  upright  spindle  d.  The  bottom  of  the  spindle  is 
carried  by  a  frame  g,  all  of  these  parts  being  so  arranged  as  to  offer  as 
little  obstruction  as  possible  to  the  passage  of  the  air  through  the 
funnel  to  the  bars.  In  order  to  prevent  the  leakage  of  air  round  the 
funnel,  a  ring  is  attached  to  it,  which  revolves  in  a  channel  filled  with 
sand,  as  at  h;  motion  is  given  to  the  grate  by  means  of  a  pair  of  bevil 
wheels,  as  at  i,  connected  by  a  strap  and  fast  and  loose  pulleys  to  any 
convenient  prime  mover. 

To  facilitate  the  removal  and  renewal  of  any  of  the  parts,  a  cast 
iron  plate  k  k  is  bolted  on  the  front  of  the  brick-work.  The  front  of 
the  furnace  is  bolted  to  this,  so  that  by  loosing  a  few  bolts,  it  can 
be  removed  and  access  obtained  to  the  interior.  Ordinary  fire-doors, 
as  m  m  serve  to  fire  by,  before  steam  is  got  up  and  the  engine  is  started ; 
when  that  is  effected,  the  feeding  apparatus  is  thrown  in  gear. 

The  feeding  apparatus  consists  of  a  conical  grooved  roller,  o,  re- 
volving in  a  coal  hopper,  p,  and  driven  by  the  bevil  wheels  and  gear- 
ing, r.  The  supply  of  coal  is  adjusted  by  means  of  the  slider  s,  moved 
by  a  screw  to  give  the  due  amount  of  opening.  The  connection  be- 
tween the  hopper  and  the  fire  may  be  entirely  shut  off,  by  means  of 
the  damper,  t.  The  roller,  by  its  revolution,  breaks  the  coal  to  an 
uniform  size,  if  it  be  too  large,  and  its  conical  form  distributes  it 
equally  over  the  surface  of  the  grate,  the  greater  diameter  of  the  cone 
feeding  the  coal  faster  on  that  part  of  the  grate  which,  being  nearer 
the  circumference,  revolves  at  the  greatest  velocity. 

M.  Armengaud  states  that  the  form  of  the  funnel  below  the  fire- 
bars is  found  to  distribute  the  air  advantageously  over  the  fire,  whilst 
the  perfection  of  the  combustion  is  such  that  a  considerable  saving 
over  hand-firing  is  obtained,  there  being  only  a  few  ashes  in  the  ash- 
pit. The  objection  may  be  raised  against  this  system,  that  it  consists 
of  too  many  parts.  It  will,  however,  be  observed  that  they  are  chiefly 
of  cast  iron,  and  not  liable  to  be  burnt  out.  At  any  rate,  it  is  more 
simple  than  Juckes',  and  we  are  confident  may  be  made  as  efficient 
and  much  more  durable. 


FREMY'S  PATENT  GLASS  PAPER  MAKING  MACHINE. 

The  rapid  spread  of  machinery  has  created  a  vast  demand  for  the 
apparently  insignificant  articles  of  glass  and  emery  paper  and  cloth, 
and  we  believe  we  are  correct  in  saying  that  a  large  fortune  has  been 
made  by  one  firm  to  whom  the  credit  of  introducing  the  emery  cloth 
is  due.  The  machine  we  are  about  to  describe  appears  adapted  for 
the  manufacture  of  emery  paper  rather  than  of  cloth,  and  will  be 
found  interesting  to  our  readers,  many  of  whom,  probably,  like  our 
selves,  have  used  that  article,  so  useful  in  the  workshop,  by  the  quire, 
without  ever  thinking  how  it  was  made.  The  machine  we  are  about 
to  describe  is  that  constructed  by  M.  Fre'rny,  of  Paris. 


1852.J 


Lacoris  Patent  Improvements  in  Lowering  Ships'  Boats. 


71 


Machine-made  paper,  as  some  of  our  readers  may  not  know,  is  pro- 
duced in  a  continuous  web,  which,  for  ordinary  purposes,  is  cut  up 
into  the  desired  size  by  a  cutting-machine.  In  the  case  before  us  it 
is  kept  in  its  continuous  form,  but  cut  to  a  suitable  width  for  the 
"  emerising"  machine.  (N.B.  This  word  has  been  unaccountably  left 
out  of  all  the  editions  of  Dr.  Johnson's  Dictionary  that  we  have  been 
able  to  find.)  In  this  machine  it  has  to  undergo  the  following  pro- 
cesses : — First,  it  is  smeared  with  size ;  secondly,  the  superfluous  size 
is  wiped  off;  thirdly,  the  emery,  or  glass,  is  distributed  over  the  sized 
surface ;  fourthly,  the  superfluous  emery  is  shaken  off;  fifthly,  the 
web  of  paper  is  cut  into  sheets,  and,  sixthly,  these  sheets  are  deposited 
in  a  receptacle  provided  for  that  purpose.  A  glance  at  the  drawing 
will  show  how  these  operations  are  performed. 

Figure  6  is  an  elevation  of  the  machine,  in  section ;  a  is  the  web  of 
paper  mounted  on  a  roller,  from  whence  it  travels  in  the  direction  in- 
dicated by  the  arrows  over  the  rollers  c  c,  with  which  it  is  kept  in 
contact  by  a  third  roller  over  and  between  them. 

These  two  rollers  are  covered  with  felt  and  dip  into  a  vessel 
containing  the  size.  This  vessel  has  a  double  bottom,  the  lower  part 
communicating  by  two  pipes,  e  e,  with  a  hot  water-bath,  i,  which  is 
heated  by  a  lamp,  and  serves  to  keep  the  size  hot  in  the  vessel  before- 
mentioned,  and  also  in  the  reservoir  of  size,  d.  The  paper  thus 
smeared  with  size  passes  between  a  roller  and  the  rubber,  y,  which 
removes  the  superfluous  size  which  drops  into  the  vessel  beneath. 
The  rubber  is  made  of  an  elastic  material,  and  is  covered  with  felt. 
The  paper  then  passes  in  the  line,  h  h,  over  a  table,  where  the  sand  or 
emery  is  distributed  over  it  from  the  hopper,  m,  which  is  provided 
with  an  adjusting  plate  at  the  lower  extremity  to  enable  the  supply 
to  be  regulated.  A  wire  screen,  x,  prevents  any  coarse  particles  from 
passing. 

The  paper  is  then  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  revolving  brush, 
n,  which  shakes  off  the  superfluous  material,  which  falls  into  the 
receiver,  p.  The  rollers,  o  o,  perform  the  measuring  and  cutting 
operations,  one  of  them  being  furnished  with  the  cutters,  s  s,  and  the 
other  with  corresponding  grooves.  As  the  paper  passes  between  the 
rollers,  it  is  divided  transversely  by  the  cutters,  each  sheet  being  of 
course  equal  in  length  to  half  the  circumference  of  the  cutting  roller, 
and  the  sheets  thus  formed  fall  into  the  receiver,  r.  This  has  two 
compartments,  and  can  be  moved  on  its  lower  corner  so  as  to  bring 
either  of  them  into  the  requisite  position  to  suit  the  delivery  of  the 
sheets.  A  self-acting  motion  is  given  by  means  of  a  balance  weight, 
which  is  lifted  by  the  weight  of  the  sheets  in  one  compartment,  and 
releases  a  detent  which  allows  the  receiver  to  fall  over,  and  the  sheets 
to  be  removed,  whilst  the  other  compartment  is  filling.  As  the  paper 
is  damp  when  it  reaches  the  cutters,  and  would  not  readily  keep  in 
shape,  two  fingers  are  provided,  one  at  each  end  of  the  grooved 
cylinder,  o,  which  take  into  the  grooves,  and,  in  the  revolution  of  the 
cylinder,  press  the  paper  firmly  against  it.  They  are  acted  upon  by 
a  weight,  which  is  released  just  at  the  moment  when  it  is  required  to 
permit  the  paper  to  fall  on  the  inclined  plane  of  the  receiver. 

The  material  which  accumulates  in  the  receiver,  p,  is  in  some  of 
the  machines  removed  by  an  Archimedean  screw,  and  so  raised  into 
the  hopper,  to  be  used  over  again. 

All  the  rollers  are  of  course  connected  together  by  wheelwork,  to 
give  them  the  requisite  velocity  and  direction.  It  is  obvious  that, 
in  setting  the  machine  to  work,  a  length  of  paper  equal  to  the  distance 
between  the  first  and  last  rollers,  must  be  passed  through  the  machine 
before  it  can  be  started.  In  order,  therefore,  to  save  this  piece  of 
paper  from  being  wasted,  the  cutting  roller  is  thrown  out  of  gear, 
and  the  sand  shut  off,  so  that  it  passes  through  without  being  cut  or 
sanded,  and  being  of  a  stronger  kind,  it  can  be  used  over  and  over 
again,  by  being  glued  on  the  beginning  of  the  fresh  web  of  paper. 


Instead  of  using  a  roll  of  paper  as  a,  it  may  be  fed  in,  so  that  before 
the  end  of  the  web  has  passed  into  the  machine,  a  fresh  web  can  be 
glued  on,  so  as  not  to  stop  the  machine,  except  in  the  case  of  an  acci- 
dental breakage  of  the  paper. 

LACON'S  PATENT  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  LOWERING 

SHIPS'  BOATS. 
We  have  often  had  occasion  to  remark  on  the  difficulty  with  which 
mechanical  improvements  are  introduced  into  either  the  Royal  or 
Mercantile  Navy.  Even  on  board  steamers,  where  engineers  might 
be  supposed  to  reign  supreme,  their  attempt  to  ameliorate  any  of  the 
contrivances  beyond  the  engine-room,  is  usually  looked  upon  as  a 
most  "  unwarrantable  intrusion,"  as  the  play  bills  have  it.  No  matter 
how  well  anything  succeeds  on  shore,  it  is  of  no  use  establishing  the 
fact  in  arguing  with  the  nautical  man.  "  It  will  never  do  at  sea,  Sir," 
with  a  wise  shake  of  the  head,  extinguishes  all  argument.  Take  the 
case  in  point,  the  lowering  of  ships'  boats.  Any  man  of  ordinary  me- 
chanical skill  could  strike  out  half-a-dozen  ways  of  doing  it  efficiently, 
so  as  to  fulfil  all  the  desired  conditions,  that  it  should  be  lowered  on  an 
even  keel,  be  perfectly  under  command,  and  be  released,  if  required, 
at  the  moment  of  touching  the  water.  In  fact,  we  will  make  bold  to 
say,  that  it  has  been  done,  and  we  have  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  when 
Mr.  Lacon's  plan  is  fairly  before  the  public,  more  than  one  claimant 
will  start  up  and  assert  his  right  to  be  considered  the  original  inven- 
tor. It  is  only  when  some  terrible  accident  like  the  loss  of  the  Amazon 
arouses  public  indignation  that  any  attention  is  ever  paid  to  such 
things,  and  then  it  proves,  only  too  often,  but  a  temporary  fuss,  which 
soon  dies  away  and  the  popular  fancy  meets  with  some  fresh  attrac- 
tion. Such  a  body  as  the  Board  of  Trade  ought  not  to  allow  this 
question  to  remain  unsettled.  If  they  have  power,  they  ought  to  use 
it ;  if  they  have  not,  it  ought  to  be  given  them.  Mr.  Lacon,  in  an 
able  pamphlet,*  has  analyzed  the  evidence  on  the  loss  of  the  Orion  and 
the  Amazon,  and  described  the  plans  which  he  has  recently  patented 
for  lowering  ships'  boats  with  safety. 

The  following  extract  from  the  Times  will  show  the  manner  in 
which  an  entirely  new  steamer,  "  constructed  with  all  the  most  recent 
improvements,"  as  the  newspapers  tell  us,  is  fitted  as  regards  the  lower- 
ing of  the  boats : — 

"  January  8. — The  mail-boat,  when  lowered,  was  immediately  swamped, 
with  about  twenty- five  people  in  her,  all  of  whom  were  lost.  The  pinnace, 
when  lowered,  sheered  across  the  sea  before  the  people  in  her  could  unhook 
the  fore-tackle.  They  were  thereby  washed  out,  and  the  boat  remained 
hanging  by  the  bow.  While  clearing  away  the  second  cutter,  a  sea  struck 
her  and  raised  her  off  the  cranes  and  unhooked  the  bow-tackle.  The  fore- 
end  immediately  fell  down,  and  the  people  in  her,  with  the  exception  of 
two,  who  hung  doubled  over  the  thwarts,  were  precipitated  into  the  sea  and 
drowned. 

"  The  boats  of  the  Amazon  were  fitted  with  iron  cranes  or  crutches  on 
which  their  keels  rested ;  these  fittings  obstructed  their  clearance  from  the 
ship,  and  but  for  this  fatal  arrangement  the  serious  loss  of  life  would  have 
been  lessened. 

"  The  two  best  boats  were  stowed  on  the  top  of  the  sponsons,  where  the 
flames  prevented  approach.  After  the  Amazon  was  put  about  she  went  at 
the  rate  of  twelve  or  thirteen  knots,  dead  before  the  wind.  One  boat  on  the 
starboard-side,  the  second  cutter,  was  full  of  people  when  the  wash  of  the 
sea  unhooked  the  foremost  tackle;  she  held  on  by  the  stern  tackle,  and  her 
stem  falling  into  the  sea,  all  except  two  were  drowned  in  consequence  of  the 
ship's  speed.  The  pinnace  was  observed  on  the  port  side,  towing  by  the 
fore-tackle,  behind  the  burning  ship,  and  as  no  one  cut  the  tow-rope  the 
miserable  passengers,  who  were  all  huddled  together,  were,  one  after  the 
other,  washed  into  the  sea.  The  mail-boat,  which  was  also  full  of  people, 
having  shipped  a  quantity  of  water,  went  down  alongside. 


*  On  the  Management  of  Ships'  Bouts,  hy  W.  S.  Lacon,  H.  C.  S.    London :  Tarker, 
Furnivall  and  Parker. 


72 


Lacoris  Patent  Improvements  in  Lowering  Ships  Boats. 


[April, 


"  Some  of  those  who  escaped  first  attempted  to  get  possession  of  the  best 
life-boat,  placed  nearer  amidships,  but  lost  so  much  time  in  their  vain  efforts 
to  remove  her  from  the  cranes  or  crutches  that  the  approaching  flames  drove 
them  off,  and  they  then  took  to  the  after  life-boat,  in  which  they  left  the 
ship." 

The  case  of  the  Amazon  was,  no  doubt,  an  extreme  one,  but  it  is 
just  such  a  case  as  might  occur  again  any  day,  and  we  therefore,  ought 
not  to  rest  satisfied  with  anything  less  than  perfect  efficiency  under 
even  the  most  unfavourable  circumstances.  The  Report  of  the  Naval 
Members  of  the  Board  of  Trade  on  the  loss  of  the  Amazon,  just  pub- 
lished, contains  the  following  recommendation  : — 

"  The  fatal  consequences  of  this  obstruction   (the  cranes),  have 


boats,  we  may  advert  to  the  lamentable  loss  of  life,  which  was  occa- 
sioned by  some  of  the  boats  being  improperly  lowered,  and  by  the 
tackles  not  being  readily  unhooked.  The  means  of  lowering  boats 
evenly,  and  of  readily  disengaging  the  tackles,  together  with  plugs*  that 
are  self-acting,  are  desiderata  wanting  throughout  the  naval  service." 

After  this  candid  acknowledgment,  the  Board  of  Trade  will  be  self- 
convicted,  if  they  hesitate  any  longer  to  insist  on  a  remedy  being 
applied. 

The  following  engravings  will  explain  Mr.  Lacon's  arrangement. 
Fig.  1  is  a  side  elevation  of  the  bulwark  and  lowering  machinery,  looking 
from  inside  the  ship.  Fig.  2,  a  transverse  section  ol  the  boat,  davits,  and 
gear.  Fig.  3  is  an  enlarged  view  of  the  friction  brake  and  pall-barrel. 

6 


Fig.  I. 


been  shown  in  the  evidence,  and  we  should  hope  the  use  of  these 
cranes,  or  of  any  contrivance  which  obstructs  the  ready  lowering  of 
boats,  may  be  forthwith  discontinued.     While  upon  the  subject  of  the 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  2. 

The  hoisting  and  lowering  gear  consists  of  a  single-purchase  crab, 
on  the  main  spindle  of  which  are  two  chain  barrels,  a  friction  brake, 
and  a  pall  barrel. 

The  boat  may  be  hoisted  up  as  usual,  with  tackles ;  while  suspended, 
two  broad  slings,  having  a  ring  at  each  end,  are  to  be  passed  round 
and  underneath  the  bow  and  quarter  of  the  boat ;  one  end  of  each 
sling  is  made  fast  to  a  suspending  chain  or  rope,  whilst  the  other  end 
is  also  secured  to  the  suspending  chain  by  a  lashing,  as  shown  at  a, 
fig.  2.  These  suspending  chains  are  carried  over  sheaves  in  the  davits, 
to  the  concave  barrels,  b  6,  in  each  of  which  there  is  a  pin  over  which 
the  last  link  of  the  chain  is  placed.  These  barrels  are  fixed  on  the 
main  spindle  of  the  crab,  which  works  in  standards  fixed  to  the 
deck  and  bulwarks.  In  the  centre  of  the  spindle  is  the  brake  and  pall- 
wheel,  having  a  brake  handle,  c,  and  a  pall-handle,  d,  which  are  se- 
cured by  a  pin,  e,  which  can  only  be  removed  by  a  key  as  will  be 
presently  noticed. 

The  chains  having  been  hove  taut  by  means  of  the  crab-handle  and 
the  pall  thrown  in  gear,  the  tackles  may  be  removed  and  the  boat  left 
hanging  by  the  chains.  It  is  proposed  that  a  painter  shall  be  attached, 
at  all  times,  by  one  end  to  the  bow  of  the  boat  by  two  half-hitches, 
and  by  the  other  end  by  two  half-hitches  to  the  ship,  and  that  the 
lashings  by  which  the  boat  is  secured  to  the  ships'  side  when  at  sea, 
shall  be  passed  round  small  timber  heads  on  the  bulwarks,  instead 

*  Lieutenant  Stevens'  very  simple  and  effectual  contrivance  for  this  purpose  'will  be 
found  illustrated  at  p.  259,  vol.  1850. 


1852.] 


Fresh  Water  Apparatus,  and  Fire -Engine  for  Ships   Use. 


73 


of  as  now,  lashing  them  to  eye-bolts  in  the  ship ;  they  may  thus 
be  easily  thrown  off,  cut,  or  let  go.  The  following  we  quote  from  Mr. 
Lacon  : — 

"  Whenever  the  order  may  be  given  to  lower  a  boat,  two  men,  having 
thrown  off  the  '  nose-lashing'  and  the  lashing  of  the  '  gripes,'  will  get 
into  the  boat,  and  having  cast  off  some  of  the  turns  of  the  lashing  of 
the  slings,  will  hold  the  ends  in  their  hands  in  readiness,  while  a  third 
man  will  take  his  station  at  the  lever  of  the  friction  strap  or  gripe. 

"  When  the  men  in  the  boat  are  ready,  the  man  inboard,  withdraw- 
ing the  bolt,  pressing  forwards  the  lever  of  the  friction  strap  or  gripe, 
and  lifting  the  pall  from  the  ratchet-wheel  by  throwing  back  its  handle 
or  lever  into  a  self-acting  catch,  may,  by  regulating  the  action  of  the 
friction  strap,  lower  the  boat  slowly  or  quickly,  irrespective  of  any 
weight  that  maybe  in  her;  and  when  the  boat  reaches  the  water,  if  the 
men  in  the  boat  let  slip  the  lashing  of  the  slings,  the  boat  will  be 
clear,  and  the  slings  and  chains  may  be  hove  back  into  the  ship  by 
means  of  the  winch. 

"  But  in  cases  of  emergency,  when,  either  from  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  ship  may  be  going  through  the  water,  from  a  heavy  sea, 
through  want  of  time,  or  from  people  rushing  into  the  boats,  it  may  be 
dangerous  to  cast  off  the  lashing  of  the  slings,  or  if  in  attempting  to  let 
go  the  lashings  of  the  slings,  either  of  them  should  foul,  then,  if  the 
friction  strap  be  slackened  when  the  boat  reaches  the  water,  the 
weight  of  the  chains  and  the  resistance  of  the  boat  will  pull  round  the 
barrels,  and  the  ends  of  the  chains  not  being  fast,  will  slip  from  off 
the  projecting  pins  of  their  respective  barrels,  and  will  be  lowered 
into  the  water,  being  prevented  from  going  down  by  the  run  by  means 
of  two  small  lines,  the  loop  or  eye  at  the  end  of  each  slipping  from  off 
the  pin,  when  the  turns  of  the  lines  have  run  off  the  barrels,  and  the 
boat,  as  before,  will  be  free  of  its  connection  with  the  ship. 

"  The  boat  will  now  ride  alongside  in  safety,  by  means  of  the  painter, 
and  the  slings  and  chains  may  be  hauled  into  the  boat ;  or,  if  the  lash- 
ings of  the  slings  be  cut  or  let  go.  the  slings  and  chains  will  sink  into 
the  water,  clear  of  the  boat. 

"  By  suspending  the  boat,  in  the  manner  thus  described,  with  two 
stretchers  to  prevent  the  slings  pressing  in  the  gunwales,  the  straining 
of  the  boat  at  the  tackles,  a  matter  so  much  dreaded  by  the  shipowner, 
is  guarded  against,  the  use  of  '  chocks,'  '  keel-cranes,'  and  '  crutches' 
is  dispensed  with,  and  the  boat  cannot,  as  is  the  case  in  lowering  with 
the  tackles,  cant  to  one  side  or  the  other,  but  must  go  down  into  the 
water  upon  an  even  floor.  By  having  the  after-chain  a  few  inches 
longer  than  the  other,  the  boat  would  drop  sufficiently  by  the  stern 
(while  hanging  at  the  davits)  to  ensure  any  water  running  out  at  the 
plug-hole,  and  moreover  in  lowering,  it  would  cause  her  stern  to  strike 
the  water  first. 

"  In  going  into  harbour  or  into  dock,  or  in  the  event  of  ships  coming 
in  contact  with  ice,  when  it  is  necessary  that  the  boats  should  be 
swung  inboard,  if  slings  have  been  passed  from  forward,  aft,  and  vice 
versa,  crossing  under  the  bottom  of  the  boat,  the  inner  end  of  each 
sling  being  attached  to  the  suspending  chain,  and  the  outer  or  un- 
attached ends  being  secured  to  the  suspending  chains  by  a  lashing, 
the  boat  may  be  swung  inboard  by  the  suspending  chains. 

"  As  regards  the  boats'  covers,  which  you  are  aware  are  only  neces- 
sary in  hot  climates,  but  which,  in  the  navy,  are  removed  every  night, 
and  which,  by  the  present  system — being  frequently  lashed  to  the  boat 
underneath  .'■ — must  necessarily  be  an  obstacle  to  the  speedy  '  clearing- 
away  of  the  boats,' — I  propose  that  they  shall  be  laced  above,  from  the 
stem  to  the  stern,  the  gripes  being  passed  over  all. 

"  In  cases  of  emergency,  the  cover  thus  secured,  might  be  lowered 
with  the  boat,  and  if  the  lacing  be  cut,  even  when  the  boat  is  in  the 
water,  the  weight  of  the  wet  cover,  being  over  and  outside  the  slings, 
would  cause  it  to  sink  clear  of  her." 


All  these  mechanical  improvements  will,  however,  be  of  little  avail 
unless  a  proper  routine  of  duty  is  maintained.  Mr.  Lacon  proposes 
that  the  officers  only  should  be  entrusted  with  the  keys  for  throwing 
the  palls  out  of  gear,  to  prevent  panic-struck  passengers  from  seizing 
them  by  main  force. 

He  also  suggests  "  that  it  be  made  law,  that  after  the  ship  has  put 
to  sea,  the  mate,  every  night  before  dark,  shall  report  to  the  captain 
(and  that  the  same  shall  be  entered  in  the  log),  that  nothing  is  in  the 
boats  except  what  belongs  to  the  boats,  that  the  painters  are  rove,  the 
oars  in  the  boats  and  lashed,  and  that  the  plugs  are  in  their  places— 
that  the  boats  are  in  an  efficient  state,  and  that  everything  appertain- 
ing to  them  is  ready  for  the  most  critical  emergency." 

We  trust  to  see  this  plan,  thus  mechanically  worked  out,  have  a 
speedy  and  satisfactory  trial,  that  public  feeling  may  not  again  be 
outraged  by  such  a  wholesale  sacrifice  of  human  life  as  we  have  so 
recently  experienced. 

FRESH  WATER  APPARATUS,  AND  FERE-ENGINE  FOR 

SHIPS'  USE. 

C.  W.  Copeland's  Patent. 

Illustrated  by  Plate  6. 

This  invention  is  of  a  character  which  will  prove  of  considerable  im- 
portance to  our  mercantile  navy.  It  embraces  two  distinct  objects,— 
one,  the  supply  of  fresh  water  by  distillation, — the'other,  the  extinction 
of  fire,  or  similar  purposes.  The  first  of  these  objects  has  been  already 
attained  in  our  own  and  the  French  navy,  but  not  in  combination  with 
the  second,  which  may  be  considered  the  peculiar  feature  of  Mr.  Cope- 
land's  arrangement.  The  economy  of  the  distillation  of  fresh  from 
salt  water  on  the  voyage,  depends  simply  iipon  whether  it  is  cheaper 
to  purchase  and  carry  lib.  of  coal  or  7  of  water.  In  reducing  this  to 
figures,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  fresh  water  is  not  always  readily 
obtainable  in  port,  and  has  to  be  paid  for  at  any  rate.  However  this 
may  be,  there  can  be  no  question  about  the  importance  of  being  ren- 
dered independent  of  accident,  by  having  on  board  ship  the  means  of 
supplying  any  deficiency  of  a  prime  necessary  of  life.  The  second  of 
these  objects,  the  extinction  of  fire,  has  been  recently  illustrated  in  so 
fearful  a  manner  by  the  loss  of  the  Amazon,  that  no  statement  of  ours 
is  needed  to  strengthen  the  effect.  We  need  only  add  that  the  Report 
of  the  Board  of  Trade  especially  points  out  the  importance  of  the  right 
application  of  an  auxiliary  engine  to  this  purpose.  Having  premised 
thus  much,  we  will  describe  the  arrangement  which  Mr.  Copeland  has 
adopted  in  the  vessels  of  the  United  States  navy,  and  the  operation  of 
which  we  have  had  an  opportunity  of  inspecting. 

Fig.  1,  plate  6,  represents  an  elevation,  partly  in  section,  of  a  boiler, 
steam-engine,  pump,  and  condenser,  which  occupy  but  a  very  small 
space,  and  may  be  placed  on  mid- deck. 

The  boiler,  a  a,  is  of  the  ordinary  vertical  construction.  The  only 
noticeable  peculiarity  in  it  is,  that  no  part  of  the  tubes  is  left  uncovered 
by  the  water,  and  that  the  smoke-box,  or  take-up  into  the  chimney,  is 
constructed  of  such  a  shape  as  to  give  a  better  amount  of  steam  space 
than  usual. 

b  is  the  cylinder  of  the  auxiliary  engine,  and  c  a  double-acting 
pump ;  d  is  the  condenser. 

The  steam-pipe,  e,  conveys  steam  from  the  boiler  to  the  engine,  or 
when  the  power  of  the  engine  is  not  required,  it  may  be  led  by  means 
of  the  branch  pipe,  g  g,  directly  from  the  boiler  into  the  condenser. 

The  exhaust  steam  from  the  engine  is  conveyed  by  the  pipe,  /(  h,  to 
the  condenser,  d;  or  when  the  distilling  apparatus  is  not  required,  it 
may  be  blown  into  the  chimney  by  means  of  the  pipe,  i. 

The  condenser,  d,  is  cylindrical,  and  is  divided  for  a  portion  of  its 
depth  by  a  vertical  partition.  The  steam  to  be  condensed  passes 
through  the  tufoes,  and   the  fresh  distilled  water  produced  passes 


74 


Copeland' s  Patent  Self- Regulating  Blow-off  for  Marine  Boilers. 


[April, 


through  the  filter,  m,  by  the  pipe,  n,  to  a  tank  placed  in  any  suitable 
part  of  the  ship.  Any  steam  which  may  avoid  condensation  escapes 
through  the  pipe,  o. 

The  pump,  c,  draws  water  by  the  pipe,  r,  from  the  sea,  and  delivers 
it  through  the  pipe,  p,  into  the  condenser,  where  it  passes  outside  the 
tubes  (condensing  the  steam  in  them  by  its  refrigerating  powers),  and 
through  a  space  left  at  the  bottom  of  the  partition,  by  the  course 
shown  by  the  dotted  arrows,  and  finally  escapes  overboard  by  the 
pipe,  s. 

When  the  pump  is  used  as  a  fire-engine,  the  water  is  shut  off  from 
the  condenser,  and  pumped  through  one  or  two  hoses  attached  to  the 
flange,  t. 

One  only  other  pipe  remains  to  be  noticed.  We  have  hitherto 
spoken  of  the  apparatus  as  applied  to  a  sailing  vessel ;  but  as  it  may 
be  applied  with  equal  advantage  to  steamers,  a  pipe,  x,  is  then  pro- 
vided, by  means  of  which  steam  from  the  large  boilers  may  be  con- 
ducted to  the  condenser,  and  the  distilling  go  on,  without  getting  up 
steam  in  the  auxiliary  boiler. 

A  great  advantage  in  having  an  auxiliary  boiler  is,  that  when  in 
port,  or  if  from  other  circumstances  the  large  engines  are  not  em- 
ployed, steam  may  be  got  up  in  a  very  short  time,  and  with  very  little 
trouble  and  expense,  and  the  engine  set  to  work  to  pump  out  bilge 
water,  to  fill  the  large  boilers,  or  to  act  as  a  fire-engine. 

There  are  some  points  about  the  details  of  the  engine  and  pump 
which  we  must  remark  on  in  our  next  number.  One  of  the  engines 
has  been  imported  by  Mr.  A.  P.  How,  Mr.  Copeland's  representative 
in  this  country,  which  we  have  seen  at  work.  The  volume  of  water 
thrown  by  it  is  immense,  and  both  engine  and  pump  work  perfectly 
noiselessly — -a  fact  which  we  were  not  prepared  for,  from  the  usual 
performance  of  this  arrangement  of  engine. 

This  engine  is  now  at  work  at  the  Great  Northern  Railway  station, 
King's  Cross,  and  in  our  next  we  will  give  some  account  of  its  duty. 

COPELAND'S  PATENT  SELF-REGULATING  BLOW-OFF 
FOR  MARINE  BOILERS. 

Illustrated  by  Plate  6. 

Mr.  C.  W.  Copeland,  Chief  Engineer,  United  States'  Navy,  has 
recently  patented  in  this  country  a  simple  and  efficient  blow-off  appa- 
ratus, with  a  description  of  which  he  has  favoured  us.  It  proceeds  on 
the  principle  of  making  the  supply  of  feed-water  regulate  the  amount 
of  blow-off.  In  plate  6  it  is  represented  as  applied  to  the  boilers  of 
the  Mississippi ;  fig.  2  being  a  front  elevation,  and  fig.  3  a  side  eleva- 
tion in  section.     The  following  description  is  given  by  the  author : —  • 

The  water  delivered  by  the  feed-pump  enters  through  the  pipe,  a, 
and  lifts  the  check-valve,  b,  some  certain  height,  depending  upon  the 
quantity  of  water  entering  the  boiler.  This  may  be  regulated  by  the 
nut,  c,  on  the  stem  of  the  valve,  which  is  prevented  rising  beyond  a 
certain  height  by  the  guard,  d.  On  the  stem  is  a  socket,  e,  in  which 
the  stem  of  the  blow-off  valve,  g,  works  freely.  On  this  stem  is  also 
a  regulating  nut,  h,  which  the  socket,  e,  lifts  in  rising,  and  the  blow- 
off  valve  with  it.  At  every  stroke  of  the  feed-pump,  therefore,  if 
water  be  delivered  into  the  boiler,  a  certain  fixed  quantity  is  allowed  to 
escape  by  the  blow-off  valve.  The  stop-cock,  i,  is  attached  between  the 
boiler  and  the  blow-off  valve,  for  convenience  of  shutting  off  the  com- 
munication when  it  is  desired  to  examine  the  valve,  and  a  pipe  is  led 
.from  this  to  any  part  of  the  boiler  from  which  the  blow-off  is  to  be 
taken.  The  blow-off  pipe,  m,  is  connected  to  the  ordinary  system  of 
pipes  leading  to  the  sea,  as  is  usually  practised  ;  the  air-vessel,  n,  is 
attached  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  shocks  to  the  pipe  which 
the  intermittent  action  of  the  blow-off  is  liable  to  produce.  It  is  ob- 
vious that  the  general  arrangement  may  be  varied  to  suit  circumstances. 

ADVANTAGES    OF    THIS    SYSTEM. 

1st. — It  is  the  only  apparatus  which  has  been  arranged  to  operate 


upon  correct  principles,*  as  it  is  evident  that,  to  maintain  a  given 
density  of  water  in  the  boiler,  the  quantity  blown  off  must  bear  some 
definite  fixed  relation  to  the  quantity  evaporated,  which  is  done  in  this 
case,  as  the  very  operation  of  supplying  water  for  evaporation  also  blows 
off  a  certain  quantity ;  the  pressure  of  steam  or  speed  of  engine  having 
no  effect  which  does  not  equally  affect  the  quantity  supplied. 

2nd. — The  valve  is  directly  before  the  fireman's  eye,  and,  should  it 
cease  to  operate  can  be  readily  detected. 

3rd. — It  is  constantly  in  operation,  instead  of  being  periodical,  like 
blowing  off  by  hand. 

4th. — A  necessary  result  of  the  arrangement  is,  that  if  no  water  is 
supplied  to  the  boiler,  none  is  blown  off. 

5th. — By  its  uniformity  and  regularity  of  action,  it  adds  much  to 
the  economy  of  fuel. 

It  may  be  considered  that  there  are  at  present  three  different  methods 
of  blowing  off  the  partially-saturated  water  from  marine  boilers : — 

1st. — "  Blowing  by  hand,"  in  which  the  fireman  or  engineer  blows 
off,  at  certain  intervals  of  time,  the  amount  of  water  required. 

2nd. — "  Constant  blow-off,"  in  which  a  small  blow-off  cock  is  kept 
constantly  open  to  the  extent  necessary. 

3rd. — "  Brine-pumps,"  which  are  constructed  of  fixed  dimensions, 
and  kept  constantly  in  operation  by  the  engineer. 

Let  us  now  see  what  are  the  objections  to  these  modes  of  blowing- 
off,  and  the  reader  will  be  able  to  judge  how  far  tne  objections  apply 
to  the  "  Patent  Valve." 

1st. — "Blowing  by  hand  ;"  the  water  is  not  kept  at  a  uniform  den- 
sity, and  fluctuates  between  certain  extremes,  depending  upon  the 
intervals  of  time,  and  quantity  blown ;  it  is  liable  to  accident  (as  has 
frequently  occurred),  from  carelessness  of  men,  in  neglecting  to  shut 
the  blow-off  cock  until  the  water  is  blown  out,  and  the  boiler  burned, 
and  possibly  an  explosion  ensue.  It  requires  the  constant  attention 
of  the  engineers  to  see  that  the  proper  quantity  is  blown  off,  whereas 
with  my  valve,  the  regulating  screw,  once  set  properly,  requires  no 
alteration  or  attention,  so  long  as  the  quantity  of  water  evaporated  in 
a  given  time  remains  unchanged. 

2nd. — "  Constant  blow"  makes  no  noise  in  its  operations,  and  there 
is  no  mechanical  movement  united  with  its  operations,  so  that  there 
is  no  mode  of  detecting  a  stoppage  in  the  pipe,  or  any  other  difficulty, 
except  by  a  critical  examination.  It  does  not  depend,  in  every  manner, 
upon  the  operations  of  the  engines,  and  therefore  may  carelessly  (as  has 
been  the  case)  be  left  open  after  the  engine  is  stopped,  and  thereby  the 
water  may  be  blown  below  the  flues,  or  perhaps  the  whole  be  blown  out. 

3rd. — "  Brine-pumps"  are  liable  to  the  same  objection,  in  regard  to 
knowing  of  their  operation,  as  the  "  constant  blow ;"  only  still  worse, 
as  their  operation  is  much  more  easily  deranged  than  the  "  constant 
blow."  As  the  dimensions  of  these  pumps  are  fixed  at  the  time  of  con- 
struction, they  take  from  the  boilers  a  fixed  quantity  of  water  at  each 
revolution  of  the  engine,  whether  the  evaporation  be  100  cubic  feet  per 
hour,  or  1,000  cubic  feet ;  the  quantity  of  water  taken  off  depending 
only  upon  the  velocity  at  which  the  engine  is  working,  and  this  varies 
with  drafts  of  water,  wind,  sea,  &c. ;  consequently,  if  the  dimensions 
of  the  pumps  are  sufficient  to  take  off  the  requisite  quantity  of  water 
at  the  minimum  speed  of  the  engine,  they  must  be  much  more  than 
sufficient  at  the  maximum  speed,  and  a  waste  of  fuel  is  the  necessary 
consequence. 

COPELAND'S  PATENT  METALLIC  PACKING. 

Illustrated  by  Plate  6. 

The  introduction  of  metallic  packing  for  the  pistons  of  steam-engines 
was  justly  considered  an  immense  improvement,  and  it  appears  an  ex- 
traordinary fact  that  the  same  principle  has  not  been  brought  into  use 

*  It  is  of  course  understood  that  Mr.  Copeland  is  speaking  of  the  United  States.  A  more 
complicated  arrangement,  as  used  on  hoard  the  West  India  Mail  steamers,  has  been  des- 
cribed in  the  Artizan. — Ed. 


1852.] 


Report  on  Screw  Steam  Boats,  Employed  on  the  Grand  Canal. 


75 


for  packings  generally.  The  use  of  a  sheet  brass  lining  inside  the 
ordinary  hemp-packing  was  suggested  some  years  back  in  the  Artizan ; 
but  any  plan  such  as  the  one  before  us,  which  dispenses  altogether 
with  the  use  of  hemp,  is  still  better. 

Fig.  4,  plate  6,  represents  a  section  of  a  piston-rod  stuffing-box, 
fitted  with  metallic  packing,  consisting  of  rings  of  composition  metal, 
of  a  conical  form  on  the  exterior,  and  fitted  into  a  matrix  of  a  suitable 
form,  of  wrought  or  cast-iron. 

a  a  is  a  ring  of  composition,  fitted  to  the  bottom  of  an  ordinary 
stuffing-box,  to  obtain  a  plane  surface. 

b  b  is  the  matrix,  and  c  c  c  the  packing  rings,  cut  to  allow  of  their 
contraction  as  they  wear,  and  placed  so  as  to  break  joint. 

d  d,  a  ring  of  composition  on  which  the  gland  bears  to  press  down 
the  paeking  rings. 

The  metal  of  the  rings  is  composed  of  9  parts  of  tin,  and  1  of  copper. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  matrix  and  rings  are  of  rather  smaller 
diameter  than  the  inside  of  the  stuffing-box ;  this  is  for  the  purpose  of 
allowing  the  packing  to  move  to  suit  any  irregularity  in  the  parallel 
motion  or  guides  of  the  piston-rod  cross-head.  This  packing,  which 
has  been  patented  in  the  United  States  by  Messrs.  Allen  and  Noyes, 
has  been  applied  there  to  a  number  of  steamers,  including  those  of  the 
Collins  line,  with  great  success.  It  has  also  been  in  use  for  three  years 
on  the  Albany  and  Boston  Railway,  with  the  same  good  results,  which 
must  be  regarded  as  a  severe  test  of  its  durability,  whilst  there  can  be 
no  doubt  of  its  keeping  the  rods  in  superior  condition  to  hemp  packing, 
more  particularly  with  high-pressure  steam. 

REPORT  ON  SCREW   STEAM  BOATS,  EMPLOYED   ON  THE 

GRAND  CANAL. 

By  Sir  John  Macneill,  C.E.,  F.R.S.,  &c.  &c, 

To  the  Directors   of  the   Grand   Canal  Company. 

Gentlemen, — I  regret  exceedingly  that  from  various  causes,  over 
which  I  have  no  control,  I  have  been  prevented  until  now  Irom  report- 
ing on  the  two  steam  boats  in  use  on  your  canal,  although  the  experi- 
ments made  with  them  have  been  completed  some  time  ;  hut  I  hope 
my  preliminary  examination  and  report  on  these  two  boats,  has  preven- 
ted the  inconvenience  that  would  otherwise  have  arisen  from  this 
delay,  as  it  has  enabled  you  to  order  a  boat  which,  I  have  no  doubt,  will 
be  found  more  suited  to  the  traffic  on  your  canal,  than  either  of  those 
now  employed  upon  it.  I  do  not,  however,  claim'  any  merit  for  the 
plans  or  arrangement  of  the  machinery  intended  for  this  boat,  all  of 
which  were  prepared  by  your  own  officers,  and  whatever  merit  it  may 
have  is  entirely  due  to  them  ;  all  that  I  could  do  was  to  satisfy  myself 
from  the  experiments  and  examination  of  the  two  boats,  which  was  the 
best  constructed,  and,  under  similar  circumstances,  produced  the  best 
effects,  and  to  recommend  to  you  that  form  of  construction  for  the  boat 
you  were  about  to  build,  which,  from  these  experiments  I  was  enabled 
to  do  with  perfect  confidence  ;  at  the  same  time,  I  do  not  by  any  means 
pretend  to  say,  that  a  better  form  of  boat,  and  more  efficient  machinery 
may  not  be  hereafter  constructed,  when  more  experience  and  practical 
knowledge  shall  be  obtained  by  the  working  of  these  boats;  for,  when  loco- 
motive engines  were  first  introduced  upon  railways,  they  were  very  much 
inferior  to  those  now  used ;  almost  every  one  that  has  been  since  made, 
up  to  the  present  time,  has  been  an  improvement  on  those  previously 
'  constructed,  either  in  strength,  efficiency,  or  economy  of  working ;  and 
I  have  no  doubt  but  similar,  or  at  all  events,  very  great  and  important 
improvements  will  be  made  in  steam  boats  for  canal  purposes,  when  they 
become  to  be  more  generally  used,  and  more  attention  shall  be  paid  to 
them  by  practical  men. 

In  order,  however,  to  enable  me  to  report  on  the  queries  put  to  me 
by  your  secretary  (a  copy  of  which  is  annexed  hereto),  I  thought  it 
necessary  to  make  a  careful  examination  of  the  two  boats  at  present  at 
work  on  your  canal,  and  also  to  ascertain  by  experiment  the  power  and 
capabilities  of  each  of  these  boats,  under  different  circumstances,  as  well 
in  reference  to  the  load  they  could  carry,  as  to  the  load  they  could  haul 
with  different  velocities.  In  making  this  examination  and  experiment, 
I  was  assisted  by  your  excellent  secretary,  and  intelligent  superintendent 
of  works,  Mr.  Talbot,  who  gave  me  every  information,  and  aided  me  in 
every  way  in  their  power. 


The  first  of  these  boats  which  I  examined,  called  No.  2  boat,  was 
constructed  by  Messrs.  Robinsons  and  Russell,  of  London.  It  is  built 
of  iron,'  without  ribs ;  is  60  feet  long,  and  12  feet  beam,  and  is  propelled 
by  one  screw,  driven  by  an  engine  of  the  following  dimensions : — boiler, 
2  feet  6  inches  diameter,  containing  74  tubes  of  If  inches  diameter, 
each ;  the  length  of  the  tubes  is  4  feet  6  inches,  with  two  oscillating 
cylinders  of  5i  inches  diameter,  and  15f  inches  length  of  stroke. 
Pressure  50  lbs.,  and  calculated  to  make  120  strokes  per  minute ;  the 
thickness  of  boiler  § ,  with  5  stays  of  round  f-inch  iron  to  strengthen 
the  steam  chambers. 

The  diameter  of  the  screw  is  4  feet,  width  of  blade  1  foot  11J  inches 
pitch  of  screw  6  feet,  stern  post  5f  inches  below  keel  level. 

(To  be  continued.) 

ON  PROMOTING  THE  EFFICIENCY  OF  MECHANICS' 
INSTITUTES. 
That  our  Mechanics'  Institutes  have  been  a  failure,  is  the  rule,  and  it 
would  not  be  difficult  to  point  out  the  causes  which  have  produced 
a  result  so  contrary  to  the  sanguine  expectations  of  their  founders. 
It  was  proposed  some  time  since,  by  the  editor  of  this  journal,  to 
make  the  Literary  and  Mechanics'  Institutes  throughout  the  kingdom 
the  channels  through  which  new  inventions  and  manufactures  should 
be  introduced  to  the  public.  Under  the  ordinary  system,  a  heavy 
expense  must  be  incurred  in  employing  travellers,  who  have  to  satisfy, 
not  the  wants  or  tastes  of  the  consumers,  so  much  as  the  caprice  of 
the  retail  tradesmen,  who  always  prefer  and  recommend  those  articles 
on  which  they  are  allowed  most  profit.  These  expenses  are  most  felt 
on  articles  of  moderate  price  and  class  character,  and  in  many  cases  the 
profits  on  useful  inventions,  not  admitting  of  a  very  extended  sale, 
are  swallowed  up  in  canvassing  and  advertizing. 

It  was  proposed  that  one  institute  in  each  county  should  form  the 
"  receiving  house,"  to  which  contributions  from  the  manufacturers  in 
other  counties  should  be  forwarded.  A  few  large  cities  would  form 
exceptions.  Each  article  to  be  accompanied  by  a  sufficient  number 
of  descriptive  circulars. 

Meetings  to  be  held  at  each  institute,  say  every  fortnight,  at  which 
the  merits  of  the  articles  exhibited  would  be  discussed. 

A  report  of  the  opinions  expressed  on  each  article,  to  be  forwarded 
to  the  contributor  for  his  information. 

The  articles  then  to  be  forwarded  to  the  next  institution,  and  so  on. 

General  contracts  to  be  made  with  railway  companies  to  diminish 
expenses  of  carriage. 

A  scheme  of  a  similar  character  has  been  suggested  by  Mr.  Chester, 
and  as  we  gather  from  a  circular  issued  by  the  Society  of  Arts  to  the 
various  institutes,  is  likely  to  be  worked  out.  No  public  body  has 
the  power  of  doing  it  so  effectually,  and  we  trust  to  see  some  life  in- 
fused into  all  our  Mechanics'  Institutes  through  their  agency.  The 
following  letter  by  Mr.  Chester  will  indicate  his  plan  of  operations : — 

Highgate,  November  28th,  1852. 

Sir, — Being  desirous  that  the  attention  of  the  Council  of  the  Society 
of  Arts  should  be  drawn  to  a  subject  which  I  am  persuaded  is  of  con- 
siderable importance,  and  consistent  with  the  Society's  objects,  I  beg 
leave  to  request  your  perusal  of  the  following  exposition  of  my  views, 
in  order  that,  if  you  coincide  with  me  in  the  opinion  which  I  have 
just  expressed,  you  may  take  a  fitting  opportunity  of  presenting  the 
subject  to  the  Council. 

I  have  to  propose  that  an  effort  should  be  made  to  develope  exist- 
ing, and  to  create  new,  institutions  of  the  class  commonly  called 
literary  and  scientific  institutions,  mechanics'  institutes,  &c,  and  to 
affiliate  them  on  the  Society  of  Arts. 

As  some  excuse  for  what  may  be  deemed  my  temerity  in  making 
such  a  proposal,  I  may  mention  that  I  have  had  considerable  experi- 
ence in  reference  to  national  education ;  and  that  I  was  one  of  the 
originators,  and  have  been  (from  the  origin  of  the  society)  the  presi- 
dent, of  the  Literary  and  Scientific  Institution  in  this  place. 

There  is  now  scarcely  a  town,  or  considerable  village,  which  has  not 
its  institution  under  some  form  and  name  :  but,  with  very  rare  excep- 
tions, the  institutions  are  generally  in  a  languishing  condition,  both 
as  to  funds  and  as  to  usefulness.  I  do  not  mean  to  assert  that  they 
are  of  no  use,  but  merely  that  they  are  not  half  as  useful  as  they 
might  be. 

The  Exhibition  has  given  us  some  very  significant  hints  that  it  is 


76 


BeckwiiKs  Improved  Bullet  Mould. 


[April, 


not  only  the  education  of  our  poor  children  that  needs  to  be  improved ; 
high  and  low,  rich  and  poor,  old  and  young,  have  all  an  education 
question  to  be  solved ;  have  all  a  very  real  and  urgent  need  of  know- 
ledge, and  of  knowledge  of  that  kind  which  a  literary  and  scientific 
institution,  if  fully  developed,  is  well  calculated  to  assist  in  affording. 

I  conceive  that  there  are  three  grand  defects  which  impede  the  use- 
fulness and  the  strength  of  the  institutions. 

1st.  They  are  not  sufficiently  practical  in  their  aims. 

2ndly.  They  are  isolated  and  have  no  means  of  combining  with 
other  institutions  for  the  common  good. 

And  3rdly.  They  have  no  connection  with  the  great  central  associa- 
tions which  pursue,  under  national  auspices,  the  objects  of  literature, 
science,  and  art. 

1st.  That  they  are  not  sufficiently  practical.  I  conceive  that  a 
literary  and  scientific  institution  ought  systematically  to  investigate, 
and  diffuse  information  respecting  objects  of  practical  utility. 

The  Highgate  Institution  some  years  since  fully  investigated  the 
subject  of  cottage  gardens  and  allotments,  and  the  result  was,  the 
establishment  here  of  a  considerable  number  of  allotments  upon  a 
plan  which  has  worked  with  complete  success. 

We  are  now  making  an  enquiry  into  the  domiciliary  condition  of 
our  poor,  and  collecting  information  as  to  the  best  means  of  improving 
it.  The  Institution  itself  will  not  undertake  any  building  or  other 
operations  with  a  view  to  the  improvement ;  but  will  ensure  a  full 
ventilation  of  the  subject ;  and  the  result,  in  all  probability,  will  be  that, 
(as  in  the  case  of  the  allotments)  the  business  of  improvement  will  be 
effectually  taken  up  by  some  of  those  who  will  be  moved  to  the  work 
by  the  information  which  the  Institution  will  furnish. 

I  need  not  point  out  how  rapid  a  progress  will  be  made,  in  all  parts 
of  the  country,  in  improving  the  dwellings  of  the  poor,  in  sanitary 
measures,  and  in  the  use  of  scientific  inventions,  if  the  local  institutions 
throughout  the  kingdom  could  be  led  systematically  to, aim  at  these 
very  important  objects.  Questions  also  of  political  economy  (not 
politics)  and  social  law,  I  conceive,  should  be  treated  in  the  theatres 
of  these  institutions.  How  much  the  passing  of  useful  laws  would  be 
facilitated  if  this  were  the  case !  Not  to  be  tedious,  I  would  instance 
the  laws  of  partnership,  of  bankruptcy,  of  patents,  of  master  and  ser- 
vant, as  suitable  for  discussion  by  competent  persons  in  such  places. 
And  again,  how  little  are  the  great  mass  of  the  middle  classes  ac- 
quainted with  the  useful  inventions  which  (e.  (/.)  receive  medals  from 
the  society  of  Arts  !  Why  should  not  these  be  systematically  intro- 
duced to  the  notice  of  the  institutions  ? 

The  Highgate  Institution  has  entered  upon  this  branch  of  duty,  and 
is  preparing  to  have  a  descriptive  exhibition  of  the  various  applica- 
tions of  gas,  to  lighting,  warming,  cooking.  How  very  few  persons 
have  ever  seen  a  gas  cooking  apparatus!  what  ludicrous  prejudices  are 
entertained  on  this  subject !  I  cannot  but  think  then  that  the 
strength  and  usefulness  of  the  institutions  would  be  greatly  increased 
if  they  could  be  moved  to  be  more  practical  in  their  aims,  and  to  labour 
(in  a  due  proportion)  in  the  directions  to  which  I  have  adverted. 

■  2ndly.  They  are  isolated,  and  have  no  combination  for  the  common 
good.  The  evils  of  this  isolation  are  too  obvious  to  need  any  comment : 
and  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  combine  the  institutions  for  the 
purposes  of  engaging  lecturers,  obtaining  apparatus,  and  putting  into 
circulation  books,  works  of  art,  natural  objects,  &c. 

In  Yorkshire,  a  considerable  association  of  institutes  exists ;  and  I 
believe  it  is  productive  of  good. 

What  we  want,  however,  is  a  central  office  in  London,  to  which  we 
could  apply  for  advice,  information,  and  assistance.  Such  an  office 
might  form  an  extensive  staff  of  lecturers,  men  eminent  in  their  special 
subjects  ;  might  collect  illustrative  specimens  and  diagrams  :  and  on 
application  supply  the  local  institutions  with  lecturers  and  lectures  on 
almost  any  subject.  By  judicious  geographical  arrangements  the  most 
distant  institutions  might  be  supplied  at  a  reasonable  rate  with  lec- 
turers whom  they  are  now  entirely  unable  to  remunerate  because  they 
cannot  ensure  to  them  other  engagements  in  the  same  neighbourhood. 

Whether  such  an  office  as  I  have  alluded  to  should  be  created  for 
the  purpose,  or  whether  any  existing  body,  such  as  the  Society  of  Arts, 
could  undertake  it  I  am  unable  to  say. 

But,  3rdly,  the  local  institutions  have  no  connection  with  the  great 
central  societies. 

If  the  institutions  could  be  connected  with  the  British  Museum,  the 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  the  Geological,  Botanical, 
Zoological,  and  other  Societies,  whose  objects  may  fairly  be  con- 
sidered to  come  within  the  scope  of  the  institutions,  I  cannot  but 
think  that  great  good  would  result  both  to  them,  and  to  the  Central 
Societies. 


Above  all  others,  the  Society  of  Arts  appears  to  me  to  be  a  society 
with  which  institutions  might  unite,  by  affiliation,  with  mutual  ad- 
vantage. 

I  refrain  from  entering  fully,  at  present,  into  this  subject,  because 
the  Council,  if  they  should  approve  of  the  idea,  would  not  need  my 
exposition  of  its  merits ;  and  because  I  am  unwilling  to  add  to  the 
length  of  a  letter  too  long  already. 

If  you  should  be  of  opinion  that  the  subject  is  one  which  the 
Council  of  the  Society  would  be  likely  to  entertain,  you  will  have  the 
goodness  to  make  such  use  as  you  may  think  fit  of  what  I  have  written 
in  this  letter. 

I  have  the  honour  to  be,  Sir, 

Your  obediert  servant, 
Geoege  Geove,  Esq.,  HARRY  CHESTER. 

Secretary, 

Society  of  Arts. 


BECKWITH'S  IMPROVED    BULLET  MOULD,  FOR   THE 
DELVIGNE  OR  MINIE  RIFLE. 

"  Wars  and  rumours  of  wars,"  are  music,  we  suppose,  to  the  gun- 
makers,  at  any  rate,  matters  of  business,  and  they  are  accordingly  be- 
stirring themselves  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  times.  At  another 
page  we  have  given  engravings  of  the  Prussian  gun,  which  is  highly 
ingenious,  but  requires  a  total  change  in  our  fire-arms.  The  system 
of  Captain  Delvigne  (miscalled  the  "  Minie  rifle,"  as  we  are  assured 
from  an  inspection  of  Captain  Delvigne's  French  patent,  which  he  has 
submitted  to  us),  admits  of  our  employing  the  ordinary  rifle,  whilst 
the  facility  of  loading  is  much  increased  by  the  ball  being  smooth. 

The  accompanying  sketch  of  the  ball,  full  size, 
shows  its  construction.  It  is  made  hollow,  to  throw 
the  centre  of  gravity  forward,  and  ensure  a  correct 
line  of  flight.  A  thin  wrought  iron  cup  is  inserted 
at  the  base,  which,  when  the  explosion  takes  place, 
forces  the  cup  into  the  ball,  and  thereby  expands  it, 
making  it  assume  the  shape  of  the  groove  in  the 
barrel.  The  windage  is  thus  annihilated,  and  an  al- 
most incredible  range  obtained.  The  mould  adapted  for  casting  this 
bullet  is  shown  in  fig.  1  open,  and  in  fig.  2  shut.  The  improvement 
consists  in  making  the  core  a  fixture,  whereby  greater  accuracy  is  ob- 


tained in  the  casting,  and  in  making  the  runner  at  the  side  of  the  ball 
instead  of  at  the  point,  which  tends  to  make  the  ball  more  solid,  and 
easier  cleaned  from  the  runner. 


1852.] 


The  Prussian  Needle  Gun. 


77 


THE  PRUSSIAN  NEEDLE  GUN. 

(From  Observations  on  Fire  Arms,  by  Colonel  Chesney.) 

The  progress  of  the  Zundnadelgewehr,  or  needle  igniting  musket, 
was  slow  at  first;  but  the  fusileers  having  been  so  armed,  its 
adoption  gradually  became  general,  and  it  will  probably  be  used  ere 
long  throughout  the  Prussian  army.  It  combines  the  use  of  percussion 
with  that  of  a  particular  kind  of  ball,  which  being  conical  at  the  point, 
cylindrical  in  the  centre,  and  round  at  the  larger  end,  is,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  French  projectile,  a  good  deal  heavier  than  a  sphere  of  the  same 
calibre.     It  becomes  rifled  as  it  passes  through  the  barrel,  and  is  pro- 


of its  length,  and  a  spiral  spring  in  the  other,  K,  and  through  this  tube 
passes  the  needle,  which  is  a  thin  steel  wire  pointed  at  the  end  destined  to 
ignite  the  charge,  the  other  end  being  screwed  into  a  brass  head,  which 
again  screws  into  the  interior  tube  that  carries  the  spiral  spring.  The 
trigger,  L,  is  of  a  peculiar  form,  with  a  straight  spring,  M,  having  two 
knuckle  movements  acting  upon  a  ball ;  the  first  movement  fires  the 
gun,  and  the  second  admits  of  the  whole  mechanism  being  taken  out 
behind,  when  the  parts  can  be  taken  to  pieces,  cleaned,  and  put  together 
again  by  a  soldier  in  two  minutes,  there  being  no  pins  whatever,  and 
no  screw,  except  that  by  which  the  needle  is  connected  with  the  inner 


SCALE  OF    INCHES 


pelled  with  much  greater  force  than  the  ordinary  rifle  ball,  owing  to  two 
causes,  viz.,  a  suitable  centre  of  gravity,  and  the  more  perfect  ignition 
of  the  powder,  which  takes  place  in  front,  instead  of  being  as  formerly 
at  the  other  end  of  the  charge.  This  advantage,  one  of  the  greatest 
belonging  to  the  change,  is  accomplished  by  means  of  a  metal  needle 
and  a  spiral  spring.  The  spring  serves  the  purpose  of  a  lock,  and  by 
forcing  the  needle  through  the  charge,  the  fulminating  powder  explodes 
it  in  a  way  which  will  be  better  understood  from  the  following  details  : — 
The  barrel  of  the  Zundnadelgewehr  is  34  inches  long,  and  is  rifled 
with  four  grooves,  taking  1 J  turn  in  the  length,  and  has  a  high  back 
sight,  A,  fig.  3 ;  it  is  screwed  into  the  end  of  a  strong  open  guider  or 
socket,  B;  the  chamber,  properly  so  called,  is  bored  out  in  a  slight  degree 
conically  from  behind,  C,  so  that  when  the  cartridge  is  placed  in  it,  the 
shoulder  of  the  ball  (which  is  of  a  particular  shape)  shall  meet  and  be 
stopped  by  the  projections  of  the  ribs  of  the  rifling,  the  body  of  the 
ball  being  of  sufficient  diameter  to  fill  the  full  depth  of  the  grooves. 
Inside  the  guider  slides  an  iron  tube,  E,  with  a  strong  helve  or  handle 
attached,  and  having  a  space  at  the  front  end  next  the  barrel  of  about 
1§  inches  in  length,  F ;  in  the  middle  of  this  space  is  the  needle  con- 
ductor, G,  which  is  pierced  with  a  small  hole  in  its  entire  length, 
through  which  passes  the  needle  that  is  to  ignite  the  charge. 
This  needle  conductor  is  screwed  from  behind  into  a  solid  plate 
of  iron  left  in  the  tube,  H;  and  this  plate  it  is  which  (like  the 
breech  pin-piece  of  the  ordinary  musket)  receives  the  whole  reactionary 
force  of  the  charge.  Behind  this  plate,  again,  there  is  a  second  tube  of 
iron,  I,  having  a  spring  with  double  catch  attached,  and  carrying  within 
it  an  inner  small  tube,  J,  which  has  two  projecting  rings  on  one  moiety 


tube,  and  this  is  never  disturbed,  except  when  the  needle  has  to  be 
replaced  by  a  new  one. 

The  cartridge,  fig.  5,  is  made  of  one  thickness,  of  thin  but  strong 
paper.  A  is  the  ball,  B  the  paper  bottom,  with  C,  the  indentation  in 
its  lower  end  for  the  priming  composition ;  D  is  the  powder.  The  end 
of  the  cartridge  at  E  is  formed  also  of  a  single  thickness  of  paper; 
through  this  the  priming  needle  is  forced  by  the  spiral  spring.  The 
needle  passes  through  the  whole  length  of  the  charge  of  powder,  and 
penetrates  the  primer  C,  which  it  ignites,  and  consequently  the  charge 
is  lighted  in  front,  instead  of  the  other  extremity,  as  usual ;  and  behind 
the  charge  there  is  an  empty  space  in  the  sliding-tube  of  1J  inches  long. 
To  these  two  circumstances  the  Prussians  attribute  the  additional  range 
and  the  slightness  of  the  recoil. 

Besides  celerity  in  firing,  which,  without  over  exertion,  extends  to  about 
six  rounds  in  a  minute,  and  entire  freedom  from  windage,  by  which  a 
range  of  800,  or  according  to  some,  even  1,200  yards  is  obtained,  there 
are  several  advantages  attending  the  use  of  this  weapon. 

As  already  mentioned,  a  ball,  for  the  same  bore,  is  much  larger  than 
that  of  an  ordinary  musket,  and  being  formed  by  pressure,  it  is  more 
solid,  and  has,  at  the  same  time,  a  more  correct  position  of  the  centre 
of  gravity.  Having  the  advantage  of  being  rifled  also,  it  is  truer  in  its 
flight  than  the  round  bullet,  especially  as  the  powder  is  not  crushed,  as 
is  frequently  the  case  in  ramming  down  an  ordinary  musket  or  rifle. 
Added  to  these  advantages,  it  receives  a  greater  impulse,  and  the  paste- 
board wadding,  which  is  a  part  of  the  cartridge,  assists  in  clearing  the 
barrel  from  the  effects  of  the  previous  discharge;  and  as  the  soldier 
can  load  almost  as  easily  in  a  recumbent  as  in  an  upright  position,  he 

11 


The  Prussian  Needle  Gun. 


[April, 


need  not,  when  once  behind  cover,  allow  any  part  of  his  body  to  be  ex- 
posed to  the  enemy's  fire.  In  addition  to  the  preceding  considerations, 
the  recoil  is  less  violent ;  and  owing  to  the  simpler  and  more  delicate 
motion  of  the  trigger,  there  is  much  less  to  prevent  a  correct  aim,  so 
that  a  very  accurate  fire  is  the  consequence. 

The  objections  which  have  hitherto  been  imagined  are,  the  liability 
of  the  spring  to  get  out  of  order,  the  divergence  to  the  right  or  left  to 
which  the  steel  needle  may  be  liable  in  passing  through  the  powder, 
and  the  probability  of  missing  fire  when  the  needle  gets  dirty ;  likewise 
the  escape  of  gas  through  the  apertures,  after  firing  has  been  continued 
for  any  length  of  time ;  and  finally,  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  barrel, 
from  the  smoke  and  burnt  powder  issuing  through  the  apertures  at  the 
place  of  junction  of  the  cylinder  with  the  barrel. 

That  some  imperfections  should  exist  may  be  expected,  as  inseparable 
from  the  works  of  man,  but  they  should,  in  this  case,  be  considered  in 
comparison  with  the  advantages,  and  possible  effect  of  such  an  instru- 
ment on  modern  warfare. 

The  diminished  power  of  the  spring  by  constant  use,  and  the  diver- 
gency which  may  be  caused  to  the  needle,  are  serious,  but  it  is  hoped 
not  irremediable  evils,  since  both  spring  and  needle  may  be  renewed  at 
a  trifling  expense.  By  having  a  few  spare  needles  and  springs,  as  one 
of  each  for  eight  or  ten  muskets,  or  in  any  other  proportion  that  may 
ultimately  appear  desirable,  the  defects  in  question  would  probably  be 
remedied,  and  efficiency  secured;  for  the  liability  of  the  piece  to  miss 
fire,  and  the  more  serious  defect  of  the  escape  of  gas,  only  take  place 
(extensively,  at  least,  in  the  latter  case)  after  some  fifty  or  eighty  dis- 
charges, so  that  a  general  action  might  be  fought  before  the  piece  even 
requires  to  be  cleaned.  It  is  true  that  the  gas  escaped  with  sufficient 
force  to  remove  a  trifling  weight  placed  on  the  aperture,  but  this  should 
not  be  a  fatal  objection  to  an  instrument  of  undoubted  power  and  pre- 
cision of  range.  Even  from  a  piece  with  a  flintlock,  the  escape  through 
the  vent  is  considerable,  and  at  any  rate  the  evil  may  be  lessened  if  not 
entirely  removed;  for  since  American  and  other  pieces  have  close 
fitting  breeches,  as  was  shown  lately  at  the  Great  Exhibition,  it  cannot 
be  doubted  that  the  skill  of  our  workmen  will  overcome  the  difficulty  in 
the  ease  of  the  Prussian  musket. 

The  breech  loading  musket  has  been  partially  used,  and  it  is  under- 
stood with  good  effect,  during  the  late  Hungarian  war,  and  still  more 
decisively  in  the  north  of  Germany. 

In  one  part  of  the  hard-fought  battle  of  Ilstedt,  the  Danes  found 
themselves  opposed  by  skirmishers  armed  with  the  new  Prussian  musket. 
"  The  enemy,"  says  the  Danish  Commander-in-Chief,  Krogh,  "  under 
cover  of  a  bridge,  fired  with  pointed  balls  (spitzkugeln),  at  a  distance  of 
100  and  150  yards.  It  was  in  vain  that  a  couple  of  guns  threw  shells 
at  a  short  range  among  the  skirmishers ;  it  was  in  vain  that  a  body  of 
cavalry  made  their  several  attacks ;  it  was  in  vain  that  the  endeavour 
was  made  to  bring  up  the  infantry  from  Oberstolk,  which  was  now  in 
flames,  while  a  fierce  engagement  was  going  on  in  it  from  the  house 
windows,  and  the  streets.  In  less  than  an  hour  we  suffered  a  great  loss. 
The  brave  General  Schleppegrell  fell  mortally  wounded  during  the 
attacks  ;  the  chief  of  his  staff,  Lieutenant  Colonel  Bulow,  was  severely 
wounded;  the  commander  of  the  battery,  Colonel  Baggeilsen,  was 
made  prisoner,  and  two  of  his  guns  taken  by  the  enemy.  Several  other 
officers  were  also  killed,  among  them  Lieutenant  Carstensea,  whilst  en- 
deavouring to  rescue  Captain  Baggensen,  and  about  70  subalterns  and 
privates.     At  least  90  horses  were  killed  or  taken." 

The  efficiency  of  this  weapon  is  now,  however,  being  put  to  the  test 
by  a  committee  appointed  by  the  Commander-in-chief,  by  whom  the 
French  and  a  variety  of  other  muskets  are  being  carefully  examined. 
Amongst  the  number,  the  patent  needle  gun  of  Sears,  and  the  rifle  in- 
vented by  Mr.  Lancaster,  may  be  mentioned.  The  former  loads  at  the 
breech  and  partly  resembles  the  Prussian  musket,  but  has  in  addition  a 


receptacle  containing  fifty  detonating  caps,  which,  by  a  simple  operation, 
are  brought  forward  successively  to  ignite  so  many  charges.  The  fol- 
lowing brief  description  will  give  some  idea  of  the  construction  of  the 
latter  weapon,  which  is  simpler  than  the  Prussian  musket,  though 
giving,  it  is  said,  an  equal  range. 


Fig.  1  A. 


Fig. 1. 


Figure  1  represents  the  ball  before  it  is  put  into  the  piece.  The  rings, 
which  will  be  perceived  round  the  lower  part,  permit  the  compression 
of  the  ball,  which,  on  being  forced  down  by  the  ramrod,  assumes  more 
completely  the  form  of  the  inside  of  the  barrel. 

Figure  1  A  shows  the  breech-end  of  the  barrel,  with  the  metal  pin 
forming  part  of  it. 

Figure  2  shows  the  shape  of  the  ball  when  its  rings  are  compressed 
by  being  rammed  home,  so  as  to  form  a  solid  ball. 

Figure  2  A  shows  the  position  of  the  ball  prior  to  its  being  com- 
pressed by  the  motion  of  the  ramrod,  and  with  the  powder  lying  round 
the  pin,  on  which  the  former  rests. 

As  the  new  musket,  whether  loading  at  the  breech  or  at  the  muzzle 
gives  a  more  distant  and  a  more  accurate  fire  than  is  ever  attained  even 
by  our  best  rifles,  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  in  one,  if  not  in  both, 
of  these  two  forms  the  new  weapon  will  be  adopted  in  the  British  army, 
but  whether  of  the  English  or  of  the  smaller  calibre  of  the  French,  re- 
quires much  serious  consideration.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  doubt 
that  an  extreme  range,  with  great  power,  belongs  to  both ;  and  the 
weight  saved  to  the  soldier  by  sixty  rounds  of  light  balls  is  an 
object  of  paramount  importance.  As  much  more  depends  on  rapiditv 
of  movements  than  on  carrying  a  quantity  of  ammunition  into  action, 
the  consumption  of  the  great  battles  fought  during  the  last  war  would 
be  a  safe  guide.  It  is  understood  that  the  number  of  rounds  6red  has 
varied  from  three  to  about  twelve.  In  the  three  days  ending  with 
Waterloo,  the  number  of  rounds  fired  amounted  to  987,000,  which,  for 
the  number  of  men  under  arms,  would  be  from  10  to  12  each;  30  rounds, 
therefore,  would  appear  to  be  ample  for  the  soldier  to  carry,  and  2'J 
additional  rounds,  on  an  average,  might  accompany  the  army  in  light 
waggons. 

Besides  a  more  distant  execution  and  other  advantages  claimed  for 
the  new  fire-arm,  especially  for  the  Prussian  pattern,  its  advocates  do 
not  hesitate  to  affirm,  that  its  fire  will  be  more  formidable  than  that  of 
grape-shot;  that  the  gunners  would  be  picked  off  at  such  a  distance  as 
to  make  it  impossible  for  them  to  serve  the  guns  in  face  of  light  in- 
fantry, and  that  it  will,  in  consequence,  supersede  the  use  of  light 
artillery.  It  is  also  alleged  that  personal  conflicts,  such  as  line  against 
line,  or  column  against  column,  will  cease  altogether,  and  future  battles 
be  decided  by  the  effects  of  a  rapid  and  destructive  fire,  in  the  pre- 
cision of  which,  rather  than  on  personal  contact  and  extensive  com- 
binations, the  result  will  depend. 

Since  a  single  man  can  now  be  struck  down  by  a  musket  ball  at  a 
considerable  distance,  it  follows  that  the  means  of  defending  fieldworks, 
a  river,  a  defile,  or,  in  fact,  any  strong  post  where  the  defenders  can 


1852.] 


The  Irish  Difficulty,  and  its  Solution. 


79 


remain  under  cover,  whilst  the  attacking  force  is  exposed,  will  be 
greatly  increased.  In  such  cases,  more  particularly  in  that  of  a  fortress, 
the  defence  will  probably  become  superior  to  the  attack,  at  least  after 
such  modifications  in  the  construction  of  fortresses  shall  have  taken 
place  as  will  give  longer  lines  of  defence,  protected  by  a  loop-holed 
musketry  fire  from  those  parts  of  the  works  which,  in  this  respect, 
have  been  hitherto  rather  neglected. 


THE  IRISH  DIFFICULTY  AND  ITS  SOLUTION. 

BEET    ROOT    SUGAR. 
(Continued  from  page  48 J 

The  objectors  to  Beet  sugar  have  still  another  card  to  play,  and  we 
must  indulge  them.  In  the  year  1854  the  differential  duties  against 
slave  grown  sugar  will  cease,  and  it  will  enter  the  market  on  the  same 
terms  as  that  from  our  colonies.  Will  Beet  sugar,  deprived  of  protec- 
tion, pay  then  ?  Professor  Sullivan  (in  The  Manufacture  of  Beet  root 
sugar  in  Ireland.  Second  edition.  Dublin  :  McGlashan),  says  it  will, 
aud  we  agree  with  him.  An  abstract  of  his  pamphlet,  which  cannot  be 
too  highly  commended  for  its  dispassionate  tone  and  lucid  style,  will 
put  our  readers  in  possession  of  the  facts  of  the  case. 

Duty  or  no  duty,  the  Beet  sugar  manufacturer  has  a  never  failing 
naturaJ  "  protection  "  of  £6  to  £7  per  ton,  which  is  made  up  of  the 
following;  items: — Freight  from  the  West  Indies  £4  to  £5  per  ton; 
loss  from  drainage  .£1  per  ton.  (This  ought  to  be  avoided,  and  will  be, 
some  of  these  days.  It  must  not,  therefore,  be  permanently  reckoned 
on.)  Port  dues,  sea  insurance,  consolidated  rate  and  landing  charges, 
£1  4s.  to  £\  7s.,  say  a  total  of  £6  to  £7,  from  which  the  home  pro- 
ducer is  exempt. 

Next,  as  to  cost  of  labour.  Professor  Sullivan  "  thinks  too  much 
importance  is  given  to  slave  labour,  and  that,  on  close  examination,  it 
will  be  found  that  it  is  not  cheaper  than  the  same  amount  of  free 
labour  would  be  in  any  of  the  European  countries.  It  is,  of  course, 
cheaper  than  free  labour  in  the  emancipated  colonies,  simply,  because, 
under  a  warm  sun,  the  free  negro  prefers  very  naturally  demanding  a 
high  price  for  a  small  amount  of  labour,  because  he  is  certain  of  obtain- 
ing it,  in  consequence  of  the  great  demand  for  labourers  and  the  limited 
supply."  This  is  true,  but  does  not  contain  the  whole  point  of  the 
question.  The  difficulty  in  the  West  Indies  is,  that  labour  is  not  only 
scarce,  but  the  few  labourers  there  are  cannot  be  depended  on.  And, 
the  sugar  crop  requires  a  vigorous  exertion  at  the  critical  moment  to 
ensure  success,  which  nothing  but  the  slave  driver's  whip  seems  able  to 
extort  from  the  African  race.  Slavery,  however,  in  its  present  form, 
cannot  exist  much  longer,  either  in  Cuba  or  Brazil,  but  it  would  indeed 
be  curious  if  the  final  blow  at  our  sugar  colonies  came  from  Ireland. 

In  the  case  of  beet  sugar,  it  is  not  slave  labour  versus  free  African 
labour,  but  versus  a  cheap  and  inexhaustible  supply  of  skilled  European 
labour.  Professor  Sullivan  reduces  it  to  figures,  thus  : — An  acre  of 
sugar  cane  requires  double  the  labour  which  an  acre  of  beet  does.  In 
Europe  one-half  a  labourer's  wages  are  expended  in  food — granting, 
then,  that  food  is  only  one-half  the  price  in  a  tropical  climate  (which  is 
giving  it  the  advantage),  the  slave  owner  is  still  only  on  an  equality 
with  the  European;  because  he  has  to  provide  food  for  double  the  num- 
ber of  labourers.  "  The  European  labourer  has  the  remaining  half  of 
his  wages  to  provide  clothes,  rent,  &c,  and  the  slave-owner  has  to  pro- 
vide clothes,  lodging,  fuel  for  cooking,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  he  has 
the  capital  embarked  in  the  price  of  his  slaves,  which  is  lost  every  time 
the  slave  dies,  &c.  &c.  Now,  suppose  all  these  expenses  to  be  only 
one-half  what  the  European  labourer  has  for  clothes,  &c,  the  slave- 
owner, having  to  pay  for  double  the  number,  would,  in  this  case  also, 
be  merely  on  an  equality  with  the  free  European  labourer."    And,  fur- 


ther, in  an  estimate  of  the  profit  (see  p.  47),  Professor  Sullivan  has 
taken  the  price  of  fine  sugar  at  28s.  per  cwt.,  which  is  below  the  present 
price  of  foreign  refined  by  3s.  4d.  per  cwt.  "  The  last  objection  raised 
against  the  Beet  sugar  manufacture  is,  that  owing  to  the  peculiar  taste 
of  the  Beet,  all  sugars  made  from  it  must  be  refined;  and  that  as  the 
greater  part  of  the  sugar  consumed  in  these  countries  is  employed  in 
the  state  of  raw  sugar,  the  manufacture  of  Beet  sugar  must  be  confined 
to  the  supply  of  a  part  of  the  limited  demand  for  refined  sugar,  in  which 
there  will  be  active  competition.  The  answer  to  this  objection  may  be 
given  in  a  few  words.  Soft  sugars  equal  to  foreign,  and  quite  free  from 
the  peculiar  taste  of  the  Beet,  can  now  be  made  by  the  newly  patented 
process."  We  can  answer  for  the  quality  of  a  specimen  of  refined 
white  sugar,  which  has  been  obligingly  forwarded  to  us  by  Mr.  Gwynn. 
On  the  other  point  we  hope  to  satisfy  ourselves  very  shortly. 

Professor  Sullivan  also  discusses  the  effect  of  the  growth  of  Beet  in 
an  agricultural  point  of  view.  Green  crops  are  indispensable  in  good 
farming  to  alternate  with  white  ;  ordinary  green  crops  require  cattle  to 
consume  them  and  convert  them  into  manure ;  but  cattle  require 
capital  to  purchase  them  and  more  to  shelter  them.  Therefore,  good 
farming  requires  capital.  But  suppose  the  capital  cannot  be  had,  what 
then  ?  Beet  offers  a  mitigation  of  the  want.  It  will  take  the  place  of 
turnips  in  the  rotation  of  crops,  and  produce  food  for  man  instead  of 
for  beast.  And  yet  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  this  expedient  does 
but  shift  the  difficulty  instead  of  meeting  it.  Capital  must  still  be 
forthcoming  to  build  sugar  factories,  but  the  great  end  is  gained,  that 
instead  of  the  capital  being  frittered  amongst  a  number  of  individuals 
of  whom  but  a  few  would  turn  it  to  good  account,  it  would  be  concen- 
trated under  good  management,  and  distribute  its  blessings  to  all  who 
had  industry  and  energy  to  avail  themselves  of  its  benefits. 

The  meteorological  conditions  necessary  to  success  are  also  import- 
ant and  demand  attention.  That  the  production  of  corn  has  been 
pushed  beyond  its  due  limits  in  this  country,  under  the  "  hot-bed  in- 
fluence" of  protection,  cannot  be  doubted ;  and  the  same  law  applies 
with  even  greater  force  to  Ireland,  as  we  shall  proceed  to  show.  Wheat 
requires  not  so  much  a  high  temperature  on  the  average  as  just  at  the 
period  of  ripening,  when  warmth,  absence  of  moisture,  and  abundance 
of  light  are  necessary  to  the  full  development  of  the  seed.  "  Thus,  for 
instance,  while  the  French  wheat  is  readily  reduced  to  a  soft  impalpable 
flour,  without  any  feeling  of  grittiness,  which  renders  it  so  well  adapted 
for  pastry,  the  Odessa  wheat  has  a  sort  of  horny  starch,  which  gives  the 
flour  an  extremely  coarse  and  gritty  feel."  A  table  of  temperatures  and 
rain-fall  readily  explains  the  cause.  It  may  surprise  many  of  our 
readers  to  hear  that  both  the  mean  annual  and  mean  summer  and  autumn 
temperature  of  Cork  are  sensibly  higher  than  those  of  Paris.  But, 
whilst  in  England  and  in  the  North  West  of  France  there  are  only  38 
to  3.9  rainy  days  in  the  months  of  August,  September,  and  October, 
there  are  in  the  South  and  West  of  Ireland,  69,  in  the  same  months. 
Thus,  the  cooling  effects  of  evaporation  and  the  overcasting  of  the  sky, 
turn  the  balance  strongly  against  us. 

Professor  Sullivan  then  proceeds  to  show  that  these  circumstances 
are  favourable  to  the  production  of  sugar  and  sap,  as  strong  light  is  to 
the  production  of  highly  developed  seed.  Thus,  while  the  average  pro- 
duce per  acre  of  Beet  in  Ireland  is  14  tons  in  an  unfavourable,  and  15 
tons  in  a  favourable  year,  the  general  average  in  France  is  only  10.89 
tons.  Mr.  Sullivan,  however,  admits,  further  on,  that  "  none  but  good 
farmers  ever  think  of  growing  Beet"  [in  Ireland],  and,  consequently,  it 
may  not  be  a  perfectly  fair  average  at  present,  although  30  tons  can  be 
obtained  from  well  manured  land. 

The  following  analysis  of  the  saline  matters  in  the  produce  of  an  acre 
will  be  found  interesting  : — 

"  Fifteen  tons  of  Beet  contain  about  3171bs.  of  saline  matter;  and 
four  and  a  half  tons  of  tops,  about  2201bs.    These  quantities  contain  of 


80 


Notes  by  a  Practical  Chemist. 


[April, 


Potash 
Soda 

Hydrochloric  acid 
Lime 
Magnesia 
Phosphoric  acid 
Sulphuric  acid 
Soluble  silica. . 


Roots.  Tops. 

£  s.     d.  £  s.  d. 

155  lbs.,  at  2d  per  lb.,  1  5  10  75lbs.  0  12  6 

• -  I    48£  lbs.  of  salt,         ..010 

28lbs 0  0     0  40lbs.  0  0  0 

17ilbs.  at  Id.  per  lb.,    0  1     5|  71bs.  0  0  7 

24lbs.,  at  l%d.  per  lb.,  0  3     0  20^1bs.  0  2  7 

6Jlbs.,  at  \d.  per  lb.       0  0     4f  5lbs.  0  0  4 


20|lbs., 


0     0     0         2lbs.  0     0     0 


Making,  with  the  other 
ingredients,  a  total  of    3171bs., 


£1   11     8|  220lbs.  0  16     0 


The  inorganic  matter  thus  abstracted  from  the  soil  must  be  returned 
to  it  in  the  shape  of  manure,  which,  as  the  system  supposes  the  pro- 
duction of  but  a  small  quantity  of  farm-yard  manure,  must  be  artificial 
manure,  the  continued  use  of  which,  alone,  would  not  maintain  the 
mechanical  condition  of  the  land.  This,  Professor  Sullivan  suggests, 
could  be  effected  by  ploughing  in  the  tops  of  a  crop  of  beet  occasionally. 

In  our  next  number  we  propose  to  give  some  account  of  the  Beet 
sugar  works  on  the  continent.  We  may  take  occasion  here  to  observe 
that  the  works  of  the  Irish  Beet  Sugar  Company,  at  Mount  Mellick, 
are  in  full  operation.  They  commenced  work  on  the  1 1th  inst.,  and 
are  now  converting  300  tons  of  roots  into  sugar  weekly.  They  will 
have  to  use  green  roots  for  the  next  two  months,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  they  will  be  supplied  with  dry  roots  from  the  Company's  desicca- 
ting works  at  Donoughmore.  We  are  informed  that  with  all  the  dis- 
advantages attending  the  use  of  new  machinery  and  new  hands,  the 
cost  of  labour  is  only  about  £7  5s.  per  ton  of  sugar,  whilst  the  per 
centage  is  7i> 

(To  be  continued.) 


NOTES    BY   A    PRACTICAL    CHEMIST. 

Picric  Acid  as  a  Yellow  Colouring  Matter. — M.  Guinon, 
of  Lyons,  has  succeeded  in  dyeing  silk  light  and  medium  yellows,  from 
sulphur  to  light  citron,  by  means  of  this  acid.  His  attention  was  first 
directed  to  the  subject  by  observing  the  yellow  colour  which  it  commu- 
nicates to  the  skin.  This  acid  has  been  known  under  various  names, 
such  as  Welter's  bitter,  bitter  yellow,  indigo  bitter,  carbazotic  acid,  &c. 
It  is  produced  by  the  reaction  of  nitric  acid  upon  a  variety  of  organic 
substances,  such  as  indigo,  aloes,  silk,  tar,  oil  of  coal.  Its  empirical 
formula  is  C24,  H6,  Ns,  O14.  Guinon's  process  for  obtaining  it  on  the 
large  scale  is  as  follows : — Into  an  earthen  pan,  able  to  hold  three  times 
the  quantity  actually  employed,  are  put  three  parts  commercial  nitric 
acid  at  36°  and  heated  to  140°  Fahrenheit.  The  vessel  is  then  removed 
from  the  fire,  and  1  part  oil  of  coal  gradually  added  through  an  earthen 
tube,  tapering  at  its  lower  extremity,  which  dips  into  the  acid.  Each 
portion  of  oil,  on  entering  the  vessel,  causes  a  violent  reaction,  heat 
being  generated,  and  carbonic  acid  and  nitric  oxide  given  off.  Should 
the  liquid  threaten  to  run  over,  the  addition  of  oil  is  suspended,  and  the 
whole  cooled  with  a  little  cold  nitric  acid.  When  all  the  oil  has  been 
thus  poured  in,  the  greater  part  is  already  converted  into  picric  acid, 
but  a  portion  yet  remains  as  a  red,  resinous  mass.  Three  parts  more  of 
nitric  acid  are  therefore  added  ;  the  liquid  boiled,  and  evaporated  to  a 
syrup.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  let  it  dry,  as  it  would  then  ignite 
with  violence.  The  syrup  thus  formed  solidifies,  on  cooling,  to  a  yellow 
paste,  weighing  about  one-sixth  of  the  materials  employed.  This  con- 
sists of  picric  acid,  nitric  acid,  and  a  little  resin.  The  picric  acid  is  ex- 
tracted by  boiling  the  mass  in  water,  when  it  is  dissolved,  and  rede- 
posited  in  crystals  on  cooling.  It  may  be  further  purified  by  repeated 
crystallization  ;  but  if  demanded  in  a  state  of  absolute  purity,  it  must 
be  combined  with  a  base,  such  as  ammonia,  and  precipitated  with 
hydrochloric  acid.     Silk  mordanted  with  a  mixture  of  alum  and  cream 


of  tartar  takes  a  fine  straw  yellow  from  solution  of  picric  acid.  It  may 
be  washed  several  times,  but  is  discharged  by  weak  acids,  alealies,  and 
chloride  of  lime.  It  is  not  affected  by  exposure  to  the  sun  and  air. 
Wool  takes  a  more  intense  tint  than  silk,  a  fine  citron  yellow :  3.73 
grammes  of  picric  acid  give  this  shade  to  1  kilogramme  of  wool.  If  a 
mordant  of  alum  and  cream  of  tartar  has  been  previously  applied,  the 
colour  resists  washing  and  the  action  of  sun  and  air,  but  is,  neverthe- 
less, discharged  by  chemical  agents.  Cotton,  whether  mordanted  or 
not,  is  not  coloured  by  picric  acid. 

Test  for  Mercury. — Mr.  Morgan  states  that  if  a  strong  solution 
of  the  iodide  of  potassium  be  added  to  a  small  portion  of  any  mercurial 
salt,  placed  upon  a  clean  bright  plate  of  copper,  the  mercury  is  imme- 
diately reduced,  and  forms  a  silvery  stain  upon  the  copper.  This  re- 
action is  decisive,  as  no  other  metal  is  deposited  by  the  same  means. 
By  this  method  corrosive  sublimate  may  be  detected  in  a  solution  which 
is  not  acted  on  by  caustic  potassa  or  iodide  of  potassium.  In  a  mix- 
ture of  1  grain  calomel  with  200  grains  sugar,  one  grain  produces  a 
distinct  metallic  stain,  which  of  course  contains  535th  of  a  grain  of 
calomel.  303th  red  oxide  of  mercury  may  be  detected  in  the  same 
manner.  Although  this  test  acts  on  minute  quantities,  still  they  must 
be  in  a  concentrated  state. 

New  Source  of  Chloroform. — If  600  parts  water,  200  parts 
chloride  of  lime,  and  25  parts  oil  of  turpentine  are  well  mixed  in  a 
retort  and  distilled,  a  violent  reaction  takes  place,  carbonic  acid  gas 
being  liberated  in  great  abundance.  As  soon  as  the  mixture  begins  to 
rise,  the  retort  is  withdrawn  from  the  fire,  and  the  process  goes  on  to 
the  end  without  the  application  of  external  heat.  The  receiver  is 
found  to  contain  three  layers  of  liquid,  the  undermost  having  a  scent 
of  chloroform.  It  is  separated  from  the  higher  liquids  by  means  of  a 
pipette,  rectified,  and  redistilled  over  chloride  of  calcium.  The  pro- 
duct presents  the  usual  composition  and  properties  of  chloroform.  The 
author  (J.  Chantard)  has  no  doubt  that  by  some  similar  process  chlo- 
roform might  be  prepared  at  a  much  lower  price  than  is  the  case  with 
our  present  methods. 

Artificial  Preparation  of  the  Flavouring  Matters  of 
Fruits. —One  of  the  most  remarkable  and  interesting  achievements  of 
chemistry  in  the  most  recent  times  has  been  the  preparation  of  certain 
liquids  possessing  the  flavours  of  various  fruits.  So  close  indeed  is 
the  resemblance  that  we  are  almost  warranted  in  supposing  the 
flavour  of  the  fruits  to  be  actually  caused  by  the  presence  of  a  trace  of 
the  above  liquids.  Several  of  these  articles  are  employed  in  confec- 
tionary, and  are  manufactured  on  a  tolerably  large  scale.  The  acetate 
of  amylic  oxide,  when  dissolved  in  six  times  its  bulk  of  alcohol,  emits  a 
most  powerful  and  agreeable  odour  of  Jargonelle  pears,  and  is  used  in 
flavouring  pear-drops.  The  valerate  of  amyle,  dissolved  in  alcohol, 
gives  the  scent  and  flavour  of  apples.  Butyric  ether  communicates  the 
flavour  of  the  pine-apple,  and  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  various 
beverages.  Various  other  compounds  of  the  so-  called  fatty  acids,  with 
the  oxides  of  amyle  and  ethyle,  possess  very  pleasing  odours,  and  as 
they  can  be  prepared  at  a  reasonable  price,  may  probably  admit  of 
extensive  application  in  perfumery. 

ANSWERS    TO    CORRESPONDENTS. 

"  Practicus"  feels  aggrieved  at  our  strictures  on  the  washing 
powders,  and  accuses  us  of  "  prejudging  the  question  on  theoretical 
grounds."  We  can  assure  him  that  we  are  nowise  desirous  to  "  chill 
the  ardour  of  inventors"  by  pronouncing  any  desirable  object  unattain- 
able ;  but  knowing  the  conditions  of  the  problem,  we  must  certainly 
view  it  as  difficult,  whilst  from  our  own  experiments,  and  the  testimony 
of  cur  friends,  we  are  led  to  conclude  that  it  has  not  yet  been  solved. 
We  must  remind  "  Practicus"  that  in  the  laboratory,  washing  is  a  very 
frequent  operation,  and  though  the  surfaces  we  ordinarily  require  to 
cleanse  (glass,  porcelain,  &c.)  from  their  smooth  surface  and  close  tex- 


1852.] 


Report  on  Hohnftrth  Reservoir. 


81 


ture,  afford  very  little  hold  to  dirt,  and  though  we  can  apply  the  most 
powerful  acids  at  a  high  temperature,  we  yet  find  it  impossible  to  dis- 
pense with  the  use  of  friction.  How  much  more  then  will  friction  be 
necessary  in  cleansing  substances  of  a  rough  surface  and  open  texture 
in  whose  interstices  the  dirt  can  lie  entangled.  Those  who  profess  to 
supersede  mechanical  labour  in  washing  have  to  perform  the  following 
task  : — To  find  a  liquid  able  rapidly  to  dissolve  every  species  of  dirt  and 
stain  likely  to  occur  on  articles  of  dress,  &c,  yet  at  the  same  time  in- 
capable of  injuring  the  fibre  of  cotton,  linen,  wool,  or  silk.  If  "  Prac- 
ticus"  thinks  he  has  succeeded,  let  him  forward  us  a  sample  of  his 
"  powder,"  and  if  it  stand  the  test,  we  will  be  the  first  to  proclaim  its 
virtues. 

"  A  Dyer." — Tartaric  acid  is  obtained  from  crude  tartar  (tartrate  of 
potash)  deposited  from  the  juice  of  grapes.  A  cheap  artificial  source  is 
one  of  the  great  desiderata  of  the  chemical  arts. 

"  R.  Z." — Iodine  is  by  no  means  so  rare  a  body  as  was  formerly 
supposed.  It  occurs,  although  in  small  quantities,  in  the  water  of 
many,  if  not  most,  springs  and  rivers.  As  regards  your  second  question 
we  must  refer  you  to  some  medical  paper. 

"  Falmouth." — We  have  seen  the  article  to  which  you  allude,  but 
think,  for  our  own  part,  more  conclusive  evidence  necessary  before  we 
can  admit  that  the  silver  was  actually  formed,  as  the  writer  imagines. 
That  journal,  you  will  observe,  is  the  authorized  channel  for  all  scientific 
heresies.  S. 


THE     HOLMFIRTH     RESERVOIR,. 
Report  of  Captain  Moody,  R.E. 

The  immediate  cause  of  the  late  catastrophe  was,  the  middle  portion 
of  the  dam  at  the  Bilberry  Reservoir  being  lower  than  the  top  of  the 
waste-pit.  This  waste-pit  was  designed  to  carry  off  the  waste  or  flood 
water ;  but  the  top  of  the  embankment  having  sunk  below  the  top  of 
the  pit,  and  being  suffered  to  remain  so,  the  flood  waters  had  no  proper 
or  sufficient  escape ;  but  went  over  the  dam,  which,  as  a  necessary  con- 
sequence, gave  way.  In  the  evidence  before  you,  mention  has  been 
made  of  a  spring,  of  different  leaks,  and  of  defective  workmanship ; 
but  so  long  as  the  level  of  the  dam  was  below  the  level  of  the  waste-pit, 
and  the  flood  suffered  to  pour  over  the  top  of  an  embankment  of  this 
kind,  it  would  give  way,  though  there  were  no  springs,  no  leaks,  and 
though  the  best  quality  of  puddling  was  put  in  as  water-tight  as  pos- 
sible. It  would  give  way,  though  not  so  simultaneously,  from  top  to 
bottom.  It  would  be  slower  in  its  operation  ;  but  still  quick  enough 
to  form  a  flood  of  terribly-destructive  effect  in  its  course.  To  enable 
the  jury  clearly  to  apprehend  the  force  of  all  the  facts  of  the  case  bear- 
ing directly  on  all  the  engineering  parts  of  the  question,  it  is  necessary 
first  to  give  some  idea  of  the  principles  on  which  these  kinds  of  dams 
are  designed,  and  how  they  are  carried  out.  This  I  will  do  in  as  few 
words  as  possible,  and  equally  concisely  offer  a  few  observations  on  the 
design  of  this  reservoir  and  dam  in  particular ;  and  draw  your  attention 
to  the  evidence  given  as  to  the  manner  in  which  that  design  was  exe- 
cuted. In  constructing  a  reservoir  of  the  nature  of  the  one  at  Bilberry, 
the  site  being  fixed  upon,  the  extent  of  area  of  the  district,  the  surface 
water  from  off  which  will  be  drained  into  it,  is  ascertained.  Calcula- 
tions are  also  made  from  the  most  authentic  records  of  the  quantity  of 
rain  that  falls  upon  and  flows  off  this  area  in  a  given  time,  both  on  or- 
dinary occasions  and  what  may  be  expected  in  times  of  flood.  In  these 
calculations,  allowance  is  made  for  absorption  and  evaporation.  The 
capacity  of  the  reservoir  when  full,  is  estimated  from  levels  taken  at 
different  depths.  To  impound  the  water,  an  embankment  is  formed 
across  the  ravine  or  valley,  to  the  height  that  will  contain  the  greatest 
quantity  of  water  at  a  reasonably  economical  outlay.  The  supply  of 
water  which  may  be  needed  for  the  manufacturers,  or  other  uses,  and 


for  which  the  reservoir  is  constructed,  is  led  away  from  the  interior  por- 
tion, nearly  at  the  bottom,  by  what  may  be  called  supply  pipes,  or  en- 
closed channels,  constructed  of  metal  or  masonry,  according  to  the  size. 
The  quantity  of  water  to  be  discharged  is  regulated  by  sliding  valves 
(called  here  "  shuttles"),  working  in  these,  or  at  the  extremities  of  these 
pipes.  The  sliding  valves  in  this  case  work  vertically,  and  are  placed 
one  behind  the  other  at  no  great  distance,  and  in  the  same  pipe,  so  that 
the  water  passes  through  the  opening  on  both  sides ;  and  if  either  get 
fixed  by  accident  or  injury  when  down,  the  passage  of  the  water  is 
stopped,  and  the  reservoir  must  necessarily  fill,  rendering  it  a  difficult 
operation  to  get  at  the  slide  to  rectify  it,  besides  losing  the  use  or  ser- 
vice of  the  water.  It  must  be  understood  distinctly,  and  borne  in  mind 
always,  that  these  channels  or  pipes  are  solely  for  the  ordinary  supply 
of  water  for  the  economical  purposes  alluded  to,  and  for  these  alone. 
Their  capacity  is  regulated  accordingly.  They  should  be  protected 
from  anything  but  water  pressing  upon  or  passing  through,  and  this 
is  generally  done  by  iron  gratings,  removed  to  a  little  distance,  and  so 
designed  that  though  obstructions  may  be  intercepted  and  for  a  time 
rest  against  them,  there  shall  be  space  for  the  requisite  supply  of  water 
to  get  into  the  pipes  and  through  the  slides.  To  carry  off  the  waste 
water,  and  the  floods  that  may  fall  on  the  drainage  area,  other  arrange- 
ments are  made.  In  the  case  b3fore  you,  a  circular  pit  of  masonry  was 
built  up  in  the  body  of  the  embankment  on  the  inner  side.  The  ordinary 
supply  pipes  passed  into  the  bottom  of  the  pit,  and  a  nearly  horizontal  cul- 
vert was  constructed,  to  convey  away  from  the  bottom  of  the  pit  the  water 
coming  through  the  ordinary  supply  pipes,  as  well  as  any  waste  or  flood 
water  flowing  down  into  the  pit.  The  culverts  lead  to  a  goit  for  the  supply 
of  mills  down  the  valley.  When  these  waste  pits  are  adopted,  I  need 
scarcely  impress  upon  you,  that  they  are  so  designed  in  height  and  ca- 
pacity, and  the  culvert  also  in  capacity,  that  the  flood  or  waste  water 
shall  freely  fall  down  the  pit,  and  pass  off  through  the  culvert  in  suffi- 
cient quantities  to  prevent  the  water  in  the  reservoir  ever  rising  to  the 
height  of  the  top  of  the  dam.  The  position  of  the  entrance  to  the  supply 
pipes  and  the  plan  for  carrying  off  the  flood  waters  at  Bilberry,  are,  I 
understand,  very  common  in  this  part  of  the  country  ;  but  I  would  not 
counsel  their  adoption  in  such  sites  as  the  one  in  which  this  is  situated, 
high  up  in  a  hilly  district,  at  the  junction  of  two  deep  ravines,  with 
precipitous  sides,  and  rapid  descent  from  above.  Obstructions  of 
various  kinds  may  be  expected  to  be  continually  brought  down,  parti- 
cularly in  heavy  floods  of  rain.  They  would  be  drawn  by  the  set  of  the 
current  towards  the  pit,  and  may  impede  the  escape  of  the  flood  waters 
in  a  sufficient  volume,  by  getting  into  the  waste-pit  and  choking  up  the 
passage.  Even  if  there  was  a  grating  over  the  waste-pit  they  would 
be  gathered  about  it,  and,  by  the  downward  suction,  be  kept  upon  it. 
It  is  stated  in  evidence,  that  a  tree  once  passed  into  the  sliding  valve, 
and  there  remained  fixed.  When  I  caused  the  water  remaining  in  the 
reservoir,  after  the  "  burst,"  to  be  drawn  off,  a  large  stone  was  jammed 
against  the  entrance  of  the  supply  pipe,  and  the  whole  bed  of  the  swal- 
low is  deep  in  mud ;  and  wreck,  peat,  ling,  and  stones  close  up  to  the 
sliding  valve.  Some  arrangement  at  the  entrance  of  the  swallow  to 
prevent  this  is  always  advisable,  in  addition  to  a  proper  description  of 
grating  in  front  of  the  valve.  I  would  prefer  the  byewash,  which  is  in 
more  general  use.  It  consists  of  a  notch,  as  it  were,  cut  out  at  one  or 
both  ends  at  the  top  of  the  embankment.  Through  this  notch  the  sur- 
plus water  passes,  and  is  conveyed  away  along  the  side  of  the  valley, 
in  a  broad  open  ditch  or  canal,  to  a  safe  distance,  and  then  emptied 
into  the  valley  lower  down,  if  allowed  to  run  to  waste.  Obstructions 
getting  into  the  byewash  could  be  removed  with  more  facility,  certainty, 
and  expedition.  It  is  also  possible  to  widen  the  channel  on  the  side  of 
the  natural  ground  in  some  cases,  and  greater  room  made  for  escape  on 
any  occasion  quite  beyond  human  foresight.  I  think  it  will  be  more 
convenient  to  you,  if,  before  I  proceed  to  allude  to  the  embankment,  I 


82 


Report  on  Holmfirth  Reservoir. 


[April, 


connect  the  foregoing  observations  to  this  particular  case.  I  estimate 
the  drainage  area  for  Bilberry  reservoir  at  1,920  acres,  shown  on  the 
accompanying  portion  of  the  ordnance  survey.  The  space  drained  is 
coloured  red.  I  find  it  very  difficult  to  get  good  data  for  estimating 
the  quantity  of  rain  that  passed  off  the  surface.  Very  careful  records 
are  kept  at  Woodhead,  in  the  valley  at  the  other  side  of  the  hill  range, 
where  Mr.  Bateman  is  constructing  a  series  of  reservoirs  for  Manchester. 
By  the  kindness  of  Mr-  Bateman,  I  have  had  access  to  these  records ; 
and,  calculating  from  them,  and  supposing  equal  quantities  of  rain  to 
have  fallen  on  both  sides  of  the  hill  on  the  day  and  night  of  the  4th 
instant,  1,920  acres  would  have  given  a  supply  of  500  cubic  feet  per 
second.  I  am  under  the  impression,  however,  that  a  considerably 
greater  quantity  must  have  fallen  on  this  side  of  the  range  at 
that  particular  time.  Taking  the  evidence  of  those  who  were 
watching  the  rising  of  the  flood  at  the  embankment,  it  would 
appear  that  from  five  o'clock  it  rose  at  the  rate  of  about  one 
foot  per  hour  up  to  half  past  eleven.  In  this  quantity  of  water 
I  would  include  the  smaller  quantities  going  through  the  slide  valves 
and  leaks.  Suppose  in  the  calculations  that,  in  consequence  of  the  large 
stone  against  the  valve,  only  one-fifth  did  go  through  to  what  would 
have  gone  through  had  it  been  free.  The  waste-pit  is  circular,  12  feet 
in  diameter  in  the  clear ;  the  depth  to  the  bottom  of  the  culvert  is  59 
feet ;  the  side  valves  are  at  the  bottom,  and  1 1  inches  in  the  clear ;  the 
space  between  them  is  two  feet  square,  and  6  in  length.  The  culvert 
is  6  feet  4  inches  high,  and  6  feet  6  inches  wide,  semicircular  at  the 
top,  with  perpendicular  sides,  and  is  180  feet  in  length.  The  sectional 
area  of  the  waste  pit  is  1 13  square  feet ;  that  of  the  culvert  35  feet 
4  inches ;  that  of  the  slide  valves  1  foot  7  inches.  From  these  dimen- 
sions, with  the  pressure  due  to  the  whole  height,  the  culvert  has 
capacity  to  discharge  about  1,500  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  quantity 
coming  into  the  reservoir  is  assumed  above  at  500  cubic  feet,  so  that 
proper  allowance  has  been  made  for  its  escape  had  the  waste-pit  been 
so  circumstanced  as  to  fulfil  the  object  designed  in  its  construction. 
I  will  now  proceed  to  make  observations  on  the  dam.  The  water  is 
impounded  in  the  reservoir  by  an  earthen  dam  across  the  valley.  The 
one  which  has  been  adopted  in  this  case  is  of  a  common  construction, 
and  perhaps  the  most  economical.  It  is  formed  of  a  wall  of  puddle, 
thick,  with  a  mass  of  earth  on  either  side.  The  puddle  is  16  feet  thick 
at  bottom,  and  8  feet  at  top;  the  inner  slope  of  the  earth  has 
a  base  of  three  to  one ;  the  outer  slope  a  base  of  two  to  one.  The 
length  of  the  dam  is  340  feet,  and  was  carried  up  to  98  feet  high,  ac- 
cording to  the  original  design.  This  mass,  or  rather  that  part  of  it  on 
the  outside,  including  the  puddle,  acts  by  its  weight,  which  should 
more  than  counterbalance  the  pressure  or  height  of  water  acting  against 
it.  The  object  of  the  puddle  wall  is  simply  to  prevent  the  water  get- 
ting through  to  the  outer  portion.  It  is  to  keep  the  whole  water-tight, 
and  is  not  to  be  considered  as  having  any  strength  in  itself.  Such  a 
dam  answers  extremely  well,  if  the  materials  are  carefully  selected,  and 
the  whole  work  well  executed.  The  heavier  portion  of  the  material 
(the  heavier  the  better  the  stones  be)  should  be  placed  on  the  outside, 
and  the  more  binding  materials  on  the  inside.  Close  also  to  the  puddle 
dam  or  wall,  on  both  sides,  the  material  should  be  very  binding  in  its 
quality,  and  well  rammed — the  nearer  it  approaches  to  the  effect  of 
puddle  the  better.  In  the  construction  of  the  Bilberry  dam,  this  care- 
ful selection  has  not  been  made.  The  material  is  similar  on  both  sides, 
and  loose  in  its  nature.  The  inner  portion  is  permeable  throughout, 
and  instead  of  the  part  next  to  the  puddle  dam  being  closely  rammed, 
and  almost  puddle  in  its  character,  a  dry,  open,  rubble  wall,  or  backing 
appears  to  be  carried  up  from  the  bottom  on  both  sides  of  the  puddle 
dam,  inviting  the  water,  as  it  were,  to  act  on  the  whole  inner  surface 
of  the  puddle,  to  escape  with  greater  ease  at  any  leaks  or  fissures  aris- 
ing from  the  settlement  or  bad  execution  of  the  work.     In  flowing 


over  the  top  of  the  dam  (which  it  ought  not  to  have  done  if  the  waste 
pit  was  in  a  position  to  act)  the  water  would  flow  down  through  this  dry 
rubble  to  the  very  bottom,  and,  acting  on  any  cavities,  or  porous  or 
weak  portions,  at  that  part  of  the  embankment,  would  act  with  immense 
hydraulic  pressure — in  fact,  on  the  principle  of  an  hydraulic  ram.  In 
the  case  before  us,  you  have  it  in  evidence  that  the  water,  before 
passing  over  the  outer  surface  of  the  dam,  did  pour  down  thus  for  half 
an  hour;  and  also  acting  on  the  water,  which  was  forcing  its  way 
through  the  leaks,  and  a  spring  at  the  bottom,  the  dam  boiled  up  in 
the  centre,  as  the  witness  states,  and  burst  out  from  the  bottom  almost 
simultaneously  with  the  breaking  away  of  masses  from  the  top.  It  was 
thus  the  whole  dam  gave  way,  and  the  volume  of  water  in  the  reservoir 
burst  forth  at  once.  The  construction  and  material  of  the  earthwork 
in  the  slopework  of  the  dam,  are  comparatively  of  minor  impor- 
tance to  the  puddle,  or  the  centre.  The  trench  extending  down 
the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  valley  to  receive  the  ends  and  base 
of  the  puddle,  should,  as  the  specification  before  you  provides,  go 
down  to  the  solid  rock,  or  impervious  strata.  All  springs  should 
be  carefully  led  away,  and  even  every  fissure  got  past  or  through 
until  all  is  safe,  firm,  and  solid,  clear  of  water,  or  what  might  be 
channels  for  it,  when  the  reservoir  is  filled,  after  the  completion  of 
the  work.  This  observation  applies  equally  to  the  sides  as  well  as  to 
the  bottom.  In  executing  this  it  sometimes  happens  that  very  heavy 
and  quite  unforeseen  expenses  have  to  be  incurred.  The  excavations 
are  sometimes  obliged  to  be  extremely  great  in  depth,  and  if  the  rocks 
are  shaky  or  open  in  their  stratification  at  the  sides,  it  may  be  found 
necessary  to  puddle  all  over  the  ends  or  junction  of  the  dam  with  the 
sides  of  the  valley.  It  may  be  necessary  to  puddle  part  of  the  sides  of 
the  reservoir  itself.  In  short,  no  care  can  be  too  great,  and  no  expense 
should  be  withheld,  to  make  all  perfectly  water-tight.  Leakages  or 
springs  are  continuous,  and  continuously  injurious,  reaching  eventually 
perhaps  to  very  heavy  expenses,  if  not  to  disastrous  effects.  The 
puddle  should  also  be  of  the  best  quality ;  but  puddle  should  always 
be  excellent.  There  are  different  opinions  as  to  the  best  mixture.  In 
this  instance  gravel  and  clay  were  mixed  together,  and  it  is  unequal, 
though  what  is  now  seen  in  the  embankment  may  be  considered  good. 
You  have  evidence  of  much  which  we  cannot  at  present  see  being  bad, 
and  the  effects  which  are  to  be  observed  seem  to  confirm  that  evidence. 
To  be  water  tight,  and  not  liable  to  crack  or  settle  unequally,  are  the 
conditions  good  puddle  should  fulfil.  The  trench  to  receive  the  puddle 
wall  at  Bilberry  dam  was  cut  down  to  a  depth  of  nine  feet  in  the  centre, 
in  consequence  of  coming  on  a  soft  place  at  that  depth.  It  appears  that 
a  veiy  strong  spring  was  tapped  at  the  lower  strata  of  shale.  The  sec- 
tion before  you  shows  the  stratification  of  the  rocks  (millstone  grit  and 
shale),  and  from  the  dip  it  will  be  seen  that  water  might  be  expected  to 
rise  where  it  did  rise.  The  stratifications  of  the  rocks  immediately  above 
the  dam  are  full  of  fissures,  and  very  shaky.  From  the  runs  showing 
themselves  lower  down  than  the  dam,  and  the  leaks  at  each  end  of  the 
dam,  when  there  was  much  water  in  the  reservoir,  it  is  to  be  inferred 
that  the  openness  of  the  strata  was  not  sufficiently  regarded.  It  ap- 
pears in  evidence,  that  the  spring  at  the  bottom  of  the  puddle  trench 
was  not  led  away  by  any  of  the  usual  modes.  I  think  it  proper  to  ob- 
serve, that  the  expense  of  doing  this  would  have  to  be  borne  by  the 
contractors.  It,  however,  was  not  done,  hut  very  objectionable  plans 
resorted  to,  in  the  hope  of  choking  it  up,  or  "  weighting  it  down,"  to 
use  the  words  of  the  evidence.  But  it  was  not  to  be  weighted  down ;  it 
rose  as  the  work  rose,  materially  injuring  the  lower  portion  of  the  puddle, 
making  it  weak  and  bad,  of  a  nature  easily  to  be  worked  away  with  the 
water  of  the  spring,  as  the  latter  forced  itself  through  the  outer  part  of 
the  embankment,  like  a  little  rill  of  water  issuing  from  the  foot.  At 
times  this  rill  was  clear,  at  times  muddy  and  yellow.  The  muddiness 
varied  with  the  head  of  water  in  the  reservoir.  To  the  weak  nature  of  the 


1852.] 


Report  on  Holmfirth  Reservoir. 


83 


puddle  at  the  base,  and  the  washing  away,  from  time  to  time,  by  the  con- 
tinuous run  of  water  from  the  spring  under  the  bottom  of  it,  the  great 
settlement  of  the  puddle  dam  in  the  centre  is  to  be  attributed — a  settle- 
ment which  continued  to  go  on  during  the  construction  and  after  the  dam 
had  been  raised  to  the  height  required  in  the  specification.  Of  late  years 
the  settling  down  appears  to  have  gradually  ceased.  Doubtless  the  soft 
puddle  had  nearly  been  all  squeezed  out,  and  then  would  commence 
a  different  mode  of  action ;  leaks  increasing  in  size,  and  unequal 
settlement,  causing  fractures.  The  formation  of  pits  or  craters  along 
the  top  of  the  embankment  admits  of  speculation  as  to  this  cause.  It 
is  not  a  matter  of  certainty.  The  lowest  points  of  the  pits  now  remain- 
ing are  exactly  at  the  edge  of  the  puddle  dam,  and  immediately  over  the 
dry  rubble  backing  described  before;  in  one  instance  the  lowest 
point  is  at  the  inner  edge :  and  in  the  other  at  the  outer  edge  of 
the  puddle  dam.  They  might  have  been  formed  at  the  time  of 
the  high  water  or  freshet,  alluded  to  in  the  evidence,  and  which  filled 
the  reservoir  soon  after  its  completion.  At  this  time  it  is  not  unlikely 
that  some  water  poured  over  the  edge  of  the  puddle-dam  into  the  dry 
rubble  backing,  carrying  with  it  some  of  the  earth,  and.leavinga  crater- 
like formation.  At  the  time  of  the  catastrophe,  it  poured  down  into 
this  portion  at  the  centre  of  the  dam  for  half-an-hour.  At  the  time  to 
which  I  am  alluding,  it  might  have  been  only  for  a  very  short  period. 
I  am  induced  to  think  they  must  have  been  formed  at  an  early  period, 
when  the  bank  was  at  its  full  height,  because  there  is  a  similar  forma- 
tion on  the  right  flank  of  the  dam,  at  an  elevation  above  the  level  of 
the  top  of  the  waste-pit.  The  top  of  the  dam,  near  the  centre,  but 
close  to  the  little  crater  or  pit,  has  sunk  bodily,  all  across,  and  on  the 
sunken  part  is  a  larger  crater,  formed,  I  conceive,  at  the  same  time  as 
the  higher  one.  Both  are  shown  in  the  plans  and  sections  before  you. 
The  sunken  part  is  over  the  culvert,  and  is  no  doubt  due  to  the  wash- 
ing away  of  the  bad  puddling  over  and  above  the  culvert,  where  it 
passes  through  the  puddle  wall  below.  This  bad  work,  and  the  fruitless 
attempts  to  remedy  it,  are  detailed  abundantly  in  the  evidence  you  have 
had  before  you.  That  evidence  does  not  bear  directly  on  the  bursting 
of  the  dam,  but  proves  the  inferior  execution,  the  misunderstandings, 
and  faulty  management  and  control  that  have  marked  the  whole  con- 
struction of  the  dam.  From  the  description  of  a  leak  half-way  up  the 
middle  of  the  clam,  as  well  as  the  great  depth  and  width  of  the  centre- 
pit,  as  described  in  evidence,  but  now  washed  away,  I  would  infer,  it  is 
pvobable  the  puddle  was  shaky  at  this  part,  and  had  some  fissure  near 
the  upper  portion,  through  which  the  water  leaked  when  the  head  of 
the  water  was  high.  The  shakiness  would  be  caused  of  late  by 
the  continual  wearing  of  the  spring  beneath.  I  will  not  take  up  more 
of  your  time  by  alluding  to  other  points  that  attracted  my  notice.  I 
will  just  observe,  they  will  simply  serve  to  show,  in  addition  to  what  I 
have  already  stated,  that  the  execution  of  the  work  was  not  what  it 
ought  to  have  been";  and  bad  execution  in  works  of  this  kind,  or  any 
works  connected  with  water,  is  fatal.  The  works  must  be  good,  and 
water-tight,  or  they  will  be  dangerous,  and  their  destruction  must 
come  sooner  or  later.  In  the  evidence,  there  appears  to  have  been 
much  stress  laid  on  the  great  cost  of  the  reservoir.  I  think  it,  there- 
fore, right  to  observe  to  you,  that  in  hydraulic  engineering  generally, 
it  is  extremely  difficult,  if  not  impracticable,  to  say  with  certainty  what 
the  final  cost  may  be.  It  has  been  shown  in  evidence  that  eminent 
engineers  have  tendered  estimates  of  different  amounts  to  put  the 
reservoir  in  an  efficient  and  safe  condition ;  the  plan  proposed  being  to 
cover  the  inner  slopes  of  the  dam  with  puddling,  and  to  re -pitch  it  with 
stones  ;  also  to  puddle  a  portion  of  the  sides,  and  thus  make  it,  if  pos- 
sible, water-tight.  Still,  if  that  had  been  done,  it  might  not  have 
answered,  so  long  as  that  full  spring  existed  where  it  was,  and  unknown 
to  the  engineer,  also  runs  of  water  round  the  flanks  of  the  dam.  They 
might  have  had  to  execute  other  works,  and  incur  other  expenses.      I 


am  speaking  of  really  eminent  men,  skilled  in  their  profession,  and  well 
knowing  what  they  were  proposing.  I  do  not  mean  unprofessional  men, 
who  are  unskilled,  who  do  not  know  what  they  are  proposing,  and  had 
better,  much  better,  leave  hydraulic  engineering,  and  all  engineering,  to 
engineers.  I  conceive  it  quite  possibls  it  might  have  been  necessary  to 
extend  the  puddling  and  pitching  far  up  the  sides  of  the  valley,  making 
it  almost  like  a  tank.  It  might  have  been  necessary  to  do  this.  The  strati- 
fication is  extremely  full  of  fissures  and  shakes.  In  this  neighbourhood 
there  are  many  mountain  reservoirs  receiving  floods  of  water  impounded 
by  lofty  dams.  Pray  don't  look  upon  them  and  treat  them  like  mill  clams 
or  fish  ponds.  They  are  engines  of  mighty  force,  strong  in  aid  of  your 
industry  to  augment  your  wealth,  and  terrible  in  their  power  to  destroy 
if  mismanaged  or  neglected.  This  fact  must  be  indelibly  impressed  on 
the  minds  of  all  the  dwellers  in  Holmfirth. 

VERDICT    OF    THE    JURY. 

The  jury  retired  to  consider  their  verdict  at  a  few  minutes  before  two 
o'clock,  and  were  absent  till  five  minutes  past  four,  when  the  foreman 
handed  in  the  following  verdict,  to  which  15  of  the  16  jurors  had 
agreed — Mr.  Martin  being  the  only  dissentient: — "We  find  that 
Marsden  came  to  her  death  by  drowning,  caused  by  the  bursting  of  the 
Bilberry  Reservoir.  We  also  find  that  the  Bilberry  Reservoir  was  de- 
fective in  its  original  construction,  and  that  the  commissioners,  engineer, 
and  overlookers,  were  greatly  culpable  in  not  seeing  to  the  proper 
regulation  of  the  works ;  and  we  also  find  that  the  commissioners,  in 
permitting  the  Bilberry  Reservoir  to  remain  for  several  years  in  a 
dangerous  state,  with  a  full  knowledge  thereof,  and  not  lowering  the 
waste  pit,  have  been  guilty  of  wilful  and  culpable  negligence,  and  we 
regret  that  the  reservoir  being  under  the  management  of  the  corpora- 
tion prevents  us  bringing  in  a  verdict  of  manslaughter,  as  we  are  con- 
vinced that  the  gross  and  culpable  negligence  of  the  commissioners 
would  have  subjected  them  to  such  a  verdict,  had  they  been  in  the 
position  of  a  private  individual  or  a  firm.  We  also  hope  that  the  legis- 
lature will  take  into  its  most  serious  consideration  the  propriety  of 
making  provision  for  the  protection  of  the  lives  and  properties  of  Her 
Majesty's  subjects  exposed  to  danger  from  reservoirs,  placed  by  corpo- 
rations in  situations  similar  to  those  under  the  charge  of  the  Holme 
Reservoir  commissioners." 

The  Coroner  said  Captain  Moody,  the  government  engineer,  had 
inspected  one  of  the  other  reservoirs — the  Holm  Stye  Reservoir — and 
would  express  an  opinion  as  to  its  present  state. 

Captain  Moody,  R.E.,  said  he  had  been  requested  to  make  a  few 
observations  as  to  the  state  of  the  Holm  Stye  Reservoir.  He  had  in- 
spected it,  and  it  appeared  to  him  that  they  ought  not  to  delay  sending 
for  some  superior  engineer,  well  acquainted  with  this  kind  of  work ; 
take  his  advice ;  carry  it  into  execution ;  not  thinking  too  much  about 
making  an  economical  bargain.  Recollect  what  he  told  them  about 
gratings.  There  was  one  in  this  reservoir,  but  not  of  good  design.  It 
was  vertical,  and  a  little  within  the  channel.  It  might,  therefore,  get 
choked  up,  and  the  ordinary  supply  of  water  not  pass  through  it.  There 
was  also  the  same  arrangement  of  slide  valves,  so  that  if  either  got 
fixed,  the  water  could  not  get  through  it,  and  the  reservoir  must  fill. 
Then,  although  the  valve  was  up,  there  was  a  considerable  leak  in  it. 
There  was  also  a  considerable  leak  outside  the  masonry  of  the  culvert, 
and  the  water  was  running,  by  a  stop  watch,  at  the  rate  of  sixteen 
inches  per  second.  The  water,  when  he  saw  it,  was  running  very 
muddy.  He  watched  it  a  considerable  time,  in  company  with  two 
brother  officers.  But  this  evil  was  not  so  great  as  another.  They 
would  remember  how  strongly  he  impressed  upon  them  the  necessity 
of  allowing  the  waste  and  flood  waters  escaping  freely,  and  he  recol- 
lected that  he  recommended  that  there  should  be  a  byewash.  In  this 
reservoir  there  had  been  a  byewash,  but  when  he  went  up  there  was  a 
wall  built  across  it,  well  puddled  down  to  the  bottom,  and  had  the  water 


84 


Progress  of  American  Invention. 


[April, 


risen  on  the  4th  February  a  few  feet  higher,  there  could  be  no  doubt 
but  this  reservoir  would  have  gone  also,  and  they  would  have  had  a 
flood  down  the  valley  of  Ribblesden,  meeting  that  down  the  valley  of 
the  Holme  at  right  angles  at  the  entrance  of  the  town,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  life  and  property  would  have  been  much  more  awful  than  it  was. 
(Great  sensation.)  He  assured  them  when  he  saw  the  wall  built  across 
the  byewash,  he  said  "  these  people  are  insane  !"  He  could  not  have 
believed  it  if  he  had  not  seen  it,  that  sensible  men,  millowners,  having 
property  in  the  way,  could  have  acted  so  insanely.  He  instantly  or- 
dered it  to  be  removed.  (Great  applause.)  He  did  not  pretend  to 
tell  them  what  were  the  remedies  to  be  applied :  let  them,  or  rather 
the  commissioners,  send  for  a  hydraulic  engineer,  and  take  his  advice. 
He  thought  it  right  also  to  make  an  observation  about  the  men  in 
charge  of  large  engines  of  terrible  power,  such  as  those  reservoirs. 
They  were  not  paid  enough.  They  had  no  right  to  expect  a  man  to 
pay  attention  to  one  of  them  with  £5  a  year  salary.  They  must  pay 
more,  and  get  a  good  man. 


PROGRESS  OF  AMERICAN  INVENTION. 

(Continued  from  p.  CO.) 
Agriculture. — Machines  for  Hulling  Grain  and  Iiice,  and  separating 
Smut  and  Dirt. — Eight  patents  have  been  granted  ;  three  of  these  for  hulling 
clover,  four  for  smut  machines,  and  one  for  separating  garlic  from  wheat. 
I  shall  notice  three  of  these  machines.  The  first  is  for  the  construction  of 
the  basis  for  setting  the  teeth  on  the  cylinder  of  a  clover  huller,  or  on  the 
concave  of  the  same.  The  teeth  are  first  set  in  a  compact  sheet  of  leather, 
and  this  fixed  upon  a  basis  of  cork,  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the  teeth 
capable  of  a  slight  flexibility,  so  as  to  prevent  breaking  from  the  accidental 
introduction  of  stones  or  other  foreign  bodies. 

A  Clover  Huller  has  been  patented ;  the  novelty  of  which  consists  in  the 
form  and  arrangement  of  the  teeth  on  the  concave  and  on  the  cylinder.  The 
one  (say  the  cylinder,)  has  teeth  proper  of  an  elipsoidal  form,  running  be- 
tween serpentine  ribs  of  alternate  expanded  and  contracted  dimensions  on 
the  sides,  so  that  the  grain  between  the  roughened  sides  of  the  ribs  and  the 
roughened  sides  of  the  teeth,  may  receive  a  sufficient  amount  of  friction  to 
clear  it  of  hulls. 

A  Garlic  Machine  has  been  patented,  for  the  purpose  of  separating  garlic 
from  wheat  or  other  grain.  It  consists  mainly  of  a  horizontal  slatted  or 
ribbed  cylinder,  between  whose  ribs  or  slats  the  pinion  teeth  of  another  cylin- 
der are  allowed  to  mesh,  and  against  which  they  are  pressed  by  a  spring 
with  sufficient  force  to  crush  the  garlic  without  injuring  the  wheat.  The 
garlic  is  thus  mashed  and  made  to  work  its  way  out  of  the  machine,  through 
the  ends  of  the  cylinder. 

Straw  Cutters. — Ten  patents  have  been  granted.  Three  of  these  will  be 
noticed — the  first  belongs  to  the  class  of  straw  machines  in  which  the  blade 
is  worked  by  hand.  The  point  of  novelty  is  in  the  device  of  fastening  the 
jointed  end  of  the  knife  on  a  spring,  so  that  in  working  the  knife,  the  slight 
yield  of  the  spring  produces  a  draw  cut  in  severing  the  straw. 

In  the  second  machine  noticed  in  this  division,  the  novelty  of  the  invention 
consists  in  so  arranging  the  spirally  ribbed  feeding  rollers  and  horizontal 
knife  with  its  edge  towards  the  said  rollers,  and  brought  so  close  to  the  ribs, 
that  those  of  the  upper  roller  cut  against  the  upper  edge  of  the  knife,  while 
those  of  the  lower  roller  cut  against  the  lower  edge  of  the  knife,  and  thus  the 
straw  that  is  fed  through,  is  all  cut  either  by  the  lower  or  upper  edge  of  the 
knife. 

Under  this  division  of  agriculture,  there  has  been  patented  a  vegetable 
cutter,  presenting  some  novelty  worthy  of  mention.  The  machine  in  the 
general  consists  of  a  short  cylinder  lying  or  supported  on  its  side,  and  having 
its  cutting  apparatus  on  the  upper  part  of  the  cylinder  over  which  the  hopper 
is  placed.  The  two  edged  knives,  which  have  a  reciprocating  motion  in  an 
arc  corresponding  with  the  periphery  of  the  cylinder,  are  hung  on  arms  at- 
tached to  each  end  of  the  axle  of  the  same,  and  vibrate  across  and  just 
above  the  opening  in  the  bottom  of  the  hopper,  and  perform  a  cut  with  both 
the  forward  and  back  stroke. 


Chemistry. — Glucose  or  Grape  Sugar. — An  article  under  this  denomina- 
tion has  been  patented ;  it  is  a  process.  The  sugar  found  in  rasins  and  in  most 
acid  fruits  at  maturity,  belongs  to  one  kind  or  species,  and  is  distinguished  from 
cane  and  maple  sugar  by  being  not  more  than  half  as  sweet  as  the  same  weight  of 
the  former.  It  was  found  many  years  ago,  that  if  starch  were  suspended  in 
water,  slightly  acidulated  with  an  acid,  and  boiled  briskly  for  some  ten  hours, 
the  starch  would  be  converted  into  its  own  weight  of  a  sugar  identical  with 
that  found  in  raisins  and  other  fruits,  which  fruits  are  acid  in  the  green  state ; 
this  product  is  called  glucose.  The  patentee  has  learned  by  experiment,  that 
if  he  boils  his  starch  compound  at  a  higher  heat  than  212°,  he  reduces  the  time 
required  to  finish  the  process,  so  that  what  was  before  done  in  ten  or  twelve 
hours  may  now  be  done  in  six  or  seven.  He  mixes  25  bushels  of  corn  meal 
with  150  gallons  of  water,  at  the  temperature  of  175",  and  adds  about  25  lbs. 
of  oil  of  vitrol,  and  after  well  stirring  the  same,  adds  50  gallons  more  of  water, 
and  runs  the  whole  into  the  boiler,  lets  in  steam,  and  allows  the  contents  to 
boil  under  pressure,  by  adding  weight  to  the  safety  valve.  He  continues  the 
boiling  until  the  tincture  of  iodine  no  longer  indicates  the  presence  of  starch 
in  the  material.  Chalk  is  now  added  to  neutralize  the  sulphuric  acid,  and 
the  solution  concentrated  to  crystallize. 

Sugar. — A  patent  has  been  granted  for  a  process  of  refining  sugar  from 
the  beet  or  cane,  which  consists  in  adding  to  the  cane  juice,  or  beet  juice,  or 
to  the  solution  of  sugar  in  water,  a  quantity  of  baryta,  to  form  the  saccharate 
of  baryta,  which  is  removed  from  the  liquor  by  mechanical  means  in  the 
state  of  magma.  The  baryta  is  separated  by  means  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
forced  through  it;  an  insoluble  carbonate  of  baryta  is  formed  and  precipitated 
by  adding  sufficient  water,  so  that  the  solution  of  sugar  will  be  of  the  strength 
of  30°  Beaume,  from  which  it  may  be  concentrated  to  the  state  suitable  for 
crystallization  in  the  usual  way. 

Draining  Sugars. — This  is  an  improved  apparatus  on  Hurd's  machine  for 
draining  sugars  by  centrifugal  force,  and  consists  in  surrounding  the  wire 
gauze  cylinder  by  a  steam  case,  to  be  supplied  with  steam,  or  a  fine  spray  of 
water,  the  design  of  which  is  to  prevent  the  gumming  up  of  the  meshes  of 
the  wire  gauze,  which  is  liable  to  occur  when  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  is 
freely  exposed  to  the  atmosphere. 

Refining  of  Gold. — Three  processes  have  been  patented  for  separating  gold 
from  other  metals,  or  from  gold  sands,  only  two  of  which  will  be  noticed 
here.  As  this  subject  is  one  of  great  importance,  inasmuch  as  from  present 
appearances  gold  is  likely  to  become  the  chief  metallic  currency  of  our  laud, 
I  deem  these  processes  of  sufficient  interest  to  the  public,  to  give  them  some- 
what in  detail. 

Most  of  the  native  gold  brought  to  the  mint  for  refining,  contains  silver, 
from  which  it  must  be  separated  before  it  can  be  supplied  with  the  uniform 
proportion  of  alloy  required  by  law  in  gold  coin.  For  this  purpose,  the  pro- 
cess now  in  use  throughout  the  world,  is  to  melt  the  gold  to  be  refined  pre- 
vious to  coining  it,  with  two  or  three  times  its  weight  of  silver.  It  is  then 
granulated  and  exposed  to  the  action  of  hot  nitric  or  sulphuric  acid,  which 
dissolves  out  nearly  all  the  silver,  both  that  in  the  native  metal,  and  that 
added  by  the  refiner,  and  thus  leaves  the  gold  in  nearly  a  pure  state,  and 
ready  to  receive  the  necessary  portion  of  alloy  required  in  the  gold  coin.  It 
will  be  seen  at  a  glance,  that  allowing  a  million  of  California  gold  to  weigh 
53,250  ounces,  or  nearly  two  tons,  it  would  require  nearly  six  tons,  and  worth 
about  190,000  dollars,  to  be  kept  constantly  on  hand  to  work  it.  The  de- 
sideratum is,  therefore,  to  find  some  process  of  working  the  gold,  by  which 
this  great  outlay  of  silver  may  be  prevented,  and  by  which  greater  celerity 
may  be  effected;  both  of  these  results,  the  inventors  allege,  they  have  ob- 
tained. 

In  the  first,  the  argentiferous  gold  is  converted  into  the  chloride  by 
the  action  of  nascent  nitro-muriatic  acid  generated  by  the  reaction  of 
sulphuric  acid  upon  a  mixture  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  common  salt,  or  by 
other  equivalent  means.  The  silver  contained  in  the  native  guld,  is  also  con- 
verted into  the  chloride  by  the  same  chemical  reaction,  and  it  is  prevented 
from  incrusting  the  gold  by  the  more  intense  affinity,  aud  the  agitation  pro- 
duced by  a  jet  of  steam  which  is  constantly  being  forced  into  it.  The  gold 
is  next  precipitated  in  the  metallic  state  upon  the  chloride  of  silver,  by  means 
of  pulverised  copperas.  After  washing  the  precipitate  of  gold  and  chloride 
of  silver,  the  latter  is  reduced  to  the  metallic  state  by  the  re-aition  of  zinc 
and  dilute  sulphuric  acid ;  and  subsequently  the  silver  is  dissolved  out  by 


1852.] 


Societies — Royal  Institution . 


85 


means  of  nitric  acid.  From  the  nitrate  of  silver  obtained  above,  the  metal 
in  the  pare  state  is  precipitated  in  the  usual  way  by  the  reaction  of  zinc  and 
dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

In  the  second  patent  referred  to,  the  design  of  the  invention  is  to  avoid 
the  use  of  chlorine  in  the  first  part  of  the  process.  The  argentiferous  gold  is 
first  melted  down  with  zinc  or  other  metal  baser  than  silver,  from  which  alloy 
the  baser  metal  may  be  dissolved  out  by  dilute  sulphuric  or  other  cheap  acid, 
and  the  bullion  pulverised,  or  an  alloy  of  great  brittleDess  made,  which  may 
be  easily  crushed  or  broken  down  by  mechanical  means,  so  as  to  fit  the  gold 
bullion  for  the  direct  action  of  nitric  or  other  acid.  The  inventor  states,  that 
he  first  mixes  the  argentiferous  gold  with  twice  or  three  times  its  weight  of 
zinc,  melts  and  stirs  well  the  alloy,  and  then  granulates  the  same  by  pouring 
it  into  water.  The  alloy  thus  obtained,  is  next  treated  in  wooden  vessels 
lined  with  lead,  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  which  removes  the  zinc,  and  leaves 
the  argentiferous  gold  in  a  finely  divided  pulverulent  or  spongy  state.  In  this 
second  operation  heat  is  not  required,  and  but  little  more  sulphuric  acid  than 
will  be  necessary  to  form  the  sulphate  of  zinc. 

Third.  The  argentiferous  gold  thus  reduced  to  a  spongy  state,  and  still 
containing  the  silver  untouched  by  the  re-agents  used,  is  treated  with  hot 
nitric  or  sulphuric  acid  (the  sulphate  of  zinc  having  been  first  entirely  removed 
by  washing),  by  which  the  silver  is  entirely  removed,  and  to  be  obtained 
in  the  metallic  state  as  in  the  former  process  or  in  the  usual  way.  Finally, 
the  operation  is  finished  by  cupelling  the  gold  or  melting  it  with  such  fluxes 
as  borax,  nitre,  &c.,and  casting  it  into  bars. 

Alum,  the  process  of  Manufacturing,  from  the  "  green  sand  formation"  of 
New  Jersey.  It  consists  in  igniting  the  green  sand  free  from  lime  and  mag- 
nesia, stirring  it  in  the  mean  time  and  exposing  it  freely  to  the  air,  the  object 
of  the  exposure  being  to  peroxidize  the  iron  contained — care  being  taken  to 
avoid  carrying  the  heat  so  high  as  to  fuse  the  mass  and  prevent  the  action  of 
sulphuric  acid  upon  it.  It  is  next  treated  by  sulphuric  acid  to  dissolve  out 
the  potash,  and  the  alumina  is  added  in  the  requisite  proportions  to  form 
alum. 

Red  Oxide  of  Zinc  prepared  as  a  Drier  of  Paint. — This  ore  is  procured 
from  Sussex  County,  N.  J.,  is  heated  and  partially  converted  into  the  white 
oxide,  and  by  this  means  rendered  friable,  and  the  foreign  matters  are  thus 
easily  separated  from  it.  It  is  then  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  oil  as  other 
driers. 

Manufacture  of  India  Rubber. — Two  patents  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  India  Rubber,  have  been  granted  during  the  past  year,  which 
claim  some  notice  in  this  place.  The  first  of  these,  is  for  the  use  of  the  hypo- 
sulphite of  zinc.  This  salt  is  prepared  in  the  following  manner:  In  asolution 
of  caustic  lime,  potash,  or  other  caustic  alkali,  boil  flowers  of  sulphur  until 
the  liquor  be  saturated,  and  into  this  liquid  pass  sulphurous  acid  gas  by  any 
of  the  known  means  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  hyposulphite  of  the 
alkaline  base.  The  liquid  is  allowed  to  stand  and  cool,  and  the  clear  liquor 
is  then  decanted  into  a  vessel  containing  a  suitable  quantity  of  a  saturated 
solution  of  the  nitrate  or  other  analogous  salt  of  zinc.  On  mixing  these 
solutions,  the  zinc  is  precipitated  in  a  white  powder  which  is  regarded  as  the 
hyposulphite  of  zinc.  It  is  then  washed  on  a  filter,  dried  and  subsequently 
ground  in  a  paint  mill.  Three  pounds  of  this  powder  is  mixed  with  ten 
pounds  of  India  rubber,  and  heated  from  three  to  five  hours  at  a  temperature 
of  260°,  280°.  The  rubber,  according  to  the  inventor,  will  be  found  com- 
pletely cured  or  vulcanized,  and  requires  no  free  sulphur  to  be  used  in  any 
part  of  the  process,  and  no  washing  with  alkali  as  do  the  ordinary  materials 
used  for  vulcanizing.  Hence,  it  is  alleged,  that  this  process  is  adapted  to 
the  covering  of  silks,  and  other  delicate  textures,  and  coloured  fabrics. 

Another  patent  for  a  compound  for  vulcanizing  India  rubber,  has  been 
granted,  in  which  the  mode  of  treatment  is  much  the  same  as  the  last,  and 
produces  the  same  result.  The  material  is  the  artificial  bi-sulphuret  of  zinc. 
The  inventor  claims  the  use  of  this  composition  without  the  use  of  sulphur  in 
any  part  of  the  process  of  manufacture,  and  the  washing  with  alkaline  solu- 
tions is  not  required,  and  is  not  used  in  this  mode  of  manufacture. 

Distilling  Crude  Turpentine,  so  as  to  accomplish  two  processes  in  one, 
namely,  distilling  the  turpentine  and  boiling  soap.  This  is  done  by  mixing 
the  raw  turpentine  with  the  requisite  quantity  of  alkali  to  saponify  the  rosin 
at  the  same  time  that  the  spirits  are  evaporated  and  passed  into  a  condenser 


for  use;  the  rosin  is  thus  saponified  and  prepared  for  the  business  of  soap 
making. 

Purifying  Gas  in  the  Retort  where  it  is  generated. — A  patent  has  been 
granted  for  this  device  which  consists  in  the  mixture  of  coke  and  lime  in  the 
retort  for  generating  coal  gas.  The  inventor  alleges  that  he  increases  the 
quantity  as  well  as  the  quality  of  the  gas,  and  saves  a  considerable  amount 
of  matter  usually  deposited  in  the  purifiers  and  other  parts  of  the  condensing 
apparatus. 

Preparing  Wheat  for  Grinding. — The  object  being  to  so  act  on  the  hull  of 
the  grain  by  a  chemical  agent,  as  to  render  the  process  of  separating  it  more 
easy  and  more  perfect.  This  consists  in  sprinkling  the  grain  before  grind- 
ing with  a  dilute  acid,  which  hardens  and  stiffens  the  hull,  and  thus  loosens 
it,  by  which  process  it  is  readily  separated,  and,  as  alleged  by  the  inventor, 
grain  so  treated  is  fitted  to  make  better  flour. 

Household  Furniture. — Bedsteads  and  Fastenings. — A  camp  bed  or 
chest,  so  arranged  that  when  the  chest  or  bureau  lets  down  its  top  and  sides, 
so  as  to  be  opened  in  the  widest  way,  it  constitutes  a  wide  bed,  that  is,  when 
the  front  and  back  are  let  down — but  when  the  ends  are  let  down  it  forms  a 
naiTOw  or  single  bed. 

Chairs  and  Tables. — Three  patents  have  been  granted.  One  for  a  nursery 
chair,  one  for  a  car  seat,  and  one  for  an  extension  table. 

The  first  of  these  claims  a  passing  notice.  The  principal  feature  of  novelty 
consists  in  the  removal  of  the  back,  and  fitting  it  in  front,  and  drawing  out 
at  the  same  time  a  slide  in  the  side  of  the  chair,  and  taking  with  it  one  of  the 
arms,  which  together  constitute  the  end  piece  and  bottom  support  of  the 
cradle,  so  that  a  rocking  chair  with  a  high  back  may  be  converted  into  a 
cradle  by  the  removal  and  adjustment  of  the  parts  herein  named. 

The  point  of  novelty  in  the  extension  table  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  leaf, 
or  leaves,  which  are  constructed  of  thin  plates  of  metal,  having  the  ends  of 
the  leaves  bent  down,  so  as  to  constitute  a  flange,  each  individual  flange 
being  received  into  that  of  its  fellow,  or  vice  versa,  so  that  when  the  leaves 
are  closed  up  to  make  a  compact  table,  each  leaf  of  the  extensible  parts  is 
shut  in  under  or  over  its  fellow,  and  when  drawn  out,  the  leaves,  edge  upon 
edge,  lie  over  each  other  like  the  shingles  of  a  roof,  and  yet  the  leaves  are  so 
thin  that  they  appear  when  seen  extended,  as  a  plane  surface. 

A  Fly  Trap  has  been  patented  of  the  following  construction.  It  consists 
of  a  horizontal  cylinder,  rotating  within  a  box  open  above.  The  upper  part 
of  the  cylinder  with  its  ribs,  projects  a  little  above  the  body  of  the  box,  and 
has  its  surface  smeared  with  molasses.  On  one  side  of  the  box,  and  that 
side  towards  which  the  cylinder  rotates,  a  space  is  cut  away  and  a  glass  plate 
let  in,  in  its  stead,  which  glass  plate  fits  pretty  closely  to  the  projecting  ribs 
on  the  cylinder.  The  cylinder  rotates  very  slowly,  by  means  of  clock  work. 
Flies  alight  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  cylinder  and  feed  on  the  saccharine 
matter  while  the  cylinder  rolls  slowly  forward,  and  brings  the  fly  behind  the 
glass  plate  before  he  is  aware,  and  from  which  there  is  no  escape.  He  is 
gradually  carried  to  the  under  and  dark  part  of  the  box,  where  he  is  brushed 
off  by  machinery  moved  for  this  purpose. 

Machine  to  wash  dishes. — Designed  as  a  substitute  for  the  ordinary  hand 
work.  It  consists  of  an  oblong,  somewhat  irregular  shaped  vessel,  generally 
made  of  tinned  plate  metal,  and  containing  on  one  side  a  vertical  rotating 
cylindrical  frame,  to  contain  the  dishes  to  be  washed,  and  on  the  other,  a 
horizontal  reel  formed  cylinder,  with  buckets  or  dashers  on  the  arms  of  it, 
which  are  designed  to  dip  into  the  water  in  the  lower  part  of  the  vessel,  and 
to  dash  the  same  against  the  dishes  in  the  vertical  revolving  frame,  so  that 
eveiy  part  of  it  shall  be  exposed  to  the  hot  water  in  the  machine. 
(To  be  continued.) 

SOCIETIES. 

ROYAL  INSTITUTION. 

February  6  th. 

The  Duke  of  Northumberland,  President,  in  the  chair. 

J.  Scott  Russell,  Esq.,  "  On  Wave-line  Ships  and  Yachts."  The  sub- 
ject placed  on  the  list  for  consideration  this  evening  has  been  'suggested  by 
the  assertion  which  within  a  year  or  two  has  been  so  often  repeated,  that  our 
transatlantic  brethren  are  building  better  ships  than  ourselves;  that,  in  short, 

12 


86 


Royal  Institution. 


[April, 


Brother  Jonathan  is  going  ahead  while  John  Bull  is  comfortably  dozing  in 
his  arm-chair;  and  that  if  he  do  not  awake  speedily,  and  take  a  sound  sur- 
vey of  his  true  position,  he  may  soon  find  himself  hopelessly  astern.  Two 
questions  of  a  practical  nature  arise  out  of  this  alarming  assertion  : — 1st, 
Whether  the  Americans  are  really  in  any  respect  superior  to  the  English  in 
nautical  matters  ? — 2nd,  Whether  in  order  to  equal  them  we  are  to  be  con- 
demned to  descend  into  mere  imitators,  or  whether  we  have  independent 
ground  from  which  we  can  start  with  certainty  and  originality  on  a  new 
career  of  improvement  in  naval  architecture  In  the  outset  I  beg  permission 
to  say,  that  I  am  not  one  of  those  who  shut  their  ears  to  the  praises  of  our 
young  and  enterprising  brethren  over  the  water,  or  view  their  rapid  advance- 
ment with  jealousy.  I  beg  to  express  my  perfect  belief  in  the  accounts  we 
have  heard  of  their  wonderful  achievements  in  rapid  river  steam  navigation. 
I  am  satisfied,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  that  twenty-one,  twenty-two,  and  twenty- 
three  miles  an  hour  have  been  performed,  not  once,  but  often,  by  their  river 
steam-boats.  To  that  we  cannot  in  this  country  offer  any  parallel.  The 
next  point  in  which  they  had  beaten  us  was,  in  the  construction  of  the  beau- 
tiful packet-ships  which  carried  on  the  passenger  trade  between  Liverpool  and 
America  before  the  era  of  ocean  steamers.  These  were  the  finest  ships  in 
the  world,  and  they  were  mainly  owned  and  sailed  by  Americans.  The  next 
point  at  which  we  have  come  into  competition  with  the  A.mericans  has  been 
lately  in  ocean  steam  navigation.  Three  years  ago  they  began.  They  were 
immeasurably  behind  us  at  starting — they  are  already  nearly  equal  to  us^ 
Their  Transatlantic  steam-packets  equal  ours  in  size,  power,  and  speed;  in 
regularity  they  are  still  inferior.  If  they  continue  to  advance  at  the  present 
rate  of  improvement,  they  will  very  soon  outstrip  us.  Next  I  come  to  the 
trade  which  has  long  been  peculiarly  our  own — the  China  trade.  The  clip- 
per ships  which  they  have  recently  sent  home  to  this  country  have  astonished 
the  fine  ships  of  own  own  Smiths  and  Greens.  Our  best  shipowners  are  now 
trembling  for  their  trade  and  reputation.  Finally,  it  is  true  that  the  Ameri- 
cans have  sent  over  to  England  a  yacht,  called  the  America,  which  has  found 
on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  no  match;  and  we  only  escaped  the  disgrace  of 
her  having  returned  to  America  without  any  of  us  having  had  the  courage 
to  accept  her  defiance,  through  the  chivalry  of  one  gentleman,  who  accepted 
the  challenge  with  a  yacht  of  half  the  size,  on  this  principle,  so  worthy  of 
John  Bull,  "  that  the  Yankee,  although  he  might  say  that  he  had  beaten  us 
should  not  be  able  to  say  that  we  had  all  run  away."  Such,  then,  at  present 
is  our  actual  position  in  the  matter  of  ships,  yachts,  and  steam  navigation — 
a  position  highly  creditable  to  the  Americans,  and  which  deserves  our  own  very 
serious  consideration.  I  propose  to  examine  a  little  into  the  physical  causes 
of  the  naval  success  of  the  Americans  ;  but  before  doing  so,  permit  me  to 
point  out  a  moral  one,  which  later  in  the  evening  you  will  also  find  to  lie  at 
the  bottom  of  the  physical  causes.  It  is  this : — John  Bull  has  a  prejudice 
against  novelty — Brother  Jonathan  has  a  prejudice  equally  strong  in  favour 
of  it.  We  adhere  to  tradition  in  trade,  manners,  customs,  professions,  hu- 
mours— Jonathan  despises  it.  I  don't  say  he  is  right  and  we  are  wrong  ; 
but  this  difference  becomes  very  important  when  a  race  of  competition  is  to  be 
run.  These  preliminary  remarks  find  immediate  application  in  the  causes 
which  have  led  to  our  loss  of  character  on  the  sea.  The  Americans,  con- 
stantly on  the  alert,  have  carried  out  and  applied  every  new  discovery  to  the 
advancement  of  navigation;  while  with  the  English,  naval  construction  and  sea- 
manship is  exactly  that  branch  of  practice  in  which  science  has  not  only  been 
disregarded,  but  is  altogether  despised  and  set  aside.  The  American  ships 
show  what  can  be  done  by  modern  science  unflinchingly  put  in  practice  :  the 
English  show  what  can  be  done  in  spite  of  science,  and  in  defiance  of  its 
principles.  The  immediate  cause  of  the  defects  of  English  ships,  and  the 
most  glaring  instance  of  the  outrage  of  all  true  principle  in  the  practice  of 
navigation,  was  to  be  found  for  many  years  in  the  English  tonnage  law.  It 
was  simply  an  Act  of  Parliament  for  the  effectual  and  compulsory  construc- 
tion of  bad  ships.  Under  that  law,  the  present  fleet  of  merchant-ships  and 
race  of  shipbuilders  have  chiefly  grown  up  ;  and  though  at  length,  and  only 
recently  abrogated,  its  influence  is  still  left  behind,  and  is  widely  prevalent. 
This  Act  of  Parliament  compelled  the  construction  of  bad  ships  under  heavy 
penalties.  The  old  tonnage  law,  according  to  which  ships  were  built  and 
registered,  and  taxed,  and  bought  and  sold,  virtually  said  to  the  builder  and 
owner,  "  Thou  shalt  not  build  a  ship  of  the  necessary  beam  to  carry  sail ; 
thou  shalt  not  give  her  the  depth  and  height  necessary  to  security  and  sea- 


worthiness ;  thou  shalt  not  build  her  of  any  suitable  shape  for  speed,  under 
penalty  of  20,  30,  and  40  per  cent,  of  fine  for  every  ton  of  freight  so  carried 
in  such  ship."  In  short,  the  law  offered  a  premium  on  a  ship,  the  amount 
of  which  was  in  the  proportion  of  her  being  wall-sided,  top-heavy,  crank, 
unweatherly,  and  slow  ;  while  it  inflicted  a  penalty  in  the  shape  of  port- 
charges  and  pilot,  harbour-dues,  lights,  &c,  in  proportion  to  her  fitness  and 
reputation  as  a  sea-worthy,  fast,  and  wholesome  ship.  To  cheat  the  law — that 
is,  to  build  a  tolerable  ship  in  spite  of  it,— was  the  highest  achievement  left 
to  an  English  builder,  and  formed  his  continual  occupation.  The  manner 
in  which  the  English  system  was  opposed  to  the  good  qualities  of  a  ship, 
especially  speed,  is  only  to  be  understood  by  an  analysis  of  those  qualities. 
The  two  examples  selected  for  illustration  of  the  qualities  of  sailing  vessels 
were  the  yacht  America,  built  without  restriction  of  any  kind,  and  the  yacht 
Titania,  built  under  the  restrictions  of  the  law  of  measurement  of  tonnage* 
which  is  still  retained  in  all  its  deformity  by  the  English  yacht  squadron. 
It  was  shown  how  the  element  of  "  stand-up-ativeness"  is  dependent  on  the 
beam  of  the  vessel  at  the  water-line;  how  the  power  of  carrying  sail  depends 
on  this  element ;  and  how  this  element  is  prohibited  to  the  utmost  by  the 
Yacht  Club's  law  of  tonnage.  Another  element  of  the  vessel,  the  area  of  her 
vertical  longitudinal  section  immersed  in  the  water,  is  by  another  portion  of 
the  law  compelled  to  be  reduced  in  an  injurious  degree.  It  was  next  shown 
that,  in  the  other  elements  of  the  form  of  the  two  vessels,  they  were  nearly 
identical ;  and  that  they  were  both,  under  water,  constructed  on  the  wave 
principle,  in  its  most  perfect  form.  But  for  the  existence  of  these  antiquated 
laws,  our  yacht-builders  and  our  ship-builders  would  have  had  nothing  to  fear 
from  competition.  Happily,  the  mercantile  tonnage  law  had  been  altered,  and 
the  new  law  was  all  that  could  be  desired;  and  in  consequence  a  new  race  of 
fast  ships  was  rapidly  springing  up.  The  old  yacht  law  unhappily  remained. 
It  appeared  from  the  comparison  which  was  instituted  between  the  construc- 
tion of  American  and  English  vessels,  that  the  American  shipbuilders  have 
gained  over  the  English  chiefly  by  the  ready  abandonment  of  old  systems  of 
routine,  and  the  adoption  of  the  true  principles  of  science  and  the  most  modern 
discoveries.  They  have  changed  their  fashion  of  steamers  and  ships  to  meet 
new  circumstances  as  they  arose.  For  river  steamers  they  at  once  abandoned 
all  the  known  sea-going  forms,  and  created  an  absolutely  new  form  and 
general  arrangement  both  of  ship  and  machineiy.  We,  on  the  other  hand 
subject  to  the  prejudices  of  a  class,  invariably  attempted  to  make  a  river 
steamer  as  nearly  as  possible  to  resemble  a  sea-going  ship  propelled  by  sails. 
We  were  even,  for  a  long  time,  so  much  ashamed  of  our  paddle-wheels,  that 
we  adopted  all  sorts  of  inconvenient  forms  and  inapt  artifices  to  conceal 
them,  as  if  it  were  a  high  achievement  to  make  a  steam  vessel  be  mistaken  for 
a  sailing  vessel.  The  fine  sharp  bows  which  the  wave  principle  has  brought 
to  our  knowledge,  have  been  adopted  in  this  country  with  the  greatest  reluc- 
tance ;  and  those  who  adopt  them  are  often  unwilling  to  allow  that  they  are 
wave-bows,  and  would  fain  assert  that  "  they  always  built  them  so," 
were  it  not  that  ships'  lines  are  able  to  speak  for  themselves.  The 
Americans,  however,  adopted  the  wave-bow  without  reluctance,  and 
avowed  it  with  pleasure  the  moment  they  found  it  give  them  economy 
and  speed.  In  like  manner  the  Americans  having  found  the  wave-bow  or 
hollow  bow  good  for  steamers,  were  quite  ready  to  believe  that  it  might  be 
equally  good  for  sailing  vessels.  We,  on  the  other  hand,  have  kept  on  as- 
serting that  though  we  could  not  deny  its  efficacy  for  steamers  it  would 
never  do  for  vessels  that  were  meant  to  carry  sail.  The  Americans,  on  the 
contrary,  immediately  tried  it  on  their  pilot-boats,  and  finding  it  succeed 
there,  avowed  at  once,  in  their  latest  treatise  on  naval  architecture,  the  com- 
plete success  of  the  principle;  not  even  disclaiming  its  British  origin.  To 
prove  to  ourselves  our  insensibility  to  its  advantages,  they  built  the  America, 
carried  out  the  wave  principle  to  the  utmost,  and,  despising  the  prejudices 
and  antiquated  regulations  of  our  clubs,  came  over  and  beat  us.  The  dia- 
grams and  models  which  were  exhibited  showed  the  water-lines  of  the 
America  to  coincide  precisely  with  the  theoretical  wave-line.  In  one  other 
point  the  Americans  had  shown  their  implicit  faith  in  science  and  their  dis- 
regard of  prejudice.  Theory  says,  and  has  always  said,  "  Sails  should  sit 
flat  as  boards."  We  have  said,  "  They  should  be  cut  so  as  to  hang  in 
graceful  waves.  It  has  always  been  so;  we  have  always  done  it."  The 
Americans  believed  in  principle,  and  with  flat  sails  went  one  point  nearer 
to  the  wind,  leaving  prejudice  and  picturesque  sails  far  to  leeward.      In 


,- 


1852.] 


Institution  of  Civil  Engineers. 


87 


other  points  the  Americans  beat  us  by  the  use  of  science.  They  use 
all  the  refinements  of  science  in  their  rigging  and  tackle;  they,  it  is  true, 
have  to  employ  better  educated  and  more  intelligent  men — they  do  so;  and 
by  employ  in  a  smaller  number  of  hands,  beat  us  in  efficiency  as  well  as  in 
economy. 

INSTITUTION  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEEKS. 

March  23rd,  1852. 

James  M.  Eendell,  Esq.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  first  paper  read  was  '  On  the  Results  of  the  use  of  Tubular  Boilers,  or 

of  Flue  Boilers  of  Inadequate  Surface,  or  Imperfect  Absorption  of  Heat," 

by  Admiral  Earl  Dundonald. 

This  paper  advocated  the  general  introduction  of  what  were  termed, 
"  economical  heat  trap  boilers,"  or  boilers  having  vertical  water  tubes,  in- 
stead of  oblique  fire  tubes,  contained  within  a  chamber,  into  the  upper  of 
which  the  hot  products  of  combustion  were  introduced,  and  allowed  to  cir- 
culate until,  by  the  abstraction  of  heat,  they  descended  to  the  bottom,  and 
passed  into  the  chimney  at  a  temperature  little  exceeding  that  of  boiling 
water.  From  some  trials  which  had  been  made  at  AVoolwich  and  Chatham 
in  1844,  as  well  as  from  the  experience  which  had  been  gained  by  their 
actual  application  to  some  of  the  North  American  transatlantic  steam 
packets,  and  some  in  the  service  of  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  it  was  contended 
that  these  boilers  possessed  greater  evaporative  powers,  and  were  more 
economical  than  those  ordinarily  in  use;  and,  moreover,  that  their  safety 
was  much  greater,  owing  to  the  products  of  combustion  passing  into  the 
chimney  at  a  very  low  temperature,  instead  of  the  usual  high  temperature, 
from  which  it  was  apprehended  much  danger  had  been,  and  might  still  be, 
incurred. 

The  second  paper  read  was,  "  On  certain  points  in  the  construction  of 
Marine  Boilers,"  by  Mr.  J.  Scott  Russell,  E.  Inst.,  C.E. 

The  author  having  arrived  at  certain  practical  results  relative  to  the  con- 
struction of  marine  boilers,  put  them  into  practice  about  ten  years  back,  in 
designing  the  boilers  for  the  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packets  Clyde,  Tay,  Tweed, 
and  Teviot,  and  as  they  had  been  in  constant  work  ever  since,  running  from 
42,000  miles  to  48,000  miles  per  annum,  without  material  repairs,  he  believed 
their  durability,  combined  with  effective  combustion  and  economy  of  fuel, 
had  been  fully  established. 

The  principles  on  which  these  boilers  were  constructed  differed  from  those 
generally  recognised.  In  the  first  place  it  was  considered,  that  a  judicious 
distribution  of  the  most  intensely  heated  surfaces  would  be  conducive  to 
durability;  and  for  this  purpose,  instead  of  returning  the  flues  over  the 
furnaces,  the  top  of  the  furnaces  and  the  hottest  flues  were  brought  to  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  the  cooler,  or  return  flues,  were  taken  to  the 
bottom  of  the  water.  The  water  was  admitted  at  the  bottom,  and  was 
gradually  warmed  as  it  rose,  the  greatest  heat  being  imparted  at  the  last 
moment,  by  which  means  the  bubbles  of  steam  were  prevented  from  accu- 
mulating in  contact  with  intensely  heated  metal.  In  the  next  place,  the 
capacity  of  the  furnaces,  or  fire  boxes,  was  unusually  large,  and  their  height 
above  the  incandescent  fuel  much  greater  than  usual.  The  evaporating 
surface  in  these  boilers  was  also  much  more  than  customary,  there  being  no 
less  than  three  feet  of  evaporating  surface  for  every  foot  of  furnace  bars. 
The  process  of  blowing  off  was  provided  for  by  arranging,  under  the  flues 
and  furnaces,  large  water  spaces,  as  reservoirs  for  the  collection  and  blowing 
off  of  brine  and  other  deposit. 

The  last  paper  was  "  A  description  of  a  Diaphragm  Steam  Generator," 
by  M.  Boutigny  (d'Evreux).  The  principle  upon  which  this  steam  genera- 
tor was  based,  was  that  "  bodies  evaporate  only  from  their  surfaces."  This 
being  received  as  an  axiom,  it  must  necessarily  follow  that,  in  the  construc- 
tion of  steam  boilers,  either  the  evaporating  surface  of  metal  should  be  ex- 
tended to  its  utmost  limit,  or  the  water  should  be  so  divided,  and  its  evapor- 
ating surfaces  so  multiplied,  as  to  arrive  at  the  same  end,  of  obtaining 
the  greatest  amount  of  steam  by  the  expenditure  of  the  least  amount  of 
fuel. 

The  steam  generator  was  described  to  consist  of  a  vertical  cylinder  of 
wrought  iron,  25  inches  high,  by  12f  inches  diameter;  the  base  terminating 
in  a  hemispherical  end,  and  the  upper  part  closed  by  a  curved  lid,  upon 


which  was  attached  the  usual  steam  and  safety  valves,  feed  steam,  and  other 
pipes,  &c.  The  interior  contained  a  series  of  diaphragms  of  wrought  iron, 
pierced  with  a  number  of  fine  holes,  and  having  alternately  convex  and  con- 
cave surfaces.  They  were  suspended  by  three  iron  rods,  at  given  distances 
apart,  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  be  in  contact  with  the  heated  exterior,  or 
shell  of  the  boiler.  When  any  water  was  admitted  through  the  feed  pipe, 
it  fell  upon  the  upper  (convex)  disc,  which  had  a  tendency  to  spread  it  to 
the  periphery,  the  largest  quantity  falling-  through  the  perforations  in  the 
shape  of  globules;  the  second  diaphragm  being  concave,  tended  to  direct 
the  fluid  from  the  circumference  to  the  centre,  and  so  on,  until,  if  any  fluid 
reached  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder,  it  mingled  with  a  thin  film  of  water,  in 
a  high  state  of  ebullition,  that  being  the  hottest  part  of  the  boiler.  It  ap- 
peared, however,  that  in  its  transit  through  these  diaphragms,  the  water  was 
so  divided,  that  exposing  a  very  large  surface  to  the  caloric,  it  was  trans- 
formed into  steam  with  great  rapidity,  and  with  great  economy  of  fuel. 
The  boiler  described  had  been  worked  for  a  long  time  at  Paris  with  great 
success,  giving  motion  to  a  steam  engine  of  two  horses'  power.  The  con- 
sumption of  coal  was  stated  to  be  very  small,  789  lbs.  of  water  having  been 
converted  into  steam  by  182  lbs.  of  coal  in  nine  hours,  under  a  pressure  of 
ten  atmospheres. 

The  chemical  part  of  the  question  was  carefully  examined,  and  it  was 
shown,  that  at  that  temperature  the  iron  was  exactly  in  the  best  condition  to 
bear  strain. 

The  practical  application  on  a  large  scale  was  submitted  to  the  engineers, 
the  author  having  only  proposed  the  system  for  small  boilers,  and  under 
circumstances  of  wanting  to  obtain  a  motive  power  in  situations  of  restricted 
space,  and  where  first  cost  was  a  great  object. 

ON  VENTILATION  BY  THE  PARLOUR  FIRE. 
by  William  Hosking,  Esq., 

Professor  of  Architecture  and  of  Engineering  Constructions  at  King's  College,  London .* 

The  term  ventilation  does  not  strictly  imply  what  we  intend  by  its  use  in 
reference  to  buildings  used  as  dwelling-houses,  or  otherwise  for  the  occupa- 
tion of  breathing  creatures.  To  ventilate  is  defined  "  to  fan  with  wind ;  " 
but  one  of  the  main  objects  for  which  houses  and  other  enclosed  buildings 
are  made,  is  shelter  from  the  wind.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  the  wind  is  but 
air  in  motion,  and  we  can  only  live  in  air,  air  may  not  be  shut  out  of  our 
houses,  though,  for  comfort's  sake,  we  refuse  to  admit  it  in  the  active  state 
of  wind.  But  in  doing  this — in  shutting  out  the  wind — we  are  apt  to  put 
ourselves  upon  a  short  allowance  of  air,  and  to  eke  out  the  short  allowance 
by  using  the  same  air  over  and  over  again. 

There  is  a  broad  line  of  distinction,  indeed,  to  be  drawn  between  in-door 
and  out-door  ventilation  ;  for,  although  the  principles  upon  which  nature 
proceeds  are  the  same,  the  operation  is  influenced  by  the  circumstances 
under  which  the  process  may  be  carried  on.  Whether  it  be  on  the  hill-side, 
open  to  the  winds  of  heaven,  or  in  a  close  room,  from  which  all  draft  of  air 
is  excluded,  the  expired  breath,  as  it  leaves  the  nostrils  heated  by  the  fire  in 
the  lungs,  rises,  or  seeks  to  rise,  above  their  level,  and  may  not  be  again 
inhaled.  Out  of  doors  the  cooler  or  less  heated  air  of  the  lower  level  pre- 
sents itself  for  respiration  unaffected  by  the  spent  exhaled  air;  but  in  a  close 
apartment,  the  whole  body  of  included  air  must  soon  be  affected  by  whatever 
process  any  portion  of  it  may  have  undergone.  The  process  by  which  nature 
carries  off  spent  air,  purifies,  and  returns  it  uncontaminated,  is  thus  checked 
by  the  circumstances  under  which  we  place  [ourselves  within  doors.  All 
our  devices  for  shelter  from  the  weather,  and  for  domestic  convenience  and 
comfort,  tend  to  prevent  the  process  provided  by  nature  from  taking  effect 
according  to  the  intention  in  that  respect  of  the  Creator.  We  not  only  con- 
fine ourselves,  indeed,  and  pen  up  air  in  low  and  close  rooms,  but  we  intro- 
duce fire  by  which  to  warm  the  enclosed  air;  wanting  light  within  our 
dwellings  when  daylight  fails,  we  introduce  another  sharer  in  the  pent-up 
air  of  our  rooms,  being  fire  indeed  in  another  form,  but  generally  under  such 
circumstances,  that  it  not  only  abstracts  from  the  quantity,  but  injures  the 
quality  of  what  may  remain.  But  fire,  whether  in  the  animal  system,  in  the 
grate,  or  in  the  lamp,  cannot  long  endure  the  imagined  limitation  of  air. 


'  From  the  Edinburgh  New  Philosopliical  Journal. 


88 


On  Ventilation  by  the  Parlour  Fire. 


[April, 


There  must  be  access  of  air — of  vital  air — by  some  channel  or  other,  or  the 
fire  will  go  out. 

An  open  fire  in  the  grate  must,  however,  have  a  vent  for  some  of  its  results, 
or  it  will  be  so  disagreeable  a  companion  that  its  presence  could  not  be  en- 
dured, even  as  long  as  the  most  limited  quantity  of  air  would  last;  and  the 
fire  will  compel  the  descent  of  air  by  the  vent  commonly  supplied  under  the 
name  of  a  flue — a  chimney  flue — to  render  its  presence  tolerable  in  a  closed 
room,  if  a  supply  be  not  otherwise  obtainable.  But  as  the  outer  air  at  the 
higher  level  of  the  top  of  the  chimney,  because  of  the  rarity  of  the  air  in  and 
above  the  flue,  responds  to  the  demand  of  the  fire  less  easily  than  the  lower 
air,  or  that  at  and  about  the  level  of  the  fire ;  and  the  lower  air,  or  air  at  the 
lower  levels,  forces  its  way  in,  therefore,  by  any  opening  it  can  find  or  make 
— through  the  joints  of  the  flooring-boards,  and  under  the  skirtings — the 
supply  passing  first  up  or  down  the  hollow  lathed  and  plastered  partitions, 
sometimes  even  up  from  the  drains;  and  through  the  joints  under  and  about 
the  doors  and  windows.  If  these  channels  do  not  exist,  as  they  may  not 
when  the  joiners'  work  and  the  plastering  are  good,  or  when  the  open  joints 
referred  to  are  stopped  up  by  any  means,  the  fire  smokes,  and  every  known 
means  of  curing  the  chimney  failing,  means  are  sought  of  obtaining  heat 
without  the  offending  fire.     Ventilation  is  not  thought  of  yet. 

The  open  fire  may  be  made  to  give  place  to  the  close  stove  or  to  hot-air 
pipes,  to  hot-water  pipes,  or  to  steam-pipes  —  which  make  hot  the  air 
about  them  in  a  close  room  without  causing  drafts.  But  the  warmth 
obtained  in  pipes  is  costly  under  any  circumstances.  Air  does  not  take  up 
heat  freely,  unless  it  be  driven  and  made  to  pass  freely  over  the  heated  sur- 
face; and  there  being  little  or  no  consumption  of  air,  and  consequently  little 
or  no  draft,  in  connection  with  heated  bodies,  such  as  close  stoves  and  hot 
pipes,  the  heat  from  them  is  not  freely  diffused,  and  is  not  wholesome.  There 
is  with  all  the  expense  no  ventilation. 

Stoves  and  hot  pipes  are,  moreover,  exceedingly  dangerous  inmates  in 
respect  of  fire.  Such  things  are  the  most  frequent  causes,  directly  or  in- 
directly, of  fires  in  buildings.  Placed  upon,  or  laid  among  or  about  the 
timbers  and  other  wood-work  of  hollow  floors,  and  hollow  partitions,  and  in 
houses  with  wooden  stairs,  more  conflagrations  are  occasioned  by  hot  pipes 
and  stoves,  than  by  anything  else,  and  perhaps  more  than  by  all  other  things 
together. 

Open  stoves  with  in-draft  or  air  warmed  by  being  drawn  quickly  (when 
it  is  drawn  quickly)  over  heated  surfaces,  may  be  made  part  of  a  system  of 
safe  and  wholesome  in-door  ventilation;  but  to  be  perfect  there  must  be  also 
out-draft  with  power  to  compel  the  exit  of  spent  or  otherwise  unwholesome, 
air.  But  the  arrangements  for  and  connected  with  such  stoves  are  special 
and  therefore  costly,  unless  the  buildings  in  which  they  may  be  employed 
have  been  adapted  in  building  to  receive  them.  And  in-draft  stoves  may, 
however,  be  applied  with  great  advantage  as  it  regards  the  general  warmth 
and  ventilation,  in  the  lowest  story  of  any  house,  if  there  be  compelled  out- 
draft  at  the  highest  level  to  which  it  will  naturally  direct  itself  if  it  be  not 
retained,  so  that  the  in-drafted  air,  tempered  as  it  enters,  may  be  drawn  out 
as  it  becomes  spent,  or  otherwise  contaminated. 

But  this  must  be  considered  in  all  endeavours  to  affect  in-door  ventilation, 
or  the  endeavour  will  fail.  The  air  must  be  acted  upon,  and  not  be  left,  or 
be  expected  to  act  of  itself,  and  to  pass  in  or  out  as  may  be  desired,  merely  be- 
cause ways  of  ingress  and  egress  are  made  for  it.  Make  a  fire  in  a  room,  or 
apply  an  air-pump  to  the  room,  and  the  outer  air  will  respond  to  the  power 
exerted  by  either  by  any  course  that  may  be  open  to  it,  and  supply  the  place 
of  that  which  may  be  consumed  or  ejected;  but  open  a  window  in  an  other- 
wise close  room,  and  no  air  will  enter;  no  air  can  enter,  indeed,  unless  force 
be  applied  as  with  a  bellows,  whereby  as  much  may  be  driven  out  as  is 
driven  in,  with  the  effect  only  of  diluting,  not  of  purifying.  Even  at  that 
short  season  of  the  year  in  which  windows  may  be  freely  opened,  unless 
windows  are  so  placed  as  to  admit  of  the  processes  of  out-door  ventilation 
being  carried  on  through  them  by  a  thorough  draft  from  low  levels  to  high 
levels,  open  windows  are  not  sufficient  to  effect  thorough  in-door  ventilation. 
There  must  for  this  purpose  be  in  every  room  a  way  by  which  a  draft  can 
be  obtained,  and  this  draft  must  take  effect  upon  the  most  impure  air  of  the 
room,  which  is  that  of  the  highest  level.  The  chimney  opening  may  supply 
a  way  at  a  low  level,  and  a  draft  may  be  established  between  it  and  the 
window,  but  the  air  removed  from  the  room  by  such  a  draft  is  not  necessa- 


rily the  spent  or  foul  air.  But  make  an  opening  into  the  chimney  flue  near 
the  highest  level  in  the  room,  that  is  to  say,  as  near  as  may  be  to  the  ceiling, 
and  if  a  draft  be  established  between  the  window  and  the  flue  by  this  open- 
ing, the  ventilation  is  complete;  that  is  to  say  again,  if  there  be  draft  enough 
in  the  chimney  flue  from  any  cause  to  induce  an  up-current  through  it,  or  if 
there  be  motion  of  the  external  air  to  drive  the  air  in  at  the  window  and 
force  an  up-current  through  the  flue. 

Windows  may  not  be  put  open  in  the  long  enduring  colder  season,  how- 
ever, and  for  the  same  reason  in-drafts  of  the  outer  air  by  any  other  channel 
are  offensive  and  injurious.  To  open  a  door  for  the  sake  of  air  is  but  a 
modification  of  opening  a  window,  and,  if  the  door  be  an  internal  one,  with 
the  effect  of  admitting  already  enclosed,  and,  probably,  contaminated  air. 
Means  of  efficient  in-door  ventilation  must  therefore  be  independent  of  win- 
dows and  doors;  and  the  means  should  be  such  as  will  lead  to  a  result  at 
once  wholesome  and  agreeable. 

Many  plans  have  been  suggested,  and  some  have  been  carried  into  effect, 
of  warming  air,  and  then  forcing  it  into  or  drawing  it  through  buildings, 
and,  in  the  process  of  doing  so,  removing  the  foul  or  spent  air  from  the 
apartments  to  which  it  may  be  applied.  Some  of  these  plans  are  more  and 
some  are  less  available  to  wholesome  and  agreeable  in-door  ventilation,  but 
even  the  best  are  rather  adapted  to  large  apartments,  such  as  those  of  hos- 
pitals, churches,  theatres,  and  assembly-rooms,  than  to  private  dwelling- 
houses  in  which  the  rooms  are  small  and  labour  and  cost  are  to  be  economised. 

Plans  have  been  proposed,  too,  for  the  economical  ventilation  of  dwelling- 
houses;  but  they  seem  to  be  all  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  imperfect.  "Ways 
of  access  are  provided  in  some  cases  for  the  outer  air  directly  to  the  fire  in 
every  apartment,  to  feed  the  fire,  and  indirectly  to  ventilate  the  room;  way 
of  egress  in  addition  to  the  chimney  opening  and  the  chimney  flue  being 
sometimes  provided  for  the  spent  air  of  the  room;  sometimes,  indeed,  as 
before  indicated,  by  an  opening  into  the  chimney  flue  near  the  ceiling.  A 
direct  in-draft  of  cold  air  is  not  agreeable,  and  it  may  be  pernicious  ;  but 
if  the  outer  air  become  warm  in  its  way  to  the  inmates  of  the  room,  the 
objection  to  its  directness  ceases.  If,  however,  the  warmth  is  imparted  to  it 
with  foulness,  the  process  does  not  fulfil  the  condition  as  to  wholesomeness, 
and  this  is  the  case  when  the  outer  air  is  admitted  at  or  near  to  the  ceiling 
to  take  up  warmth  from  the  spent  and  heated  atmosphere  of  the  higher  levels. 
Having  undergone  this  process,  it  is  not  the  fresh  air  that  comes  warmed  to 
the  inmates,  but  a  mixture  of  fresh  and  foul  air  that  cannot  be  agreeable  to 
any  inmate  conscious  of  the  nature  of  the  compound. 

The  endeavour  on  the  present  occasion  was  to  show  how  the  familiar  fire 
of  an  apartment  may  be  made  to  fulfil  all  the  conditions  necessary  to  obtain 
in-door  ventilation,  to  the  extent  at  least  of  the  apartment  in  which  the  fire 
may  be  maintained,  and  while  it  is  maintained. 

A  fire  in  an  ordinary  grate  establishes  a  draft  in  the  flue  over  it  with  power 
according  to  its  own  intensity,  and  it  acts  with  the  same  effect,  at  least,  upon 
the  air  within  its  reach,  for  the  means  which  enable  it  to  establish  and  keep 
up  the  draft  in  the  flue.  The  fire  necessarily  heats  the  grate  in  which  it  is 
kept  up,  and  the  materials  of  which  grates  are  composed  being  necessarily 
incombustible,  and  being  also  ready  recipients  and  conductors  of  heat,  they 
will  impart  heat  to  whatever  may  be  brought  into  contact  with  them. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  case  containing  the  body  of  the  grate  is  set  on  an 
iron  or  stone  hearth  in  the  chimney  recess,  free  of  the  sides  and  back  except 
as  to  the  joints  in  front.  Let  all  communication  between  the  chamber  so 
formed  about  the  back  and  sides  of  the  grate  and  the  chimney  flue  be  shut 
off  by  an  iron  plate,  open  only  for  the  register  flap  or  valve  over  the  fire  it- 
self. External  air  is  to  be  admitted  to  the  closed  chambers  thus  obtained 
about  the  grate  by  a  tube  or  channel  leading  through  the  nearest  and  most 
convenient  outer  wall  of  the  building  and  between  the  joists  of  the  floor  of 
the  room,  to  and  under  the  outer  hearth  or  slab  before  the  fire,  and  so  to 
and  under  the  back  hearth  in  which  sufficient  holes  may  be  made  to  allow 
the  air  entering  by  the  tube  or  channel  to  rise  into  the  chamber  about  the 
fire-box  or  grate.  Openings  taking  any  form  that  may  be  agreeable  are  to 
be  made  through  the  cheeks  of  the  grate  into  the  air-chamber  at  the  level  of 
the  hearth.  In  this  manner  will  be  provided  a  free  inlet  for  the  outer  air  to 
the  fire-place  and  to  the  fire,  and  of  the  facility  so  provided  the  fire  will 
readily  avail  itself  to  the  abolition  of  all  illicit  drafts.  But  the  air  in  passing 
through  the  air-chamber  in  its  way  to  the  fire  which  draws  it,  is  drawn  over 


1852.] 


Great  Grimsby  Docks. 


89 


the  heated  surfaces  of  the  grate,  and  it  thus  becomes  warmed,  and  in  that 
condition  it  reaches  the  apartment. 

An  upright  metal  plate  set  up  behind  the  openings  through  cheeks  of  the 
grate,  but  clear  of  them,  will  bend  the  current  of  warmed  air  in  its  passage 
through  the  inlet  holes,  and  thus  compel  the  fire  to  allort  what  is  not  neces- 
sary to  it  to  pass  into  the  room;  and  if  the  opening  over  the  fire  to  the  flue 
be  reduced  to  the  real  want  of  the  fire,  the  consumption  of  air  by  the  fire  will 
not  be  so  great  as  may  be  supposed,  and  there  will  remain  a  supply  of  tem- 
pered air  waiting  only  an  inducement  to  enter  for  the  use  of  the  inmates  of 
the  apartment.  An  opening  directly  from  the  room  into  the  flue  upon  which 
the  fire  is  acting  with  a  draft  more  or  less  strong,  at  a  high  level  in  the  room, 
will  afford  this  inducement;  it  will  allow  the  draft  in  the  flue  to  act  upon  the 
heated  and  spent  air  under  the  ceiling,  and  draw  it  off;  and  in  doing  so  will 
induce  a  flow  of  the  fresh  and  tempered  air  from  about  the  body  of  the  grate 
into  the  room. 

(To  be  continued.) 

GREAT  GRIMSBY  DOCKS. 
We  gave  some  account  of  the  details  of  construction  of  these  magni- 
ficent docks  at  page  26,  vol.  1851,  and  we  are  happy  to  notice  that 
they  are  likely  to  be  soon  thrown  open  for  use.     The  following  account 
from  HerapatWs  Journal  brings  these  notes  down  to  the  present  time  : 

It  is  well  known  that  the  authors  and  the  owners  of  these  docks  are  the 
Manchester,  Sheffield,  and  Lincolnshire  Company.  We  do  not  propose  to 
enter  now  upon  the  question,  whether  the  docks  will  remunerate  the  Com- 
pany for  the  outlay ;  be  it  remembered  that  what  is  done  cannot  be  undone 
— the  £600,000  or  £700,000  of  capital  which  the  docks  have  cost  is  spent ; 
the  beneficial  work  is  now  to  make  the  best  of  them.  We  know  the  worst 
feature  in  them — their  great  cost.  The  other  side  of  the  account  has  yet  to 
be  made  out.  Splendid  docks  are  constructed,  and  admirably  situated  for 
the  accommodation  of  traffic.  We  have  to  see  what  return  they  will  make 
for  their  outlay.  For  that,  no  doubt,  a  little  patience  will  be  required,  not- 
withstanding the  energy  of  the  present  management,  which  now  includes 
Messrs.  Peto  and  Geach.  Our  present  task  is  not,  however,  to  deal,  as  we 
have  said,  with  the  financial  part  of  the  question,  but  simply  to  give  some 
description  of  the  new  work,  and  to  lay  before  our  readers  as  many  facts 
concerning  it  as  we  have  been  enabled  in  a  short  space  of  time  to  collect. 

The  most  striking  feature  in  the  new  work  is  what  is  called  the  Light- 
house tower,  the  principal  purpose  of  which,  however,  is  to  furnish  a  column 
of  water  for  the  hydraulic  machinery  to  work  the  dock  gates,  &c. — its 
secondary  duty  being  to  display  lights  for  the  benefit  of  the  seafaring  man. 
It  is  a  square  tower,  105  feet  high.  The  work  of  it  is  excellent — we  might 
say  beautiful ;  for  the  lines  are  so  true,  and  the  taste  displayed  so  good,  that 
it  is  quite  a  pleasure  to  look  at  it.  The  tank  at  the  top  of  this  tower  holds 
(for  hydraulic  pressure  purposes)  49,000  gallons  of  water.  The  walls  of  the 
tower  are  4-2-  feet  thick.  Though  the  tower  is  to  a  spectator  the  most  notice- 
able feature  in  the  new  structure  at  Great  Grimsby,  yet  the  great  work  is 
the  formation  of  the  dock  with  its  lock  pits,  &c. 

It  might  be  here  observed  that  Great  Grimsby  Roads  afford  the  only 
refuge  between  the  Thames  and  the  Firth  of  Forth.  The  old  dock  was 
purchased  by  the  Manchester,  Sheffield,  and  Lincolnshire  Company,  when 
they  decided  on  their  "  water  terminus."  It  has  an  entrance  lock  of  150 
feet  in  length,  and  37  width,  with  18  feet  on  its  cill  at  high  tide.  In  1845 
they  obtained  an  act  for  the  new  dock ;  the  first  stone  was  laid  by  Prince 
Albert  on  the  18th  April,  1849.  The  entrance  tidal  basin  has  an  area  of  15 
acres,  its  depth  at  low  spring  tides  is  9  feet;  low  neaps,  12 \;  high  springs, 
27 h :  high  neaps,  24i;  at  landing  slip,  within  the  tidal-basin,  the  largest 
steamers  can  lay-to  safely  at  any  time  of  tide.  The  dock  is  entered  from  its 
tidal  basin  by  two  locks  of  massive  masonry,  with  double  gates  for  ebb  and 
flood  tides.  The  larger  lock,  constructed  (by  arrangement  with  Govern- 
ment) to  admit  the  largest  war  steamers,  is  in  length  between  gates  200  feet, 
breadth  from  wall  to  wall  70,  depth  on  cill  at  low  springs  7  feet,  neaps,  10J, 
high  springs,  25J,  high  neaps,  22j,  at  half  tide  the  average  depth  on  cill  is 
,16  to  17  feet,  at  three  quarters  tide  20  to  22  feet.  The  small  or  second  lock 
is  for  general  purposes,  and  is  in  length  between  gates  200  feet,  breadth 
from  wall  to  wall  45,  and  its  cill  being  9  inches  below  large  lock,  it  will 


have  at  half  tide  a  depth  of  water  of  17  to  18  feet,  and  at  three-quarter  tide 
from  21  to  22  feet.  The  dock  has  a  water  area  of  upwards  of  25  acres,  in- 
cluding timber  pond  at  the  upper  end,  and  it  will  never  contain  a  less  depth 
of  pure  fresh  water  than  25  feet  at  its  entrance,  shoaling  gradually  to  20  feet 
at  the  timber  pond  ;  the  general  depth  will  be  2  feet  more.  The  supply  of 
pure  fresh  water  is  important  to  steamers,  as  it  will  secure  the  full  term  of 
durability  to  their  boilers.  In  case  of  war  a  whole  fleet  of  war-steamers 
could  reach  the  German  Ocean  in  half  an  hour.  In  constructing  these 
works  135  acres  have  been  reclaimed  ;  wharfs  or  quays  extend  3,600  feet  in 
length,  quays  to  be  traversed  by  railways  from  the  main  lines  and  into  sheds 
and  warehouses.  Sheds  are  close  to  the  quays  750  feet  in  length,  and  50 
feet  in  breadth,  affording  a  covered  area  of  4,000  feet ;  and  a  vaulted  ware- 
house 150  feet  square  for  free  and  bonded  goods.  All  the  machinery  and 
the  accessories  are  on  the  newest  and  most  perfect  principles,  and  the 
arrangements  for  passenger  traffic  and  light  or  perishable  merchandise  are 
on  an  equally  complete  scale,  the  railway  extending  to  the  edge  of  a  low 
water  landing-stage  in  the  outer  tidal-basin,  where  a  station  is  built,  provided 
with  accommodation  for  passengers,  who,  without  leaving  the  cover  of  the 
station,  may  be  carried  by  trains  in  attendance,  as  goods  also  may,  to  any 
part  of  England  or  Scotland.  "A  large  hotel  of  the  first-class  has  been 
built  by  the  Earl  of  Yarborough,  the  Chairman  of  the  Company.  The  Man- 
chester, Sheffield,  and  Lincolnshire  Company  have  constructed  extensive 
works  there ;  the  tidal-basin  being  beyond  the  limits  of  the  jurisdiction  of 
Hull,  ships  are  free  of  dock  port  charges,  an  advantage  which  has  led  to  the 
chartering  and  discharging  of  an  increased  number  of  timber  laden  and 
other  vessels,  in  the  new  river  port  of  New  Holland.  For  vessels  with  oil, 
bones,  and  other  manures,  largely  consumed  in  Lincolnshire  and  Notting- 
hamshire, the  advantages  are  obvious.  For  the  transit  of  passengers  a  pier 
1,500  feet  in  length,  to  the  end  of  which  the  trains  run,  extends  into  the 
river,  passengers  can  descend  on  a  covered  platform,  and  passing  through 
two  iron  tubes  to  a  floating  iron  pontoon,  go  on  board  steam  boats  fitted 
after  the  American  fashion,  with  decked  saloons,  which  lie  alongside.  The 
heavy  goods  traffic  is  conveyed  to  Hull  principally  in  lighters,  towed  by 
steam-tugs,  and  by  an  iron  steam  screw.  NewHolland  is  the  railway  village  of 
the  Manchester,  Sheffield,  and  Lincolnshire  Railway,  like  Crewe  on  the  Lon- 
don and  North  Western  Railway.  All  the  populous  and  wealthy  exporting 
and  importing  districts  are  brought  into  communication  with  the  ports  of 
the  German  Ocean  and  Baltic  Sea  through  the  railway  terminus  at  the  port 
of  Great  Grimsby.  Thus  it  has  been  brought  within  five  hours  of  Leicester, 
Nottingham,  and  the  lace  and  hosiery  districts,  six  hours  of  Birmingham  and 
the  hardware  districts,  three  hours  of  Sheffield  and  the  fine  steel  district,  four 
hours  of  the  pottery  district,  five  hours  of  Leeds  or  Huddersfield  and  the 
woollen  districts,  five  hours  of  Manchester  and  the  cotton  districts,  and  seven 
hours  of  London.  That  is  to  say,  nearer  to  all  the  manufacturing  districts  than 
Manchester  was  to  Liverpool,  for  the  transmission  of  heavy  merchandise  or 
raw  material,  fifty  years  ago.  In  the  coasting  trade  three  voyages  may  be 
made  to  Grimsby  in  the  time  of  two  to  Hull. 

CORRESPONDENCE. 


ON  THE  PREVENTION  AND  EXTINCTION  OF  FIRE  ON  BOARD 
STEAM-VESSELS. 
Illustrated  by  Plate  5. 
To  the  Editor  of  the  Artizan. 
Sir, — At  the  present  moment  we  think  it  may  interest  your  readers  to 
discuss  those  plans  which  it  is  desirable  should  be  brought  forward  for  the 
prevention  and  extinction  of  fire  on  board  steamers.      The  arrangement 
which  we  have  proposed  to  apply  to  a  steamer  to  be  built  under  our  in- 
spection is  as  follows: — p p  are  water-tight  bulk-heads  constructed  double, 
with  a  space  between,  on  the  cellular  principle,  by  which  very  great  strength 
may  be  obtained  with  but  a  slight  increase  of  weight.      This  is  material  in 
case  of  a  compartment  filling  from  a  leak,  as  a  ship  suffers  much  in  a  sea- 
way, if  an  unconfined  body  of  water  be  washing  about  in  her.     These  bulk- 
heads are  equally  applicable  to  wooden  vessels,  and  would  be  of  important 
benefit  to  vessels  of  war,  as  in  the  event  of  a  shot  striking  between  wind  and 
water,  they  would  diminish,  if  not  entirely  remove,  the  risk  from  leakage. 


90 


Expansion  Slide  Gear. 


[April, 


In  case  of  fire,  it  is  proposed  to  fill  these  bulkheads  with  water,  so  as  to 
cut  off  all  communication  between  the  different  compartments  of  the  vessel. 

The  arrangements  on  board  all  vessels  at  present  for  obtaining  an  ample 
supply  of  water  are  very  defective.  Two  pumps,  to  discharge  4  tons  of  water 
per  minute,  would  not  be  too  large  for  a  first-class  steamer.  These  pumps 
it  is  proposed  to  connect  to  a  range  of  pipes,  say  as  at  r,  carried  fore  and  aft, 
with  branches  commanding  every  part  of  the  ship.  It  would  be  desirable  to 
place  these  pumps  at  different  parts  of  the  vessel,  so  that  they  could  not  both 
be  rendered  inaccessible  by  a  fire  suddenly  breaking  out,  and  the  ends  of  the 
branches  might  be  closed  with  such  a  material  as  would  readily  burst  when 
the  pressure  was  applied;  provision  being  made  to  close  them  securely,  if 
the  water  were  required  at  another  point.  The  great  point  to  be  aimed  at 
in  all  such  arrangements  we  conceive  to  be,  to  leave  as  Utile  as  possible  to  be 
done  when  the  emergency  occurs. 

The  coal  bunkers  should  be  ventilated  by  vertical  pipes,  o  o,  with  branches, 
s  s,  perforated  with  holes,  in  the  latter,  on  the  under  side  only,  to  prevent 
their  choking.  Heating  of  the  coals  would  thus  be  almost  entirely  prevented, 
and,  at  any  rate,  easily  detected.  The  same  pipes  would  serve,  in  the  event 
of  fire  taking  place,  to  flood  the  bunkers  by. 

Trusting  you  will  excuse  the  rough  form  of  these  hasty  notes, 
We  are,  Sir, 

Your  obedient  Servants, 

J.  &  W.  DUDGEON. 

EXPANSION  SLIDE  GEAR. 

Sib, — I  certainly  thought  Mr.  Dudgeon's  proposals  were  to  apply  "  his 
new  form  of  Expansion  Gear,"  to  the  D  valve  at  present  in  use  ;  I  could  not 
otherwise  see  the  meaning  of  his  claims,  to  "  connection  to  any  common 
slide,"  and  at  a  trifling  expense ;  the  whole  article  besides,  is  written  to  illus- 
trate the  gear  alone,  his  equilibrium  valve  gear,  (to  be  described  in  a  future 
article,)  being  merely  mentioned  :  these,  in  connection  with  his  remarks  on 
the  economy  of  Atlantic  steam  navigation,  led  me  into  the  error,  which  I 
think,  is  to  be  attributed  as  much  to  his  lack  of  perspicuity,  as  to  my  dulness. 

If  Mr.  Dudgeon  means,  that  the  simple  power  of  one  man  is  sufficient  to 
work  his  slide,  when  he  says,  one  only  is  required  to  work  each  engine,  then 
the  new  gear  will  work  well ;  and  the  ease  and  rapidity  of  handling,  during 
thick  weather,  when  in  the  track  of  sailing  vessels,  in  the  vicinity  of  ice,  or 
drawing  in  on  land,  may  be  added  to  the  list  of  advantages  ;  to  say  nothing 
of  the  great  boon  to  the  men,  a  whole  watch  of  whom  are  required  to  work 
the  murderous  long  D  with  rapidity  and  precision :  this  command  over  such 
a  power  must  however  be  exercised  with  judgment ;  I  have  heard  that  a 
crosstail  was  broken  on  board  the  Pacific  some  time  last  year,  in  consequence 
of  the  too  abrupt  check  given  by  the  large  conical  valves,  when  backing  sud- 
denly off  Cape  Race.  If  Mr.  D.  refers  again  to  my  letter,  he  will  find  I 
only  object  to  the  very  rapid  admission  of  the  steam,  but  with  his  guaranteed 
speed,  {Query?) — I  may  be  wrong. 

I  can  see  no  parallel  whatever  between  this  German  Ocean  trip  and  an 
Atlantic  one,  neither  as  regards  ship,  nor  weather.  This  wonder  in  steam 
navigation  consumes,  say  30  tons  per  run,  (27  being  the  quantity  at  13  knots, 
a  higher  consumption  per  nominal  horse-power  than  that  of  the  Cunard 
ships  ;)  her  engine  arrangements  will  of  course  be  such  as  should  yield  the 
best  possible  effect,  on  an  almost  unvarying  displacement,  and  proper  trim, 
allowing  the  engines  to  work  to  probably  five  times  their  nominal  power, 
and  hence  the  result,  which  in  this  country,  within  the  last  two  or  three  years, 
has  become  quite  common.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Cunard  steamers  leave 
Liverpool  frequently  on  a  draft  of  20  feet,  and  displacement  of  over  3,500 
tons;  now,  supposing  them  to  consume  830  to  850  tons  coals  (pretty  near 
truth  in  winter),  they  will  arrive  at  New  York  on  a  draft  of  16  feet,  having 
risen  4  feet  during  the  voyage.  Again,  as  regards  the  weather,  I  may  just 
ask  Mr.  D.  what  new  creation  is  this  ship  of  his  which,  in  as  bad  weather 
to  one  of  her  class,  enables  her  to  proceed  with  a  reduction  of  from  32  to 
27  revolutions  per  minute,  when  he  himself  instances,  (as  a  thing  of  no  un- 
frequent  occurrence)  other,  and  larger  ships  having  their  engines  brought 
up  from  18  or  19  to  8  or  9,  and  then  venture  to  assure  him,  that  he  has  yet 
to  see  the  worst  German  Ocean  weather,  which  will  but  give  him  the  idea 
of  an  Atlantic  storm  in  miniature ;  had  he  been  on  board  the  Niagara 


on  her  last  voyage  out  to  New  York,  he  would  have  been  greatly  enlightened 
on  this  subject,  he  would  then  have  seen  the  necessity  of  reducing  the  power 
to  prevent  the  ship  tearing  herself  to  pieces,  and  breaking  the  legs  and  arms 
of  the  crew;  as  it  was,  her  upper  works  were  much  damaged,  and  one  man 
severely  injured;  this  more  or  less  happens  every  winter.  It  has  been  my 
misfortune  that,  for  the  last  13  years,  my  business  has  led  me  across  the 
Atlantic,  often  twice  each  winter,  and  I  flatter  myself  I  care  as  little  for  a 
wet  jacket  as  Mr.  D.  I  am  likewise  fond  of  clean  decks,  but  I  have  no  am- 
bition to  be  made  the  medium  by  which  the  slops  are  cleared  off;  to  be 
swept  from  forward,  and  be  brought  up  bruised,  maimed,  if  not  lifeless,  by 
the  first  fixed  obstacle  on  deck,  is  anything  but  inviting  locomotion.  As 
Mr.  D.  has  never  heard  of  the  expansion  valves  being  used  to  save  fuel, 
head  to  sea  and  in  a  gale  of  wind,  I  would  ask  him,  what  better  mode  he 
could  adopt  when  the  ostensible  object  is  to  ease  the  ship?  I  ma}r  not 
understand  the  operation  of  banking  the  fires,  but  it  seems  to  me  best  suited 
when  no  steam  at  all  is  wanted;  my  idea  would  be,  to  work  with  a  thin  fire 
and  close  up  the  air  passages,  just  admitting  sufficient  to  produce  complete 
combustion;  but  he  may  adopt  any  mode  he  pleases,  I  will  fall  back  upon 
using  the  expansion  valves. 

I,  for  one,  see  no  difficulty  in  building  a  ship  to  average,  throughout  the 
year,  a  speed  of  13  knots.  I  likewise  think  a  saving  of  16  per  cent,  may  be 
made,  but  at  a  considerable  increase  of  pressure,  and  yet  I  am  quite  at  a  loss 
to  conceive,  by  what  combinations  of  mechanical  principles  Mr.  Dudgeon 
can  guarantee  a  minimum  of  20  revolutions  per  minute  to  the  engines;  this, 
in  my  opinion,  amounts  to  a  guarantee  of  the  weather. 

I  had  read  the  article  Mr.  D.  refers  me  to  before  I  wrote  to  you  in  Sep- 
tember, but  it  has  no  bearing  on  the  point  at  issue  ;  I  merel}'  assert  that,  by 
the  application  of  his  valve-gear  alone  to  every  vessel  now  crossing  the 
Atlantic,  he  cannot  save  l-6th  of  the  fuel;  he  seems  to  be  unaware  that 
these  ships  have  the  means,  and  employ  them,  of  carrying  out  the  expansive 
principle  to  considerable  extent.  If  Mr.  D.  will  be  at  the  trouble  of  making 
up  a  table,  showing  the  saving  by  expansion  with  the  secondary  valve,  he 
will  find,  or  I  am  much  mistaken,  his  16  per  cent,  diminished  to  4  or  5,  as 
I  before  asserted. 

I  will  not  trespass  further,  Mr.  Editor,  on  your  valuable  paper  than  to 
assure  you,  that  however  obliged  I  shall  feel  by  Mr.  Dudgeon's  future  ex- 
planations, you  will  hear  no  more  from  me  on  this  subject. 

AN  OLD  SALT  ENGINEER. 
Boston,  United  States, 
February  17th,  1852. 

PROGRESS  OE  STEAM  NAVIGATION. 
The  Madras  iron  screw  steamer,  built  by  Messrs.  Tod  &  McGregor  for 
the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company,  has  arrived  at  Southampton  after  a 
run  of  61  hours,  including  stoppages.     She  is  of  the  following  dimensions: — 

Feet.     ins. 

Length  between  stem  and  stern-post 232       0 

Breadth  amidships         31        6 

Depth  of  hold     ... 21       2 

Burden,  builders'  measurement,  between  1,300  and  1,400  tons.  Engines, 
of  260-horse  power.  She  is  calculated  to  carry  600  tons  measurement  goods, 
and  300  tons  of  coals,  has  two  decks,  and  is  full  barque-rigged,  with  an  im- 
mense spread  of  canvas.  When  the  Madras  left  Glasgow,  she  had  on  board 
290  tons  of  coals,  and  about  150  tons  weight  of  iron  ;  her  speed  varied  from 
8  to  12  knots.  Messrs.  Tod  and  McGregor  are  also  building  a  sister  vessel, 
the  Bombay,  and  also  the  Calcutta,  a  screw  of  2,500  tons,  for  the  Company. 

The  immense  amount  of  marine  work  now  on  the  Clyde  fully  corroborates 
our  opinion  previously  expressed,  that  London  will  in  time  be  beaten  out  of 
the  field  in  heavy  engineering  work,  which  can  be  executed  more  economi- 
cally in  localities  where  rent,  wages,  and  materials  are  much  lower. 

Rule  for  calculating  the  weight  that  can  be  safelt  trusted  upon 

a  pile  which  is  driven  for  the  foundation  of  a  heay1"  structure. 

Br  John  Sanders,  Brev.  Maj.  U.  S.  Eng. 

A  simple  empirical  rule,  derived  from  an  extensive  series  of  experiments 
in  pile  driving,  made  in  establishing  the  foundation  for  fort  Delaware,  will 
doubtless  prove  acceptable  to  such  constructors  and  builders  as  may  have  to 
resort  to  the  use  of  piles,  without  having  an  opportunity  of  making  similar 
researches.  I  believe  that  full  confidence  may  be  placed  in  the  correctness 
of  this  rule,  but  I  am  not  at  present  prepared  to  offer  a  statement  of  the  facts 
and  theory  upon  which  it  is  founded. 

Suppose  a  pile  to  be  driven  until  it  meets  such  a  uniform  resistance  as  is 


1852.] 


Novelties.. 


91 


indicated  by  slight  and  nearly  equal  penetrations,  for  several  successive  blows 
of  the  ram,  and  that  this  is  done  with  a  heavy  ram  (its  weight  at  least  ex- 
ceeding that  of  the  pile),  made  to  fall  from  such  a  height  that  the  force  of  its 
blow  will  not  be  spent  in  merely  overcoming  the  inertion  of  the  pile,  but  at 
the  same  time  not  from  so  great  a  height  as  to  generate  a  force  which  would 
expend  itself  in  crushing  the  fibres  of  the  head  of  the  pile.  In  such  a  case 
it  will  be  found  that  the  pile  will  safely  bear,  without  danger  of  further  sub- 
sidence, "as  many  times  the  weight  of  the  ram,  as  the  distance  which  the  -pile  is 
sunk  the  last  blow,  is  contained  in  the  distance  which  the  ram  falls  in  making 
that  blow,  divided  by  eight."  For  example,  let  us  take  a  practical  case,  in 
which  the  ram  weighs  one  ton,  and  falls  six  feet,  and  in  which  the  pile  is 
sunk  half  an  inch  by  the  last  blow  ;  then,  as  half  an  inch  is  contained  144 
times  in  72  inches,  the  height  the  ram  falls,  if  we  divide  1 44  by  8,  the  quo- 
tient obtained,  18,  gives  the  number  of  tons  which  may  be  built  with  perfect 
safety,  in  the  form  of  a  wall,  upon  such  a  pile. 

NOVELTIES. 

Chrime's  Patent  High  Pressure  Cocks.    These  Cocks,  as  made  by 

Messrs.  Guest  and  Chrimes, 
of  Botherham,  are  now  in 
extensive  use ;  an  experience 
of  some  four  or  five  years 
having  settled  the  point  in 
their  favour.  The  valve  por- 
tion consists,  as  will  be  seen 
by  the  engravings,  of  a  brass 
disc,  covered  with  leather, 
and  pressed  on  to  the  seat 
sg^as]  by  a  screwed  spindle,  work- 
j  ing  through  a  stuffing  box. 
s^s^'  They  are>  in  fact>  an  engi- 
neer's stop-valveinminiature. 
For  high  pressures  they  are 
more  particularly  made  with 
the  valve  loose  from  the 
spindle,  the  valve  beinglifted 
by  the  pressure  only. 

The  advantages  which  they 
possess  are — perfect  security 
against  leakage ;  facility  of 
repair,  by  putting  on  a  new 
leather,  without  disconnect- 
ing the  cock  ;  the  prevention 
of  concussion,  and  conse- 
quent bursting  of  the  pipes, 
from  shutting  off  the  water 
too  suddenly,  and  the  form 
of  the  water  way,  which  gives 
a  larger  area  than  the  ordi- 
naryplugcock.  Mr. Leather, 
engineer  to  the  Leeds  and 
Bradford  water  works,  gives 
a  very  favourable  report  of  their  use  at  those  places.  We  ought  to  mention 
that  a  valve  of  the  same  description,  but  without  the  leather,  was  handed  to 
us  by  Mr.  Shanks,  engineer,  as  an  American  invention,  which  it  may  pro- 
bably be,  without  detriment  to  the  originality  of  Mr.  Chrime's  invention. 

North  London  School  oe  Drawing  and  Modelling.— We  paid  a  visit 
a  few  evenings  since  to  this  school,  which  has  been  established  in  High-street, 
Camden  Town,  to  afford  a  sound  course  of  instruction  to  both  sexes,  in 
drawing  and  modelling.  We  were  informed  that  there  arc  at  present  160 
pupils  on  the  books,  the  number  being  only  limited  by  the  extent  of  the 
accommodation  available.  Of  these,  about  30  are  females.  The  terms  of 
admission  for  three  lessons  a  week  in  both,  art  drawing  and  geometrical 
drawing,  are  only  2s.  per  month,  and  for  youths  under  fifteen  years  of  age, 
only  Is.  6d.     There  are  scarcely  any  occupations,  however  mechanical,  n 


which  the  education  here  acquired  would  not  increase  the  value  of  the  stu- 
dent to  his  employer,  whilst  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  elevating  character 
on  the  mind.  Some  of  our  readers  may  have  it  in  their  power  to  add  to 
its  usefulness  by  contributing  books,  engravings,  or  models,  which,  they  may 
take  our  word  for  it,  will  not  be  thrown  away.  We  hope  soon  to  hear  of  a 
similar  school  being  established  at  the  east  end  of  London,  where  there  is 
ample  room  for  it. 

Jarrett's  Improved  Copting  and  Embossing  Presses.— These  presses 

are  so  convenient  that  we  do 
not  wonder  at  their  coming 
into  such  general  use.     Mr. 
Jarrett     has     submitted    to 
us    specimens    of  two   new 
varieties  which  he  has  lately 
brought   out.      Fig.    1   is   a 
press  designed  to  answer  the 
double  purpose  of  a  copying 
and    embossing     press,    and 
thereby    save    room    in    the 
office,  and  first  cost.     As  shown  in  the  sketch,  the  embossing  die  is  placed 
above  the  copying  press,  the  same  screw  answering  for  both.    It  is  so  ar- 
ranged that  none  of  the  parts  require 
changing  to  make  it  serve  for  either 
purpose.     Fig.  2  is  a  double  lever- 
press,  contrived  so  that  the  motion 
of  the  handle   in    either   direction 
gives  the  impression.     This  is  a  con- 
venience when  fixed  on  a  double 
desk.    A  slit  is  made  in  the  sides  of 
the  press,  so  that  the  letter  paper- 
when  slid  in,  is  certain  of  being  truly 
placed.    A  frame  is  also  provided, 
Fig  2.  by  which  the  same  thing  is  effected 

for  envelopes.  Motion  is  given  to  the  die  by  a  cam  on  the  handle.  Alto- 
gether these  presses  are  the  most  mechanical  things  of  the  kind  we  have 
ever  seen. 


LIST  OF  ENGLISH  PATENTS. 
Fkom  23rd  February,  to  18th  March,  1852. 


Six  months  allowed  for  enrolment,  unless  otherwise  exp 

William  Edward  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements 
in  the  manufacture  of  coke,  and  in  application  of  the  gaseous  products  arising  therefrom  to 
useful  purposes.    (Being  a  communication.)    February  23. 

William  Stirling  Lacon,  of  Great  Yarmouth,  Norfolk,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in 
the  means  of  suspending  ships'  boats,  and  of  lowering  the  same  into  the  water.  February  23. 

Samuel  Banes,  of  Bethnal-green,  Middlesex,  master  mariner,  for  certain  improvements 
in  apparatus  to  be  applied  to  or  connected  with  the  cables  of  ships  or  other  vessels  when 
riding  at  anchor.    February  23. 

Charles  Cowper,  of  Southampton-buildings,  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  for  improvements 
in  machinery  for  combing  and  preparing  wool  and  other  fibrous  substances.  ("Being  a 
communication.)    February  23. 

Jean  Theodore  Coupier  and  Marie  Amedee  Charles  Mellier,  of  Maidstone,  Kent,  gentle- 
men, for  certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  paper.    February  23. 

Thomas  Young  Hall,  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  coal  owner  and  colliery  viewer,  for  im- 
provements in  screens  for  screening  coal  and  other  substances  requiring  to  be  screened. 
February  23. 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  the  firm  of  J.  C.  Robertson  and  Co.,  of  Fleet-street 
London,  patent-agent,  for  improvements  in  windmills.     (Being  acommunication.)  Feb.  23. 

William  Walker,  of  Plymouth,  Devon,  Commander  in  the  Royal  Navy,  for  a  method  or 
means  of  ascertaining  and  indicating  the  deviations  or  errors  of  the  mariners'  compass, 
February  23. 

James  Pilling,  of  Rochdale,  Lancaster,  spinner  and  manufacturer,  for  certain  improve- 
ments in  looms  for  weaving.    February  23. 

Peter  Armand  le  Comte  de  Fontainemoreau,  of  South-street,  Finsbury,  London,  for  cer- 
tain improvements  in  gas-burners.     (Being  a  communication.)    February  23. 

Alfred  Charles  Hobbs,  of  New  York,  America,  engineer,  for  certain  improvements  in  the 
construction  of  locks  and  other  fastenings.    February  23. 

Thomas  Walker,  of  Birmingham,  for  improvements  in  steam  engines.    February  23. 

Samuel  Boulton,  of  Manchester,  agent,  for  improvements  in  the  treatment  of  metallic 
ores,  and  certain  salts  and  residuary  matters,  and  in  obtaining  products  therefrom. 
February  23. 

Henry  Bessemer,  of  Baxter-house,  Old  St.  Pancras-road,  Middlesex,  for  improvements  in 
expressing  saccharine  fluids,  and  in  the  manufacture,  refining,  and  treating  sugar. 
February  24. 

Russell  Sturgis,  of  Bishopsgate-street,  London,  merchant,  for  improvements  in  weaving 
looms.     (Being  a  communication.)    February  25. 

John  Elce,  of  Manchester,  Lancaster,  machinist,  and  John  Bond,  of  Burnley,  in  the  said 
county,  machinist,  for  certain  improvements  in  machinery  for  preparing  cotton  and  other 
fibrous  substances ;  also  in  machinery  or  apparatus  applicable  to  looms  for  weaving,  and 
the  tools  employed  therein.    February  26. 

Charles  Reeves,  jnn.,  of  Birmingham,  Warwick,  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements 
in  the  manufacture  of  bayonets,  swords,  and  other  cutting  instruments.    February  27. 


92 


List  of  English  Patents. 


[April,  1852. 


Charles  John  Slave,  of  Black-wall,  Sliddlesex,  for  impvovements  in  constructing  ivon  ships 
ov  vessels,  and  steam  boilers.    February  27. 

James  Pilbrow,  of  Tottenham,  Sliddlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  cevtain  impvovements  in 
apparatus  for  supplying  the  inhabitants  of  towns  and  other  places  with  water.    Sf  arch  3. 

George  Leopold  Ludwig  Kufahl,  of  Christopher- street,  Finsbury,  London,  engineer,  for 
improvements  in  fire-arms.    Starch  3. 

George  Wilkinson,  of  Streatham-terrace,  Shadwell,  engineer,  for  impvovements  in  ships 
and  othev  vessels.    Slarch  4. 

Alfred  Trueman,  of  Swansea,  manager  of  copper  smelting  works,  and  John  Cameron,  of 
Loughor,  chemist,  for  improvements  in  obtaining  copper  from  ores.    March  4. 

Alexander  Parkes,  of  Birmingham,  for  improvements  in  separating  silver  from  other 
metals.    March  8. 

Edward  Moseley  Perkins,  of  Mark-lane,  London,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture 
of  cast  metal  pipes,  retorts,  or  other  hollow  castings.    March  8. 

James  Graham,  of  Camden-grove,  Peckham,  Surrey,  for  improvements  in  treating  ores 
containing  zinc  and  the  products  obtained  therefrom.    Slarch  8. 

James  Wanbrough,  of  Albert-road,  Mile-end,  manufacturer,  and  William  Allen  Turnev, 
of  Fish-street-hill,  London,  merchant,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  flocked 
fabrics.    Slarch  8. 

Frederick  George  Underhay,  of  Well's-street,  Gray's  Inn-road,  engineer,  for  improve- 
ments in  apparatus  for  regulating  the  supply  of  water  to  water-closets  and  other  vessels, 
and  in  taps  or  cocks  for  drawing  off  liquids.    March  8. 

Enrico  Angelo  Ludovico  Negretti  and  Joseph  Warren  Zambra,  both  of  Hatton-garden, 
London,  meteorological  instrument  makers,  for  improvements  in  thermometers,  barometers, 
gauges,  and  other  instruments  for  ascertaining  and  vegisteving  the  tempevature,  pressure, 
density,  and  specific  gravity  of  aeriform  fluids  and  liquids,  or  solid  bodies.    March  8. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  im- 
provements in  machinery  for  combing  wool  and  other  fibrous  substances.  (Being  a  com- 
munication.)   Slarch  8. 

George  Wright,  of  Sheffield,  and  also  of  Eotherham,  York,  artist,  for  impvovements  in 
stoves,  grates,  or  fire-places.    Slarch  8. 

William  Edward  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Sliddlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements 
in  propelling  vessels.    (Being  a  communication.)    Slarch  8. 

Joshua  Crockford,  of  Southampton-place,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in 
brewing,  and  in  brewing  apparatus.    Slarch  8. 

Augustus  Turk  Forder,  of  Leamington  Priors,  Warwick,  solicitor,  for  an  impvoved  fendev. 
March  8. 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  the  firm  of  J.  C.  Robertson  and  Co.,  of  Fleet-street, 
London,  patent  agents,  for  improvements  in  presses  and  in  pressing.  (Being  a  communi- 
cation.)   Slarch  8. 

Charles  Augustus  Preller,  of  Abchurch-lane,  London,  merchant,  for  improvements  in  the 
preparation  and  preservation  of  skins,  and  animal  and  vegetable  substances.  (Being  a 
communication.)    March  8. 

Uriah  Scott,  of  Grove-street,  Camden-town,  Sliddlesex,  engineer,  for  improvements  in 
wheels  and  in  springs,  and  spring-bearings  for  carriages.    Slarch  8. 

John  Henry  Johnson,  of  Lincoln's-inn  Fields,  Sliddlesex,  and  of  Glasgow,  for  improve- 
ments in  weaving  carpets  and  other  fabrics,  and  in  the  machinery  ov  apparatus  employed 
therein.     (Being  acommunication.)    Slarch  8. 

Walter  Young,  of  Springfield  Ironworks,  Salford,  Lancaster,  millwright  and  engineev, 
fov  an  improvement  or  improvements  in  steam  engines.    March  8. 

Alexander  Cuningham,  of  Glasgow,  Lanark,  North  Britain,  ironmaster,  for  improvements 
in  the  treatment  and  application  of  slag,  ov  the  refuse  matter  of  blast  furnaces.    Slarch  8. 

William  Pidding,  of  the  Strand,  Sliddlesex,  gentleman,  fov  improvements  in  mining  ope- 
rations, and  in  the  machinery  or  apparatus  connected  therewith.    Slarch  8. 

Peter  Van  Kempen,  of  West  Ham,  Essex,  accountant,  for  an  improved  refrigerator  to  be 
used  in  brewing,  distilling,  and  other  similar  useful  purposes.  (Being  a  communication.) 
Slarch  8. 

William  Willcocks  Sleigh,  physician  and  surgeon,  of  London,  for  a  counteracting  reaction 
motive-power  engine.    Slarch  8. 

Alexandre  Hediard,  of  Rue  Taitbout,  Paris,  gentleman,  for  certain  improvements  in 
rotary  steam  engines.    Slarch  8. 

Paul  Rapsey  Hodge,  civil  and  mechanical  engineer,  of  Adam-street,  Adelphi,  Sliddlesex, 
fov  cevtain  improvements  in  the  construction  of  railways  and  railway  carriages,  parts  of 
which  are  applicable  to  carriages  on  common  roads.    (Being  a  communication.)    Slarch  8. 

Thomas  Ellison,  of  Queen's-road,  Pentonville,  Sliddlesex,  painter,  plumber,  and  glazier, 
for  certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  imitation  marbles,  granites,  and  all  sorts  of 
stones.    Slarch  8. 

Pierre  Henri  Bareau,  of  Paris,  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  carpets,  velvets,  and  other  fabrics.    March  8. 

William  Smith,  of  Park-street,  Grosvenor-square,  civil  engineer,  and  Archibald  Smith,  of 
Princes-street,  Leicester- square,  engineer  and  machinist,  for  certain  improvements  in  elec- 
tric and  electro-magnetic  telegraph  apparatus,  and  in  the  machinery  for  and  method  of 
making  and  laying  down  submarine,  submerged,  and  other  such  lines.    March  8. 

Colin  Slather,  of  Salford,  Lancaster,  machine-maker,  and  Ernest  Rolffs,  of  Cologne, 
Prussia,  gentleman,  for  certain  improvements  in  printing,  damping,  stiffening,  opening, 
and  spreading  woven  fabrics.    Slarch  1 1 . 

Benjamin  Goodfellow,  of  Hyde,  Chester,  engineev,  fov  impvovements  in  boilevs  fov  gene- 
vating  steam.    Slarch  11. 

Joseph  Denton,  of  Rochdale,  Lancaster,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  machinery  or 
apparatus  for  manufacturing  looped,  terry,  or  othev  similar  fabrics.  Slavch  12.  (N.B.  This 
patent  being  opposed  at  the  Great  Seal,  was  not  sealed  till  the  12th  Slarch,  but  bears  date 
the  23rd  February  last,  the  day  it  would  have  been  sealed  had  no  opposition  been  entered.) 

John  Slercer,  of  Oakenshaw,  Clayton-le-SIoors,  chemist,  and  John  Greenwood,  of  Irwell 
Springs,  Bacup,  Turkey-red  dyer,  both  in  Lancaster,  for  certain  improvements  in  preparing 
cotton  and  other  fabrics  for  dyeing  and  printing.    Slarch  15. 

Francis  Wheatley,  of  Greenwich,  Kent,  gentleman,  for  an  improved  safety  cab-omnibus. 
Slarch  18. 


LIST  OF  SCOTCH  PATENTS. 
Fkom  22nd  of  January,  to  the  22nd  of  February,  1852. 

Aime  Nicholas  Derode,  of  Rue  St.  Roch,  Paris,  France,  gentleman,  for  a  certain  process 
of  uniting  cast  iron  to  cast  iron,  and  to  other  metals,  and  for  uniting  other  metals  together. 
January  26  ;  four  months. 

George  Torr,  of  the  chemical  works,  Turnley's-lane,  Rotherhithe,  animal  charcoal  burner, 
for  improvements  in  burning  animal  charcoal.    January  26. 

James  Pillans  Wilson,  and  George  Fergusson  Wilson,  of  Wandsworth,  Surrey,  gentlemen, 
for  impvovements  in  the  preparation  of  wool  fov  the  manufactuve  of  woollen  and  othev 
fabrics,  and  in  the  process  of  obtaining  materials  to  be  used  for  that  purpose.    January  26. 

Victor  Learning,  of  Cette,  Department  of  l'Herault,  France,  for  certain  impvovements  in 
votavy  engines.    January  26. 

John  Stopporton,  of  the  Isle  of  Slan,  engineer,  for  certain  improvements  in  propelling 
vessels,  parts  of  which  improvements  are  applicable  to  steam  engines  and  pumps.    Jan.  28. 

Joseph  Stenson,  of  Northampton,  engineer  and  iron  manufacturer,  for  improvements  in 
the  manufacture  of  iron,  and  in  the  steam  apparatus  used  therein,  part  or  parts  of  which 
are  also  applicable  to  evaporative  and  motive  purposes.     January  30. 

John  Chatterton,  of  Birmingham,  Warwick,  agent,  for  cevtain  impvovements  in  protect- 


ing insulated  electro-telegraphic  wires,  and  in  the  methods  and  machinery  used  for  that 
purpose.    January  30. 

Sidney  Smith,  of  Nottingham,  for  improvements  in  indicating  the  height  of  water  in 
steam  boilers.    February  4. 

Francis  Clark  Monatis,  of  Earlston,  Berwick,  builder,  for  improved  hydraulic  syphon. 
February  4. 

George  Duncan,  of  the  New  North-road  Hoxton,  and  Arthur  Hutton,  of  the  same  place, 
for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  casks.     February  6. 

George  Collier,  of  Halifax,  York,  mechanic,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of 
carpets  and  other  fabrics.    February  10. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery -lane,  Sliddlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  pigment  or  paint.     February  1 1 . 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Sliddlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  im- 
provements in  machinery  for  weaving  coach-lace,  Brussels  tapestry,  and  velvet  carpeting, 
and  other  pile  fabrics.    February  13. 

James  Anderson  Young,  of  Buchanan-street,  Glasgow,  North  Britain,  surgeon  dentist,  for 
certain  improvements  in  dental  operation,  and  in  apparatus  or  instruments  to  be  used 
therein.    February  16 

Charles  Cowper,  of  Southampton-buildings,  Chancery-lane,  Sliddlesex,  for  improvements 
in  machinery  for  combing  and  preparing  wool  and  other  fibrous  substances.    February  13. 

Hermann  Turck,  of  Broad-street-buildings,  in  the  City  of  London,  merchant,  for  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  resin  oil.    February  18. 

James  Roberton,  of  Oxford-street,  Slanchester,  chemist,  for  improved  methods  of  produ- 
cing or  obtaining  printing  dyes  and  other  substances,  which  improvements,  in  whole  or  in 
part,  are  applicable  to  other  like  useful  purposes.    February  20. 

LIST  OF  IRISH  PATENTS. 
From  21st  of  January  to  the  19th  of  February,  18&2 . 

Edwin  Rose,  of  Slanchester,  Lancaster,  Esq.,  for  certain  improvements  in  boilers  for 
generating  steam.    February  6. 

Frederick  Rosenborg,  of  the  Albany,  Sliddlesex,  Esq.,  for  improvements  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  casks,  barrels,  and  other  like  articles,  and  the  machinery  employed  therein. 
February  13. 

John  Livesey,  of  New  Lenton,  Nottingham,  draughtsman,  for  improvements  in  the  manu- 
facture of  textile  fabrics,  and  in  machinery  for  producing  the  same.    February  10. 

Alexandre  Hediard,  of  Rue  Taitbout,  Paris,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  propelling 
and  navigating  ships,  boats,  and  vessels,  by  steam  and  other  motive  power.     February  10. 

Charles  James  Pownall,  of  Addison-road,  Sliddlesex,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  the 
preparation  and  treatment  of  flax  and  other  like  fibrous  vegetable  substances.  February  1 1. 


bruary  20, 

3129, 

,,  20, 

3130, 

„  21, 

3131, 

„  21, 

3132,. 

„  23, 

3133, 

„  23, 

3134, 

„  24, 

3135, 

„  24, 

3136, 

,,  24, 

3137, 

„  25, 

3138, 

„  25, 

3139, 

„  25, 

3140, 

,,  26, 

3141, 

„  26, 

3142, 

„  26, 

3143, 

„  26, 

3144, 

„  26, 

3145, 

„  26, 

3146. 

„  26, 

3147, 

„  26, 

3148, 

„  27, 

3U9, 

„  28, 

3150, 

„  28, 

3151, 

„  28, 

3152, 

"  28, 

3153, 

Slarch  1 

3151, 

,>   1, 

3155, 

„   1, 

3156, 

»   1, 

3157, 

,,   3, 

3158, 

„   3 

3159, 

„      4 

3160, 

,.   5 

3161, 

..   5 

3162, 

>.   5 

3163, 

„   5 

3164, 

„   6 

3165, 

,,   6 

3166, 

„   8 

3167, 

,.   8 

3168, 

„   9 

3169, 

„  11 

3170, 

„  11 

3171, 

„  12 

3172, 

„  12 

3173, 

„  12 

3174, 

,,  12 

3175, 

„  13 

3176, 

„  13 

3177, 

„  15 

3178, 

„  16 

3179, 

„  16 

3180, 

„  16 

3181, 

„  16 

3182, 

DESIGNS  FOR  ARTICLES  OF  UTILITY. 
From  the  20th  February,  to  the  16th  SIarch,  1852,  inclusive. 
J.  Keable,  Lam  bourn,  "  Guard  frame  for  pig  trough." 
J.  Jones  and  Co.,  Sheffield,  "  Galoshes  for.  sheep  and  other  cloven-footed 

animals." 
G.  Slurrell,  Chelsea,  "  Anti-mephitical  ventilator,  or  vapour  dispeller." 
J.  H.  Noone,  and  W.  Exall,  Camden  Town,  "  Spring-carriage  head." 
Brown  and  Redpath,  Commercial-road,  "  Apparatus  for  lowering  boats 

from  ships  or  other  vessels." 
J.  Smith,  Coven,  near  Wolverhampton,  "Boiler." 
J.Purdey,  314i,  Oxford-street,  "  Self-expanding  bullet." 
J.  H.  Cutler,  Birmingham,  "  Pearl  buttons." 
W.  Woolford,  Bradford,  York,  "  Seating  of  singe  plates  for  singeing 

fabrics." 
Brown,  Marshall  and  Co.,  Birmingham,  "  Railway  carriage." 
R.  Best,  Birmingham,  "  Reflector." 

W.  1  roger,  Newport,  Slonmouth,  "  Safety  and  signal  lantern." 
R.  W.  VV  infield,  Birmingham.  "  Curtain  ring-hook." 
W.  Soutter,  Birmingham,  "  Joint  for  copper  and  brass  kettles  and  other 

vessels." 
C.  N.  Slay,  Reading,  "  Smoke  preventer." 
J.  Derrington  and  Co.,  Slanchester,  "  Tap  or  cock." 
CSV.  Lancaster,  New  Bond-street,  "  Rifle  ball." 
C.  W.  Lancaster,  New  Bond-street,  "  Rifle  ball." 

C.  W.  Lancaster,  New  Bond-street,  "  Rifle  ball." 
T.  and  S.  Knight,  Southwark,  "  Improved  boiler." 
Myers  and  Son,  Birmingham,  "  Universal  India-rubber  holder." 
W.  Dodsworth,  Bradford,  "  Spool  motion." 

A.  Gatti  and  E.  Prinet,  Clerkenwell,  "  Self-acting  card-case." 
J.  Parkinson,  Bury,  Lancaster,  "  Cock." 

H.  G.  Fuller,  Greenwich,  "  Apparatus  for  making  sail  thimbles." 
T.  Sullivan,  Foot's-cray,  Kent,  "  Amphaton  dandy  roller." 
E.  Evans,  Brixton,  "  Screw  gas  tongs,  or  wrench." 
H.  Beckwith,   Skinner-street,    Snow-hill,    "  Slould  for  hollow  conical 

bullets." 
Parsons  and  Ten-ill,  Caledonian-road, "  Cooking  apparatus." 
The  Grangemouth  Coal  Company,  Grangemouth,  "  Heating  apparatus 

for  hot-houses  and  green-houses,  &c." 

B.  SI.  Wilkins,  Sutton  Coldfield,  "  Running  rein-bridle." 
J.  C.  Stokes,  Birmingham,  "  Tap." 
G.  Fletcher  and  Co.,  Wolverhampton,  "  Sletallic  lath  for  beds,  sofas, 

couches.  &c." 
H.  Swift,  Ipswich,  "  Gutter  or  water-channel  for  footpaths  and  ways." 
P.  Pearson,  Slanchester,  "  Slachine  for  folding  paper  bags." 
W.  Austin,  Farnham,  "  Set  of  bricks  for  building  walls,"  &c. 
H.  Kenyon,  Liverpool,  "  Fluted  mill-tooth." 
J.  Kealy,  Oxford-street,  "  Knife  for  turnip-cutters,"  &o. 
H.  Jones,  Birmingham,  "  Sleasuring  tap." 

i  J.  Finlay,  Glasgow,  "  Induction  Ventilator." 

G.  Benda,  79,  Basinghall-street,  "  Fastening  for  Porte  Sfonnaies,  and 
other  articles." 

,  J.  Cooper  and  J.  C.  Forsell,  Leicester,  "  The  crystal  veel." 

D.  Simpson,  Lancastev,  "  Regulating  pvessuve-tap." 
H.  Stephens,  Stamfovd-stveet,  Blackfriars,  "  Adjustable  pencil-point," 
Sir.  Bailey,  Bayswater,  "  Safety  letter-box.,, 
H.  Doulton  and  Co.,  Lambeth  Pottery, "  Invert  block  for  the  bottoms  of 

sewers  or  culverts  in  stoneware." 

C.  and  J.  Seagrief,  Green-street,  Park-lane,  "  Portable  wardrobe." 
A.  Slarion  and  Co.,  Regent-street,  "  Pencil  cutter  "  ( 179  Provisional.) 
C.  Gray  and  Sons,  Sheffield,  "Reaping  machine-knife." 
Well  and  tlreenway,  Birmingham,  "Fastening  for  doors,  windows,  &c." 
W.  Fife,  Birmingham,  "  Sletallic  pen." 

J.  Slorris  and  Sons,  Astwood  Bank,  near  Redditch,  "  Needle-case." 
C.  Rowley,  Bivmingham,  "  Fastening  fov  elastic  bands." 
W.  Stahl  and  E.  Prinet,  Yardley-street,  Wilmington-square,  "New  divi- 
ders and  callipers"  (110  Provisional.) 

J.  C.  Boyd,  Lower  Thames-street,  "Double  action  or  self-adjusting 
scythe," 


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THE    ARTIZAN. 


No.  V.— Vol.  X.— MAY  1st,  1852. 


COLT'S  PATENT  REPEATING  PISTOLS. 
Amongst  the  other  specimens  of  American  ingenuity  and  work- 
manship which  created  so  much  interest  at  the  Great  Exhibition,  the 
fire-arms  of  Colonel  Colt  were  pre-eminent.  They  afford  another 
instance  of  the  difficulty  of  overcoming  the  prejudices  which  the 
routine  of  trade  invariably  creates.  When  locomotives  were  first 
made,  it  was  at  once  assumed  that  the  wheels  would  slip  round,  and 
the  train  would  stand  still  ;  and,  as  everybody  said  so,  everybody  be- 
lieved it,  and  nobody  thought  of  trying  the  simple  experiment.  In 
the  same  manner,  although  repeating  pistols  have  been  known  for 
some  centuries,  nobody  had  the  courage  to  grapple  with  the  mechani- 
cal difficulties,  which  they  took  for  granted  were  insurmountable. 
Colonel  Colt,  without  being  aware  of  the  numerous  ancient  schemes 
which  decorated  our  museums,  but  being  strongly  impressed  with  the 
value  which  such  an  arm  would  possess  if  successful,  set  himself  to 
work  to  invent  and  construct.  After  numerous  trials,  the  result  was 
the  repeating  pistol  of  which  we  have  given  a  plate,  full  size.  As  our 
readers  well  know,  we  aim  at  practical  utility,  and  we  have,  there- 
fore, taken  some  trouble  to  give  them  accurate  details,  which  may 
serve  as  a  guide  to  the  practical  man. 

We  have  remarked  on  the  prejudice  existing  against  this  innova- 
tion. "  They  would  never  keep  in  order,"  was  the  "  short,  sharp, 
and  decisive"  way  of  settling  the  question,  with  the  anti-progression- 
ists. The  Board  of  Ordnance,  United  States,  to  test  this  point,  had 
a  holster  pistol  fired  twelve  hundred  times,  and  a  belt  pistol  fifteen 
hundred  times,  cleaning  but  once  a  day,  when  the  Board  determined 
that  no  further  trial  was  necessary,  in  which  opinion  most  of  our 
readers  will,  we  doubt  not,  coincide.  They  reported,  "  that  neither 
of  the  pistols  appeared  to  be  injured  by  the  operation."  The  penetra- 
tion of  the  holster  pistol  was  found  to  be  through  7  inches  of  board, 
and  the  belt  pistol  through  6  inches,  whilst  the  highest  penetration  of 
the  common  dragoon  pistol  was  only  through  5  inches.  As  regards 
the  "  proof"  to  which  fire-arms  are  subjected,  in  1850,  2,082  were 
"  proved  "  by  the  ordnance,  and  only  one  barrel  and  one  cylinder 
burst — a  smaller  proportion  than  with  any  other  description  of  arm. 
So  satisfactory  was  this  trial  deemed,  that  the  Secretary  of  War  at 
once  assumed  the  responsibility  of  contracting  with  Colonel  Colt  for 
4,000  pistols,  without  waiting  for  the  official  sanction  of  Congress. 

With  regard  to  the  price  at  which  these  arms  can  be  manufactured, 
we  are  informed  that  Colonel  Colt  has  carried  out  the  use  of  self- 
acting  tools  to  such  an  extent,  that  20  per  cent,  only  of  the  cost  is 
for  hand  labour,  1 0  per  cent,  of  which,  is  for  the  wages  of  women  and 
children  attending  the  machines.  A  perfect  uniformity  of  detail  is 
the  result,  so  that  the  several  parts  are  put  together  from  a  quantity 
kept  on  stock,  and  when  on  service,  those  injured  in  action  can  be 
combined  with  others,  so  as  to  make  up  70  to  80  per  cent,  of  service- 
able arms. 

A  necessary  quality,  but  one  never  attained   with  the  ordinary  | 


musket,  is  the  power  of  resisting  the  effect  of  immersion  in  water. 
The  power  required  to  force  the  ball  home,  hermetically  seals  the 
receptacle  for  powder,  and  with  the  cap  on  the  nipple,  the  pistol  may 
be  immersed  in  water  for  several  hours  without  damping  the  powder. 
Fig.  1  is  a  side  elevation  in  section,  the  ban-el  being  broken  off.  Fig. 
2  is  an  elevation  of  the  hammer  and  chamber  detached.  Fig.  3  is  an 
end  view  of  the  mouth  of  the  barrel,  and  those  of  the  chamber.  Fig. 
4  is  an  end  view  of  the  chamber,  showing  the  nipples,  and  fig.  5  is  an 
inverted  plan  of  the  trigger,  the  spring  which  actuates  it,  and  the 
hammer,  the  brass  finger  guard,  y  z,  being  supposed  to  be  removed. 
We  will  first  describe  the  method  in  which  the  various  parts  are  secured 
together.  The  piece  of  metal  a  a,  may  be  said  to  form  the  basis  of 
the  stock.  At  the  back  of  it  is  a  boss,  b  b,  shown  in  fig.  5,  and  shown 
dotted  in  fig.  1,  which  is  cored  out  to  receive  the  hammer,  trigger,  &c, 
and  serves  to  cover  the  nipples.  To  give  room,  however,  to  put  the 
percussion  caps  on  the  nipples,  the  boss  ,is  cut  away  on  one  side, 
as  shown  in  fig.  5  (dotted)  for  that  purpose.  In  this  boss  is  fixed  a 
pin,  c,  on  which  the  chamber,  d,  revolves  ;  a  shallow  thread,  cut  in  the 
pin  at  this  part,  serves  to  hold  the  oil,  which  is  essential,  to  enable  the 
chamber  to  revolve  freely.  This  pin  also  serves  to  carry  the  barrel, 
which  is  keyed  to  it,  by  means  of  the  key,//.  By  driving  up  this  key, 
the  barrel  is  forced  into  contact  with  the  chamber,  d,  and  the  chamber, 
d,  in  contact  with  the  boss,  a.  To  prevent  the  key  being  lost,  by  being 
completely  disconnected  from  the  barrel,  a  small  screw  is  fixed  in  the 
latter,  the  head  of  which  enters  a  groove  in  the  key,  and  prevents  it 
being  withdrawn.  On  the  front  of  the  piece,  a  a,  are  two  small  pins, 
which  serve  to  steady  the  barrel,  the  projection  at  the  end  of  which 
has  holes  bored  to  receive  them. 

The  ramrod,  </,  is  guided  by  sliding  through  the  projection  forged 
on  the  barrel,  and  is  actuated  by  the  lever,  h,  which  works  on  the  pin, 
f,  as  a  fulcrum.  When  not  in  use,  this  lever  is  held  in  position  by 
means  of  the  spring  catch,  k,  which  is  furnished  with  a  spiral  spring,  so 
that  after  being  used,  the  lever  is  fixed  by  the  mere  act  of  grasping  it 
with  the  barrel,  and  it  can  be  instantaneously  dis-engaged  by  pressing- 
down  the  projecting  tongue,  which  extends  transversely  beyond  the 
diameter  of  the  lever,  to  enable  this  to  be  done  with  facility. 

The  hammer,  I,  moves  on  the  pin,  o,  as  a  fulcrum,  and  is  actuated  by 
the  spring,  m,  the  end  of  which  bears  on  a  friction  roller  in  the  heel  of 
the  hammer. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  whenever  the  barrel  and  chamber 
have  become  foul  from  use,  they  can  be  readily  taken  to  pieces  and 
cleaned.  The  key,/,  only  requires  to-be  driven  back,  and  the  barrel 
and  chamber  can  then  be  slipped  off  the  pin,  c,  cleaned,  and  put 
together  again  in  a  few  minutes. 

We  must  now  see  how  the  movements  of  the  chamber  and  hammer 
are  provided  for. 

The  chamber  being  constructed  to  carry  six  charges  of  powder  and 
ball,  must  be  moved  one-sixth  of  a  revolution  each  time ;  it  must  be 

13 


94 


Modern  Improvements  in  Fire  Arms. 


[May, 


held  rigidly  in  a  line  with  the  barrel  at  the  moment  of  firing,  and  it 
must  be  capable  of  making  a  complete  revolution  in  order  to  load  it. 
Fig.  2  shows  how  the  motion  of  the  chamber  is  provided  for.  The 
back  end  of  it  is  cut  into  a  circular  ratchet  of  six  teeth.  The  lever, 
n,  attached  by  a  pin  to  the  hammer,  moves  the  ratchet,  as  the  hammer 
is  raised  in  the  aot  of  cocking,  and  the  lever  being  held  against  the 
ratchet,  by  means  of  the  spring,  p,  the  chamber  can  be  revolved  in  one 
direction  only.  The  chamber  is  held  whilst  the  hammer  is  falling,  by 
the  lever,  r,  the  end  of  which  has  a  tooth  on  it,  which  takes  into  one 
of  the  notches,  s,  s,  &c,  of  which  there  is  one  over  each  nipple.  The 
other  end  of  the  lever,  r,  is  moved  by  the  pin,  t,  fixed  in  the  hammer, 
and  so  adjusted  that  as  the  hammer  rises,  the  lever  is  out  of  the  notch, 
s,  and  the  chamber  released,  before  the  ratchet  is  made  to  revolve  by 
,the  lever,  n.  Whilst  the  hammer  remains  at  half  cock,  the  lever  is 
clear  of  the  notch,  and  the  chamber  can  be  freely  revolved  and  loaded. 
Before  the  hammer  is  brought  to  full  cock,  the  pin,  t,  passes  the  end 
of  the  lever,  s,  and  the  lever  being  released,  is  forced  by  the  spring, 
u,  into  the  notch,  s,  to  hold  the  barrel  in  the  right  position  at  the 
moment  of  firing. 

This  spring  is  divided  into  two  parts ;  one,  u,  acting  on  the  lever,  r, 
and  the  other,  u ',  acting  on  the  trigger,  to  keep  it  in  contact  with  the 
hammer. 

After  the  pin,  t,  has  passed  the  end  of  the  lever,  r,  in  going  up, 
it  is  obvious  that  it  could  not  repass  it  in  coming  down,  unless  some 
provision  were  made  for  that  purpose.  This  is  effected  by  splitting 
the  end  of  the  lever,  r,  in  two  pieces  (as  shown  in  fig.  5),  on  the  inner 
of  which  only,  the  pin,  t,  acts.  The  point  of  the  pin  is  also  bevilled,  so 
that  in  its  descent,  it  collapses  the  two  pieces  of  the  lever,  r,  and 
passes  them,  their  elasticity  keeping  them  extended  after  it  has 
passed. 

Method  of  use. — Having  thus  described  the  details  of  construction, 
it  remains  to  say  a  few  words  on  the  method  of  using  this  arm.  The 
rapidity  with  which  it  can  be  loaded  is  not  one  of  the  least  of  its  re- 
commendations. The  hammer  is  half-cocked,  which  sets  the  chamber 
at  liberty,  as  we  have  before  described,  and  the  powder  is  poured  into 
each  receptacle  in  the  chamber  in  succession,  the  balls  being  put  on 
the  powder  without  any  wadding,  and  rammed  down  by  the  lever  ram- 


rod. The  chamber  is  not  rifled,  and,  therefore,  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  rammi  ng  the  balls  home,  whilst  the  damage  to  the  sharp  edges  of 
the  grooves,  which  always  takes  place  in  ordinary  rifles,  from  the  force 
with  which  the  ramrod  must  be  used,  is  entirely  avoided. 

A  very  effectual  provision  is  made  to  prevent  the  accidental  dis- 
charge of  this  pistol  whilst  being  carried  in  the  pocket  or  belt.  Between 
each  nipple  (see  fig.  3)  is  a  small  pin,  and  the  point  of  the  hammer 
has  a  corresponding  notch,  so  that  if  the  hammer  be  lowered  on  to  the 
pin,  the  chamber  is  prevented  from  revolving,  and  the  hammer  is  not 
in  contact  from  the  percussion  cap,  so  that  even  if  the  hammer  be 
struck  violently  by  accident,  it  cannot  explode  the  cap. 

The  hammer,  when  at  full  cock,  forms  the  sight  by  which  to  take 
aim,  and  it  is  readily  raised  to  full  cock  by  the  thumb,  without  using 
both  hands.  As  we  have  tested  from  actual  experience,  this  arrange- 
ment is  superior  to  those  imitations  of  Mr.  Colt's  pistols,  in  which  the 
hammer  is  raised  by  pulling  at  the  trigger,  the  strength  of  the  pull 
necessary  for  this  purpose  interfering  with  the  correctness  of  aim, 
which  is  of  so  much  importance. 

The  bullet  mould,  powder  flask,  and  screw  driver,  form  the  only 
other  fittings  necessary  for  the  pistol  case.  Figs.  6  and  7  are  a  plan 
and  elevation  of  the  bullet  mould,  which  is  formed  of  brass,  and  is 
provided  with  a  mould  for  the  conical  ball,  as  well  as  the  ordinary 
spherical  one.  The  plate,  w,  which  forms  the  cover  of  the  mould,  is 
made  of  steel,  and  the  hole  through  which  the  lead  is  poured  has  a 
knife  edge,  so  that  after  the  ball  is  cast,  by  moving  the  cover  as  shown 
in  fig.  6,  the  runner  on  the  ball  is  cut  off.  Fig.  8  is  an  elevation,  and 
fig.  9  a  plan  of  the  upper  end  of  the  powder  flask,  the  mouthpiece  of 
which  is  fitted  with  a  bayonet  joint,  by  which  the  supply  of  powder 
can  be  adjusted  by  shifting  the  mouthpiece  to  f  or  |-  of  a  drachm,  &c, 
according  to  the  several  sizes  of  the  arm.  Figs.  1 0  and  1 1  show  the 
screw  driver,  one  end  of  which  fits  the  nipples,  and  the  other  the 
ordinary  screw  head.  The  same  principle  has  been  applied  by  Mr. 
Colt  to  a  carbine,  which,  from  the  facility  which  it  offers  for  loading, 
seems  particularly  well  adapted  for  cavalry.  The  accompanying  en- 
graving represents  it  in  elevation.  The  only  alteration  in  the  arrange- 
ment, is  the  position  of  the  ram-rod,  which,  in  this  case,  is  on  the  side 
of  the  barrel,  instead  of  below  it,  as  in  the  pistol. 


MODERN  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  FIRE  ARMS.* 
Modern  fire  arms,  as  used  for  purposes  of  war,  are  just  now  in  a 
transition  state.  Since  the  invention  of  the  percussion  lock,  but  little 
attention  has  been  paid  in  this  country  to  their  improvement.  The  ill 
concealed  contempt  with  which  purely  scientific  attempts  at  improve- 
ment are  received  by  those  who  make  their  only  boast  of  being  "  prac- 
tical men,"  is  no  where  so  prevalent  as  in  this  country,  and  accordingly 
we  find  that  whilst  we  have  remained  stationary,  the  great  continental 
military  powers  and  the  United  States,  have  not  only  availed  themselves 
of  each  improvement  as  it  appeared,  but  have  stimulated  invention  by 

*  Observations  on  the  Past  and  Present  State  of  Fire  Arms,  by  Col.  Chesney,  K.A.  Lon- 
don: Longman.    8vo.,  pp.  376. 

Projectile  Weapons  of  War,  l>y  John  Scoffern,  M.B,  Second  Edition,  12mo.,  pp.  213 
London  :  Cooke  and  VV  lutley. 


liberal  patronage.  The  result  of  this  obstinate  adherence  to  an  anti- 
quated system  has  fortunately  not  yet  been  tested  by  an  European  war. 
Can  we  doubt  what  would  be  the  result  of  an  engagement  between  two 
bodies  of  troops,  one  armed  with  the  English  musket,  and  the  other 
with  the  needle  gun,  which,  taking  the  number  of  shots  only  into 
account  is  3|  times  as  effective  ?  Or,  in  the  case  of  a  frigate  engage- 
ment, what  would  be  the  fate  of  any  boarding  part)',  having  to  face  a 
body  of  men  armed  with  Colt's  "  six  shooters?"  What  an  eager  rush 
would  there  be  to  wipe  off  the  burning  disgrace  !  What  sums  would 
be  squandered  in  trying  to  do  that  in  a  few  months  which  had  occupied 
other  nations  years.  The  "  practical  men  "  no  doubt  would  attempt  to 
console  us,  by  calculating  how  many  needle  guns  and  revolvers  had  got 
out  of  order  during  the  campaign,  and  how  bravely  English  soldiers 


1852.J 


Modern  Improvements  in  Fire  Arms. 


9.5 


stood  up  to  be  shot  at  by  an  almost  invisible  enemy.  There  are  some 
signs  of  a  tardy  repentance  amongst  those  "  in  high  places"  it  is  true, 
but  we  would  ask,  is  the  only  use  of  an  executive  to  obstruct  improve- 
ment ?  Is  it  not  rather  bound  to  originate  ?  or  must  that  department  be 
left  to  the  unassisted  and  disunited  efforts  of  unprofessional  men  ?  It  will 
hardly  be  credited,  but  we  are  informed  on  good  authority,  that  the 
Ordnance  have  just  refused  the  occasional  use  of  their  exercising  ground 
to  a  committee  of  gentlemen  desirous  of  practically  testing  the  merits 
of  the  different  modern  fire  arms.  When  the  difficulty,  we  may  say 
almost  the  impossibility,  of  obtaining  any  other  piece  of  ground,  three 
quarters  of  a  mile  in  length  (and  it  ought  not  to  be  less  for  testing 
rifles)  in  a  suitable  locality,  we  may  well  be  astonished  at  the  refusal. 

Having  thus  shown  what  our  authorities  have  not  done,  we  will  en- 
deavour to  extract  from  the  two  works  before  us,  what  other  nations 
have  done. 

Colonel  Chesney's  work  gives  us  a  history  of  the  invention  and  pro- 
gress of  artillery  from  the  earliest  times ;  the  present  state  of  conti- 
nental artillery  and  our  own  —  the  needle  gun,  and  the  change  of 
tactics  which  its  introduction  will  enforce.  Much  of  this  matter, 
although  valuable,  is  interesting  only  to  the  professional  man.  We  are 
rather  concerned  with  the  mechanical  details  of  the  various  systems, 
which  are  explained  clearly  and  without  bias,  a  favourable  and  not  very 
frequent  feature  in  a  work  written  by  a  professional  man.  In  our  last 
{ante  p.  77)  we  gave  Colonel  Chesney's  description  of  the  needle  gun, 
which,  from  its  rapidity  of  firing,  he  appears  to  consider  entitled  to  the 
preference.  Those  who  may  not  agree  with  the  author  on  this  point 
will  yet  admit  that  it  is  expedient  to  take  a  high  standard  with  which 
to  compare  the  efficiency  of  our  light  artillery,  which  appears  likely  to 
be  superseded  by  an  arm  which  admits  of  equal  range,  is  of  even  greater 
accuracy,  and  of  universal  applicability. 

Captain  Wittich  infers  that  the  needle  gun  will  give  infantry  an  in- 
creased advantage  over  cavalry,  and  that,  therefore,  the  latter  may  be 
in  a  great  measure  dispensed  with.  He  would  therefore  employ  mounted 
infantry,  armed  with  the  needle  gun,  using  the  horse  merely  as  a  means 
of  rapid  locomotion.  Colonel  Chesney  appears  to  incline  to  the  same 
plan,  and  says,  "  The  important  services  recently  rendered  by  the  irre- 
gular horse  in  India  may  give  some  idea  of  what  can  be  done,  and  the 
writer  has  seen  the  men  of  Skinner's  Horse  break  several  bottles  by  the 
fire  of  their  matchlocks,  as  they  passed  in  succession  at  a  gallop." 

Dr.  Scoffern  gives  us  a  brief  but  interesting  account  of  the  early 
history  of  projectile  weapons  of  war, — the  bow,  cross-bow,  battering- 
ram,  Greek  fire,  &c.  From  his  account  of  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
powder, we  may  make  a  few  extracts : — 

The  saltpetre  of  commerce  contains  various  impurities  which  would 
materially  affect  the  quality  of  the  powder.  It  is  therefore  dissolved  in 
water,  the  earthy  matter  allowed  to  settle,  whilst  the  nitrate  of  lime, 
chloride  of  sodium,  calcium,  and  some  other  salts,  are  got  rid  of  by 
taking  advantage  of  the  difference  between  their  solubility  in  water,  and 
the  solubility  of  the  saltpetre.  Saltpetre  is  more  soluble  in  boiling  water 
than  in  cold ;  chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt),  is  not ;  therefore,  by 
drawing  off  the  saltpetre  at  a  high  temperature,  the  common  salt  is  left 
behind.  Again,  chlorides  of  calcium  and  magnesium,  the  nitrates  of 
lime  and  soda,  are  more  soluble  in  water,  hot  or  cold,  than  is  saltpetre ; 
therefore  the  latter  crystallizes,  leaving  the  former  in  solution.  The 
next  step  is  to  fuse  the  saltpetre,  to  drive  off  any  water  which  may  have 
become  entangled  amongst  its  particles  (it  does  not  contain  any  water 
chemically  united),  and  thereby  enabling  it  to  be  weighed  with  accuracy. 
It  would  be  well  if  this  operation  could  be  dispensed  with,  as  the  appli- 
cation of  too  high  a  temperature  drives  off  oxygen,  and  binoxide  of 
nitrogen,  and  materially  injures  the  substance. 

The  sulphur  is  purified  either  by  simple  fusion,  the  impurities  sinking 
to  the  bottom,  or  by  sublimation.   The  greatest  improvement  in  modern 


times  has  been  in  manufacturing  the  charcoal.  It  was  formerly  burnt 
in  a  pit,  and  covered  merely  with  turf;  on  this  system,  sufficient  heat 
could  not  be  applied  to  drive  off  the  volatile  substances  without  con- 
suming the  charcoal.  The  modern  system  is  to  distil  the  wood  in  cast- 
iron  retorts,  set  as  in  a  gas-work,  by  which  means  all  the  pyroligneous 
acid  and  tar  in  the  wood  are  saved,  and  a  superior  quality  of  charcoal  is 
produced. 

The  ingredients,  after  being  pulverized,  are  mixed  under  edge  runners, 
a  little  water  being  added,  which,  with  the  trituration,  reduces  the 
powder  to  mill-cake.  The  cake  is  then  compressed  in  a  hydraulic  press, 
although  an  excess  of  pressure  must  be  avoided,  as  it  would  make  the 
powder  so  dense  as  to  diminish  its  facility  of  ignition.  It  has  then  to 
be  grained,  which  is  done  in  the  following  manner : — Sieves,  covered 
with  strong  parchment  formed  out  of  bullocks'  hides,  perforated  with 
small  holes,  are  put  in  rapid  motion  by  means  of  suitable  machinery. 
The  mill-cake  is  put  into  these  sieves,  along  with  discs  of  lignum  vitse, 
the  motion  of  which  drives  the  powder  in  grains  through  the  perforated 
bottom  of  the  sieve.  The  powder  is  then  dried  by  steam  heat,  and 
glazed  by  being  violently  shaken  in  a  revolving  barrel.  The  grains  are 
formed  of  various  sizes,  which  are  separated  in  sieves,  the  larger  sized 
being  used  for  cannon,  and  other  purposes  where  a  large  bulk  is  used 
together. 

Our  fore-fathers,  though  not  having  our  improved  machinery,  went 
very  skilfully  to  work.  They  took  care  to  use  the  softest  woods  for  their 
charcoal,  and  they  effected  a  very  perfect  mixture  of  the  materials  by 
taking  advantage  of  a  property  which  saltpetre  has.  This  salt  may  be 
obtained  in  an  impalpable  powder,  by  dissolving  the  crystals  in  the 
smallest  possible  quantity  of  water,  and  then  applying  heat  to  vaporize 
this  water,  stirring  the  solution  all  the  time  incessantly.  To  mix  the 
ingredients  the  saltpetre  was  first  dissolved,  the  sulphur  and  charcoal 
added,  and  the  whole  incessantly  stirred.  No  compression  was  used. 
The  following  are  the  proportions  of  the  ingredients  in  use : — 
MINEE'S  POWDER. 


Atoms, 

102 
32 

27 

161 

Theory 
(per  cent.) 

Practice 
(pr.ct.) 

Results  of 
Combustion. 

Atom-;. 

1  Nitre    

63.35 
19.87 
16.77 

65 
20 
15 

( Bisulphuret    of  \ 
I  Potassium ....   ) 

1  Nitrogen    

J  1|  Carbonic  Acid 
(  3  Carbonic  Oxide 

Total 

12 

14 
33 

42 

Total   

100.00 

100 

101 

PINE  SHOOTING  POWDEE. 


Atoms. 

Theory 
(per  cent.) 

Practice 
fpr.ct.) 

Results  of 
Combustion. 

Atoms. 

4  Nitre     

408 
48 
69 

77.71 

9.14 

13.14 

78 
10 
12 

f  3  Sulphuret  of  } 
I  Potassium ....    S 
( 1  Carbonate  of  7 

i  Potash   5 

( 4  Nitrogen    .... 
\  10|CarbonicAcid 

Total 

168 

70 

58 
231 

Total 

525 

99.99 

100 

525 

COMMON  SHOOTING  POWDEE. 


1  Nitre    . . . 

1  Sulphur    . 
3  Carbon    . . 

Total 


Atoms. 


102 

16 
18 


136 


Theory 
(per  cent.) 


Practice 
(pr.ct.) 


75 

11.76 
13.23 

99.99 


75 

12.5 
12.5 


100.0 


Results  of 
Combustion. 


t  1  Sulphuret  of'7 
\  Potassium. .  . .  J 

1  Nitrogen    

3  Carbonic  Acid  . . 

Total 


Atoms 


56 

14 
66 


136 


9G 


Modern  Engineering  Tools. 


[May, 


MODERN  ENGINEERING  TOOLS. 

(Illustrated  by  Plate  7.) 

The  self-acting  tools  at  the  Great  Exhibition  formed  one  of  the  most 
interesting  classes  to  men  of  scientific  taste ;  but  whilst  there  was  much 
that  was  excellent,  there  was  little  that  was  new  to  the  engineer,  already 
acquainted  with  the  productions  of  Manchester  and  Leeds.  Small 
planing  machines  were  abundant,  but  there  were  none  of  the  heaviest 
class,  which  is  readily  accounted  for,  when  their  cost  and  comparative 
unsaleable  character  is  taken  into  account.  As  a  contribution  to  our 
stock  of  engineering  tools,  we  have  great  pleasure  in  adding  one  of  a 
first-class  character,  which,  although  constructed  by  a  French  engineer 
— M.  Nillus,  of  Havre — was  designed  by  an  English  engineer  of  eminent 
practical  ability,  Mr.  James  Paul,  who  has  recently  left  France  to  assume 
a  responsible  situation  in  the  Danube  Steam  Navigation  Co.  The  original 
millwright's  planing  machine,  as  many  of  our  readers  will  recollect, 
consisted  of  a  light  frame,  which  was  placed  over  the  work  to  be  planed, 
and  which  carried  a  tool  holder,  which  was  pushed  along  by  main  force, 
or,  for  heavy  cuts,  worked  along  by  a  screw  and  a  winch  handle.  This 
gave  place  to  the  modern  machine,  in  which  the  tool  is  fixed,  and  the 
work  moves  with  the  table  on  the  bed  of  the  machine.  For  small  work, 
this  plan  has  greater  convenience  ;  but  when  heavy  articles,  such  as  the 
sole  plates  of  engines,  girders,  &c,  have  to  be  planed,  serious  objections 
arise.  The  table  and  bed  require  to  be  of  corresponding  strength  and 
weight;  and  the  friction  of  the  mass  is  considerable.  The  momentum 
also  becomes  serious,  and  the  speed  at  which  the  planing  is  done  is 
limited,  not  by  the  endurance  of  the  tool,  as  in  a  lathe,  but  by  the 
safety  of  the  machine.  These  causes  induced  Mr.  Paul,  in  designing  a 
machine  for  the  heaviest  class  of  work,  to  revert  to  the  old  sjstem  of 
fixing  the  work  and  moving  the  tool,  which  he  has  worked  out  verv 
efficiently  in  the  example  before  us. 

A  pit,  lined  with  masonry,  extends  under  the  machine,  and  is  lined 
at  certain  intervals  with  cast  iron  plates,  which  serve  to  carry  the  move- 
able transverse  girders,  to  which  the  work  is  attached  and  which  can  be 
placed  at  various  heights. 

The  table  carrying  the  tools,  slides  on  the  bed,  and  is  moved  by  two 
screws,  one  on  each  side,  which  are  connected  to  the  prime  mover  by 
bevel  gear,  straps,  and  pullies,  as  is  well  understood.  These  screws  do 
not  extend  the  whole  length  of  the  bed,  but  are  short  pieces  let  into  the 
table,  and  slide  on  two  shafts  which  give  them  motion.  The  screw  con- 
tains a  feather  and  the  shaft  a  keyway,  so  that  whilst  the  shaft  drives 
the  screw,  it  permits  of  its  motion  with  the  table  along  the  bed  of  the 
machine.  On  each  side  of  the  bed  of  the  machine  is  a  rack  into 
which  the  screw  takes,  and  thus  all  the  jar,  which  is  always  visible 
when  using  an  ordinary  rack  and  pinion  for  driving  a  planing  machine, 
is  entirely  avoided. 

It  is  necessary  to  remark  that  in  the  side  and  end  elevations,  the  full 
depth  of  the  pit  is  not  shown.  This  is  also  the  case  with  the  bed  of  the 
machine,  which,  as  constructed,  is  24  feet  lon°\ 


FIRE  INSURANCE,  VERSUS  WATER  SURELY. 

We  learn  from  the  papers  that  a  few  days  since  a  formidable  fire  in  the 
centre  of  Croydon  was  speedily  extinguished  by  the  application  of  the  con- 
stant supply  of  water  at  high  pressure,  which  that  town  now  enjoys. 

When  the  Metropolis  will  be  similarly  favoured  it  would  be  difficult  to 
guess,  but  seeing  that  our  present  fire  engines  never  save  the  building  in 
which  the  fire  originates,  it  would  not,  be  difficult  to  show  that  the  saving  in 
fire  insurance  would  more  than  pay  for  the  capital  required  for  our  water 
supply.  We  hear  that  the  inefficiency  of  even  the  floating  engines  was  so 
apparent  at  the  late  great  fire  at  London  Bridge,  that  it  has  been  determined 
to  fit  one  of  them  with  steam  power.  This  plan  was  adopted  by  the  West 
India  Dock  Company  some  years  since,  and  were  it  applied  to  a  few  of  our 
river  steamers,  would  give  us,  in  any  one  of  them,  a  water  battery  before 
which  no  fire  could  exist  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour. — 


ON  THE  CALCULATION  OF  ENGINE  POWER. 

In  many  cases  it  will  be  found  useful  to  possess  a  ready  means  for 
calculating  the  greatest  amount  of  power  an  engine  is  capable  of  per- 
forming, at  any  velocity,  or  at  any  rate  of  expansion.  In  the  earliest 
time  of  steam-engineering,  the  real  power  of  a  steam-engine  was  fairly 
equal  to  its  nominal  power.  But  this  time  is  gone.  The  pressure  and 
rate  of  expansion  have  been  gradually  increasing,  as  well  as  the  velocity 
of  the  piston.  So  that,  on  calculating  the  dimensions  of  an  engine, 
required  for  any  amount  of  work,  the  real  power  must  be  taken  into 
account.  This  is  especially  the  case  when  the  engine  should  work  at 
any  considerable  degree  of  expansion,  and  at  a  greatly  increased  velo- 
city, as  in  Mr.  Bourne's  Double-Power  Steam  Engines.*  For  this  pur- 
pose, the  following  tables  are  calculated,  which  show  at  a  glance,  the 
useful  pressure  of  steam  on  the  piston,  at  different  pressures  and  at 
different  degrees  of  expansion,  when  the  engine  is  exerting  its  utm  ost 
power — i.  e.,  when  the  steam  in  the  boiler  has  an  equal  pressure  as  that 
in  the  cylinder,  or  nearly  so.  They  may  answer  also  the  purpose  of 
calculating  the  dimensions  of  engines  of  equal  power,  but  working  at 
different  pressures. 

These  tables  will  be  found  especially  useful  for  readily  ascertaining 
to  what  degree  of  expansion  any  engine  may  be  worked,  without  de- 
creasing in  velocity,  to  move  the  same  load.  Taking  as  an  example,  a 
condensing-engine  and  boiler,  calculated  to  carry  20  lbs.  of  steam  per 
square  inch  above  the  atmosphere,  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  being 
48  inches,  and  expansion  beginning  when  the  piston  has  performed 
fth  parts  of  its  stroke.  Now,  causing  the  steam  in  the  boiler  to  fall 
down  to  the  point  at  which  the  piston  can  only  just  maintain  its  re- 
quired velocity,  and,  finding  by  the  steam  gauge  the  pressure  (as  may 
frequently  be  the  case)  to  be  10  lbs.  per  square  inch,  then  this  pressure 
is  that  at  which  the  engine  is  working  with  its  maximum  of  useful 
effect  for  the  load  then  to  be  moved.  Now,  as  to  the  table,  the  useful 
pressure  on  the  piston  of  a  48-inch  cylinder,  with  a  pressure  in  the 
boiler  of  10  lbs.  per  square  inch,  and  expanding  at  fth  parts  of  the 
stroke,  will  be  found  to  amount  to  19.71  lbs.  per  square  inch.  When 
the  engine  now  should  be  worked  at  its  greatest  pressure  in  the  boiler 
— viz.,  20  lbs.  per  square  inch,  so  that  the  useful  pressure  on  the  piston 
will  be  about  equal  to  19.71  lbs.  per  square  inch,  we  must  find  at  which 
degree  of  expansion  the  useful  pressure  on  the  piston  of  a  48-inch 
cylinder,  and  with  a  load  of  20  lbs.  per  square  inch  on  the  safety  valve, 
will  be  about  equal  to  19.71  lbs.  per  square  inch.  On  referring  to  table 
A,  it  will  be  found  that  the  expansion  can  begin  on  the  fth  part  from 
the  beginning  of  the  stroke  ;  for,  in  that  case,  the  useful  pressure  on 
the  piston  will  amount  to  nearly  20  lbs.  on  the  square  inch. 

By  the  tables  of  relation  between  the  space  passed  through  by  the 
piston  and  the  quantity  of  water  to  be  provided  to  the  boiler,  the 
economy  of  fuel  to  be  gained  by  working  the  engine  expansively  to  this 
extent,  may  be  readily  ascertained.  For,  taking  the  same  example  as 
above,  on  referring  to  the  table  C,  the  volume  of  water  to  be  delivered 
by  the  feed-pump  is  to  the  space  passed  through  by  the  piston,  at  a 
pressure  of  10  lbs.  per  square  inch,  and  expanding  during  fth  part  of 
the  stroke,  as  0-00nj0406  :  1,  and  at  a  pressure  of  25  lbs.,  but  expand- 
ing during  fth  part  of  the  stroke,  as  0'00065107  :  1.  Now,  the  velo- 
city and  area  of  piston  remaining  the  same,  the  quantity  of  water  to  be 
provided  to  the  boiler,  is  in  both  cases  respectively,  about  as  00009  : 
0"00065,  or  in  round  numbers  as  18  :  13 — showing  a  saving  of  nearly 
28  per  cent. 

The  friction  of  a  steam-engine  varies  inversely  as  the  diameter  of  the 
cylinder ;  therefore,  the  useful  pressure  is  calculated  for  different 
diameters.  It  ought,  however,  to  be  stated,  that  this  is  merely  done 
for  showing,  in  a  practical  manner,  that  this  friction  is  smaller  in  pro- 
portion to  the  total  pressure,  in  cylinders  of  any  considerable  dimen- 

*  Vide  Artizan,  "  Treatise  on  the  Steam-Engine."    Third  Edition,  p.  178. 


1852.] 


On  the  Calculation  of  Engine  Power. 


97 


sions,  than  in  those  which  are  smaller.  In  practice  this  slight  difference 
can  nearly  not  be  taken  in  account,  as  the  amount  of  friction  even  in 
the  same  engine,  is  never  a  constant  quantity,  but  varies  with  the  more 
or  less  careful  management  of  the  engine.  Accordingly,  the  numbers 
in  the  tables  should  then  be  regarded  as  corresponding  to  the  most 
favourable  condition  of  engines,  and  it  will,  therefore,  be  safe  to  take 
always  the  pressure  corresponding  with  the  smallest  cylinders. 

Though  I  am  well  aware  that  the  useful  pressure  on  the  piston  may 
also  be  calculated  by  miking  a  due  deduction  from  the  total  pressure 
for  friction  and  other  resistances,  it  may  yet  be  found  convenient  to 
make  use  of  the  annexed  tables,  the  more  as  the  friction  occasioned  by 
the  load  amounts  (as  to  the  experiments  of  M.  de  Pambour)  to  about 
l-7th  of  the  resistance  caused  by  the  load.  These  deductions,  varying 
accordingly  with  the  pressure,  must  be  made  for  each  different  pressure ; 
and  as  the  tables  are  made  up  for  pressures  generally  made  use  of,  they 
may  save  a  small  quantity  of  labour. 

The  tables  are  made  up  from  formula;,  as  given  by  M.  de  Pambour, 
in  his  Theorie  des  Machines  a  Vapeur,  viz. : — 

Table  A,  for  condensing  non-expansive  rotative  engines — 

1         /  P-p-f 


1  +d    \    144 
For  condensing  expansive  rotative  engines— 

T  +  c 

^(250  +  P)-(250+^+/) 


1  +S 


I 


I 


144 


J 


Where  r  represents  the  useful  pressure  of  steam  on  the  piston  in  lbs. 
I' 
per  square  inch,  —  proportion  of  stroke,  made  before  the  steam  is  cut 


I 


I' 


off;  k,  co-efficient,  varving  with  the  quantity — .     P,  represents  the 

I 

total  pressure  of  steam  in  the  boiler,  equal  to  the  load  on  the  safety 
valve  +  atmospherical  pressure  ;  p,  pressure  of  the  uncondensed  vapour 
in  the  cylinder,  taken  at  l-5  lbs  per  square  inch  (27  inches  of  mercury 
being  an  average  of  good  engines) ;  /,  friction  of  the  unloaded  engine, 
taken  at  0.751b.  per  square  inch  for  a  33-inch  cylinder,  and  varying 
inversely  with  the  diameter,  all  in  pounds  per  square  foot.  S,  repre- 
sents the  additional  friction  occasioned  by  the  load,  and  as  stated  above, 
taken  at  l-7th  of  the  resistance;  c  =  0.50  I,  being  a  deduction  of 
l-20th  of  the  cylinder's  capacity,  for  the  steam  ports,  and  the  clearance 
at  each  end  of  the  cylinder. 

The  formulae  from  which  Table  B  has  been  calculated,  are  as  fol- 
lows : — ■ 

For  non-condensing,  non-expansive  rotative  engines — 

r=.—    [-1 ] 

1  +  S  u       144         J 
And  for  non-condensing  expansive  rotative  engines — 

"  +  c 

■  k  (620  +  P)— (2738  +  f) 

I 
1  +  8 


144 

Where  the  same  notation  has  been  adopted  as  in  the  last  given  formula;. 
The  formula?  from  which  Tables  C  and  D  are  calculated,  are  as  follows : — 

250 +  P 
For  condensing  non-expansive  engines 


s= 


expansive       „ 


s= 


3,904,700 

V  +  c    250  +  P 


/O 


/ 


4,100,000 


For  non -condensing  non-expansive  engines 


8= 


620 +P 


expansive 


8= 


4,140,950 

I'  +  c    620  +  P 

I       4,348,000 
Where  the  same  signs  represent  the  same  values  as  above. 

By  multiplying  the  number  found  in  the  table  for  any  required  pres- 
sure aud  degree  of  expansion,  by  the  piston's  velocity  per  minute 
in  feet,  and  by  its  area  in  square  feet,  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of 
water  to  be  delivered  by  the  feed-pump  per  minute,  is  readily  found. 
Only  19-20ths  of  this  quantity  is  required  for  passing  in  the  form  of 
steam  through  the  cylinder,  the  remaining  twentieth  part  being  allowed 
for  priming  and  waste. 

Table  of  useful  Pressure  of  the  Steam  on  the  Piston,  in  pounds  per  square 
inch,  at  different  Pressures,  different  degrees  of  Expansion,  and  at  different 
dimensions  of  Cylinder. 

A.— CONDENSING  ENGINES. 


Diameter  of 

No  Expansion. 

Cylinder 
in  inches. 

12 

18 

24 

36 

48 

72 

96 

•tf  ^  _a 

6 

15-01 

15-62 

15-93 

16-23 

16-38 

16-54 

16-62 

■8  S" 

8 

16-77 

17-38 

17-68 

17-99 

18-14 

18-29 

18-37 

CO  o  .s 

10 

18-52 

19-13 

19-43 

19-74 

19-89 

20-00 

20-11 

12 

20-28 

20-89 

21-19 

21-50 

21-65 

21-80 

21-88 

+3  •«   p 

15 

22-91 

23-51 

23-82 

24-18 

24-28 

24-43 

24-50 

o    >   m 

20 

27-67 

27-90 

28-20 

28-51 

28-66 

28-81 

28-89 

S  K*     P* 

25 

31-68 

32-29 

32-59 

32-89 

33-05 

33-20 

33-29 

1-1 

30 

36-06 

36-67 

36-98 

37-28 

37-43 

37-59 

37-67 

Diameter  of 

Steam  cut  off  at  |th  of  the  Strokt 

Cylinder 
in  inches. 

12 

18 

24 

36 

48 

72 

96 

£-2.3 

6 

14-86 

15-47 

15-77 

16-08 

16-23 

16-38 

16-46 

«  5  a 

8 

16-60 

17-21 

17-51 

17-82 

17-97 

18-12 

18-20 

CO  =>•" 

10 

18-34 

18-95 

19-25 

19-58 

19-71 

19-86 

20-00 

•3  a  <3 

12 

20-08 

20-69 

20-99 

21-30 

21-45 

21-60 

21-68 

0    01    0"1 

15 

22-69 

23-30 

23-60 

23-91 

24-06 

24-21 

24-29 

O    jK    "> 

20 

27-04 

27-65 

27-95 

28-26 

28-41 

28-56 

28-64 

25 

31-39 

32-00 

32-30 

32-61 

32-76 

32-91 

32-99 

30 

35-74 

36-35 

36-66 

36-96 

37-11 

37-27 

37-34 

St 

earn  cut  off  at  J ths  o 

f  the  Strol 

:e. 

Diameter  of 

in  inches. 

12 

18 

24 

36 

48 

72 

96 

i?     . 

6 

14-37 

14-98 

15-28 

15-59 

15-74 

15-89 

15-97 

■i^-s 

8 

16-07 

16-67 

16-98 

17-28 

17-44 

17-59 

17-67 

32    §  .3 

10 

17-76 

18-37 

18-67 

18-98 

19-13 

19-28 

19-36 

s  £.£ 

12 

19-46 

20-05 

20-37 

20-68 

20-83 

20-98 

21-06 

on  t 
ve  in 
squa 

15 

22-00 

2261 

23-00 

23-22 

23-37 

23-52 

23-61 

20 

26-25 

26-86 

27-16 

27-46 

27-62 

27-77 

27-85 

Load 
Val 
per 

25 

30-49 

31-10 

31-40 

31-71 

31-86 

32-01 

32-09 

30 

34-73 

35-34 

35-64 

35-95 

36-10 

36-25 

36-33 

Diameter  of 
Cylinder 

Steam  cut  off  at  |ths  of  the  Stroke. 

in  inches. 

12 

i  i8 

24 

36 

48 

72 

96 

>-. 

6 

13-50 

14-11 

14-41 

14-72 

14-87 

15-02 

15-10 

Safe 
lunds 
inch 

8 

15-12 

15-73 

16-03 

16-34 

16-49 

16-64 

16-72 

10 

16-74 

17-35 

17-65 

17-96 

18-11 

18-26 

18-34 

.S&g 

12 

18-36 

18-95 

19-27 

1958 

19-73 

19-88 

19-96 

on  t 
ve  in 
squa 

15 

20-79 

21-40 

21-70 

22-00 

22-16 

22-31 

22-39 

20 

24-84 

25-44 

25-75 

26-05 

26-21 

26-36 

26-44 

25 

28-96 

29-57 

29-87 

30-18 

30-33 

30-48 

30-56 

o  r*    Ph 

h9 

30 

32-93 

33-54 

33-85 

3415 

34-30 

34-46 

34-53 

98 


On  the  Calculation  of  Engine  Power. 


TABLE  A,  Continued. 


Diameter  of 
cylinder 
in  inches. 


>> 

*-q 

A 

S    S3 

o 

CO  3 

d 

.s  * 

Eh 

■"  d 

d 

d  -1 

en 

O     CD 

►*£ 

^ 

O, 

Steam  cut  off  at  \  of  the  Stroke. 


12 

18 

24 

36 

48 

**72 

96 

12-17 

12-78 

13-08 

l?-39 

13-54 

13-69 

13-77 

13-67 

14-27 

14-58 

14-88 

15-04 

15-19 

16-27 

15-17 

15-77 

16-08 

16-38 

16-54 

16-69 

16-77 

16-67 

17-26 

17-58 

17-88 

18-04 

18-19 

18-27 

18-92 

19-52 

19-83 

20-14 

20-29 

20-44 

20-52 

22-67 

23-28 

23-58 

23-88 

24-04 

24-19 

24-27 

26-42 

27-03 

27-33 

27-64 

27-79 

27-94 

28-02 

30-17 

30-78 

31-08 

31-39 

31-54 

31-69 

31-77 

Diameter  of 

Steam  cut  off  at  |ths  of  the  Stroke. 

cylinder 

in  inches. 

12 
10-28 

18 

24 

36 

48 

72 

96 

>-> 

6 

10-89 

11-19  , 

11-49 

11-65 

11-80 

11-88 

«B  *Q.A 

8 

11-81 

12-22 

12-52' 

12-83 

12-98 

13-13 

13-21 

CO   3   d 

10 

12-94 

13-55 

13-85 

14-16 

14-31 

14-46 

14-54 

1*8 

12 

14-28 

14-87 

15-20 

15-50 

15-65 

15-80 

15-88 

d   * 

•  d   d 

«   7,   &1 

15 

16-27 

1688 

17-18 

17-49 

17-64 

17-79 

17-87 

20 

19-60 

20-21 

20-51 

20-82 

20-97 

21-12 

21-20 

*  >5  2 

25 

22-93 

23-54 

23-84 

24-15 

24-30 

24-45 

24-53 

HH1 

30 

26-26 

26-87 

27-17 

27-48 

27-63 

27-78 

27-86 

S 

team  cut  c 

ff  at  Jth  o 

'  the  Strok 

Diameter  of 

Cylinder 

in  inches. 

12 

18 

24 

36 

48 

72 

96 

£•.3    . 

6 

7-64 

8-25 

8-56 

8-86 

9-01 

9-17 

9-25 

C3     3      H 

oa  o  .a 

8 

8-74 

©•35 

9-65 

9-96 

10-11 

10-26 

10-34 

10 

9-84 

10-45 

10-75 

11-06 

11-21 

11-36 

11-44 

d  g  s 

12 

10-94 

11-53 

11-85 

12-15 

12-31 

12-46 

12-54 

*•       d 

15 

12-58 

13-19 

13-49 

13-80 

13-95 

14-10 

14-18 

,Q   _>     tO 

20 

15-32 

15-93 

16-24 

16-54 

16-70 

16-85 

16-93 

■d  «  55 

25 

18-07 

18-68 

18-98 

1929 

19-44 

1959 

19-67 

h-3 

30 

20-81 

21-42 

21-73 

22-03 

22-18 

22-33 

22-41 

B- NON-CONDENSING  ENGINES. 


Diameter  of 


No  Expansion. 


in  incht 

S.         !; 

6 

9 

12 

18 

24 

36 

45 

35-81 

37-03 

37-36 

3825 

38-55 

38-85 

"S  ^  A 

50 

40-19 

41-41 

43-02 

42-63 

42-94 

43-24 

•8  9  2 

«  d  d 

55 

44-35 

45-80 

46-41 

47-01 

47-32 

47-60 

02..  O  -a 

60 

48-97 

50-18 

50-79 

51-41 

51-71 

52-02 

■S  d  S 

65 

53-35 

54-58 

55-18 

55-79 

56-09 

56-40 

■"  ■**  d 
d  cd  c 

70 

57-74 

59-23 

59-57 

60-17 

60-48 

60-78 

O    >     w 

75 

62-13 

63-34 

63-95 

64-57 

64-87 

65-17 

T3    *    tu 

80 

66-45 

67-73 

68-28 

68-95 

69-25 

69-56 

o 
1-3 

90 

75-28 

76-50 

77-11 

77-78 

78-03 

78-39 

Diameter  of 
Cylinder 

Stear 

a  cut  off  at  | 

ths  of  the  s 

roke. 

in  inches. 

6 

9 

12 

18 

24 

36 

45 

35-36 

36-57 

37-19 

37-80 

38-11 

38-41 

>?£    . 

50 

39-72 

40-92 

41-54 

42-15 

42-46 

42-76 

«  s  o 

55 

44-06 

45-27 

45-89 

46-50 

46-80 

47-11 

co  o  .5 

60 

48-40 

49-61 

50-23 

50-84 

51-14 

51-45 

CD            ■-* 

65 

52-77 

53-98 

54-60 

55-21 

55-51 

55-82 

70 

57-06 

58-27 

58-89 

59-50 

59-80 

60-11 

o  JZ  m 

75 

61-47 

62-68 

63-30 

63-91 

64-21 

64-52 

80 

65-82 

67-03 

67-65 

68-26 

68-56 

68-87 

1-1 

90 

74-53 

75-74 

76-36 

76-97 

77-27 

77-46 

TABLE  B,  Continued. 


Diameter  of 
Cylinder 
in  inches. 

Steam  cut  off  at  {ths  of  the  Stroke. 

6 

9 

12 

18 

24 

36 

ILoad  on  the  Safety 
Valve  in  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

45 
50 
55 

60 
65 
70 
75 
80 
90 

33-97 
38-21 
42-45 
46-70 
50-94 
55-12 
59-42 
63-67 
72-16 

35-18 
39-42 
43-66 
47-91 
52-15 
56-33 
60-63 
64-88 
73-37 

35-80 

40-04 
44-28 
48-53 
52-77 
56-95 
61-25 
65-50 
73-80 

36-41 
40-65 
44-89 
49-14 
53-38 
57-56 
61-86 
66-10 
74-59 

3671 
40-95 
45-19 
49-44 
53-68 
57-86 
62-16 
66-41 
74-90 

37-02 
41-26 
45-50 
49-74 
53-99 
58-17 
62-47 
66-71 
75-20 

Steam  cut  off  at  ith  of  the  Stroke. 


Diameter  of 
Cylinder 

in  inches. 

6 

9 

12 

18 

24 

36 

t- 

45 

14-79 

15-99 

16-61 

17-22 

17-53 

17-83 

4K  * 

50 

17-53 

18-74 

19-36 

19-96 

20-27 

20-57 

CO  f  -4. 

55 

20-27 

21-48 

22-10 

22-71 

23-01 

23-32 

d  2 

CD     3     d 

60 

23-02 

24-23 

24-84 

25-45 

25-76 

26-06 

-Co'" 

65 

25-76 

26-97 

27-59 

2S-20 

28-50 

28-81 

o   H   | 

70 

28-47 

29-67 

30-29 

30-90 

31-21 

31-51 

■8    »    J* 

75 

31-25 

32-46 

33-07 

33-68 

33-99 

34-29 

°    « 

80 

33-99 

35-20 

35-82 

36-43 

36-73 

37-04 

^> 

90 

39-48 

40-69 

41-31 

41-92 

42-22 

42-53 

Steam  cut  off  at  f  ths  of  the  Stroke. 


Diameter  of 
Cylinder 

in  inches. 

6 

9 

12 

18 

24 

36  j 

^ 

45 

22-29 

23-50 

24-12 

24-73 

25-04 

25-34 

«s  * 

50 

25-62 

26-83 

27-45 

28-06 

28-36 

28-67 

co  "°  -S 

55 

28-95 

30-16 

30-78 

31-39 

31-69 

32-00 

»>  d  .2 

60 

32-29 

33-50 

34-11 

34-72 

35-03 

35-33 

,3   o 

*.    p,  CD 

65 

35-62 

36-83 

37-44 

38-05 

38-36 

38-66 

d  on 
e  in 

>quai 

70 

38-90 

40-11 

40-73 

41-34 

41-64 

41-95 

75 

42-28 

43-48 

44-10 

44-71 

45-02 

45-32 

as  S, 

o  13 

80 

45-61 

46-82 

47-43 

48-04 

48-35 

48-65 

H-> 

90 

52-27 

53-48 

54-10 

54-70 

55-01 

55-32 

Steam  cut  off  at 

i  of  the  Stroke. 

Diameter 

of 

cylinder 
in  inches. 

6 

9 

12 

18 

24 

36 

c«" 

45 

27-68 

28-89 

29-52 

30-13 

30-49 

30-74 

jS  p< 

50 

31-43 

32-64 

33-26 

33-87 

34-23 

34-48 

sfi    M   _; 
in  ^  -S 

55 

35-18 

36-39 

37-01 

37-62 

37-98 

38-23 

2    3.2 

60 

38-94 

40-15 

40-77 

41-37 

41-73 

41-98 

■So 

65 

42-69 

43-90 

44-52 

45-13 

45-48 

45-74 

5  a  « 
°  d   d 

70 

46-39 

47-60 

48-22 

4S-83 

49-18 

49-43 

■sg? 

75 

49-92 

51-15 

51-77 

52-38 

52-74 

52-99 

o  "3 

80 

53-94 

55-15 

55-77 

56-38 

56-74 

56-99 

h3> 

90 

61-45 

62-66 

63-28 

63-89 

64-24 

64-50 

Stean 

cut  off  at  -; 

ths  of  the  S 

troke. 

Diameter  of 
Cylinder 

in  inches. 

6 

9 

12 

18 

24 

36 

t>,  u 

45 

31-49 

35-54 

33-32 

33-93 

34-23 

34-54 

Id    Ph 

50 

35-54 

36-75 

37-37 

37-98 

38-28 

38-59 

»-ad 

55 

39-59 

40-79 

41-41 

42-02 

42-33 

42-63 

2  5.2 

60 

43-64 

44-85 

45-47 

46-08 

46-38 

46-68 

■So 

65 

47-09 

48-90 

49-51 

50-12 

50-43 

50-73 

d  on 
e  in 
squai 

70 

51-68 

52-89 

53-51 

54-12 

54-42 

54-73 

75 

55-78 

56-99 

57-61 

58-22 

58-52 

58-83 

°  "3 

80 

59-83 

61-04 

61-66 

62-27 

62-57 

62-88 

->!> 

90 

67-95 

69-14 

69-76 

70-37 

70-68 

70-98 

1852.]  Pilbrows  Water  Waste  Preventer. 

Tables  showing  the  relation  between  the  space  passed  through  by  the  piston,  and  the  quantity  of  water  to  be  provided  to  the  boiler. 

C— CONDENSING    ENGINES. 


99 


Steam  cut  off 

Steam  cut  off 

Steam  cut  off 

Steam  cut  off 

Steam  cut  off 

Steam  cut  off 

1 

No  Expansion. 

at  Jth  of  the 

at fth  of  the 

at  fth  of  the 

at  i  of  the 

at  fth  of  the 

at  ith  of  the 

1 

6 

Stroke. 

Stroke. 

Stroke. 

Stroke. 

Stroke. 

Stroke. 

6 

>>  « 

0-0008710 

0-00076727 

0-00066358 

0-00055990 

0-00045621 

0-00035253 

0-00024885 

*?T3 

8 

0-00094862 

0-00083568 

0-00072275 

0-00060981 

0-00049689 

0-00038396 

0-00027103 

8 

Safet 
ich. 

W   o   a 

10 

0-0010262 

0-00090406 

0-000/8190 

0-00065972 

0-00053755 

0-00041538 

0-00029321 

10 

P..S 

12 

0-0011039 

0-00097246 

0-00084098 

0-00070963 

0-00057821 

0-00044681 

0-00031539 

12 

PfS3 
V             01 

3.S   £ 

15 

0-0012204 

0-0010750 

0-00092978 

0-00078450 

0-00063921 

0-00049394 

0-00034876 

15 

■£  a  S 

e       s 

20 

0-0014144 

0-0012460 

0-0010776 

0-00090926 

0-00074089 

0-00057250 

0-00040422 

20 

e     a 

Zz  Z 

25 

0-0016085 

0-0014170 

0-0012255 

0-0010340 

0-00084256 

0-00065107 

0-00045958 

25 

Z  >  m 

30 

0-0018026 

0-0015880 

0-0013734 

0-0011588 

0-00094425 

0-00072965 

0-00051504 

30 

a  a  g 

D.— NON-CONDENSING 

ENGINES. 

Steam  cut  off 

Steam  cut  off 

Steam  cut  off 

Steam  cut  off 

Steam  cut  off 

Steam  cut  off 

No  Expansion. 

at  ith  of  the 

at  fth  of  the 

at  jjth  of  the 

at  i  of  the 

at  fth  of  the 

at  ith  of  the 

>->  <n 

45 

Stroke. 

Stroke. 

Stroke. 

Stroke. 

Stroke. 

Stroke. 

45 

0-0023430 

0-0020640 

0-0017851 

0-0015062 

0-0012282 

0-00094832 

0-00066910 

<S  s_J 

50 

0-0025260 

0-0022252 

0-0019245 

0-0016238 

0 

0013231 

0-0010222 

0-00072168 

50 

<2  o  j 

e3  (S-g 

55 

0-0027089 

0-0023865 

0-0020638 

0-0017414 

0 

0014189 

0-0010964 

0-00077395 

55 

cia  o  « 

ft.H 

60 

0-0028922 

0-0025479 

0-0022035 

0-0018592 

0 

0015149 

0-0011706 

0-000S2630 

60 

P..S 

65 

0-0030752 

0-0026992 

0-0023429 

0-0019768 

0 

0016107 

0-0012446 

0-00087860 

65 

-^  .5    C5 

fl      5. 

70 

0-0032558 

0-0028682 

0-0024804 

0-0020928 

0 

0017053 

0-0013177 

0-00093016 

70 

a       & 

75 

0-0034413 

0-0030316 

0-0026218 

0-0022121 

0 

0018025 

0-0013928 

0-00098317 

75 

^  ^   u 

S>5  « 

80 

0-0036242 

0-0031929 

0-0027613 

0-0023298 

0 

0018984 

0-0014669 

0-0010355 

80 

i-5 

90 

0-0039906 

0-0035156 

0-0030403 

0-0025652 

0-0020902 

0-0016152 

0-0011401 

90 

j 

Though  scarcely  necessary,  let  it,  as  for  exemplifying  the  tables,  be 
required  to  know  the  utmost  power  an  engine  of  the  following  dimen- 
sions is  capable  of: — Diameter  of  cylinder  30  inches,  velocity  of  piston 
per  minute  220  feet,  load  on  the  safety  valve  20  lbs.  per  square  inch ; 
steam  cut  off  at  half-stroke.  On  referring  to  table  A,  we  find  the  use- 
ful pressure  on  the  piston  at  that  pressure,  and  rate  of  expansion  to  be 
between  23.58  and  23.88  lbs.  per  square  inch,  say  23  lbs. 

area  of  piston  X  useful  pressure  X  velocity  of  piston 
Now,  H.P.  = 


33000 


706.86  X  23  X  220 


=  108. 


33000 


The  quantity  of  water  to  be  evaporated  per  minute  may  be  found 
from  table  C. 


Hence,  volume  of  water  in  cubic  feet  =  area  of  piston  in  square  feet 
X  velocity  of  piston  X  0.0074089  =  0.7986/942:  say,  0.8  cubic  feet 
per  minute.  This  is  the  number  of  cubic  feet  to  be  actually  delivered 
by  the  feed  pump  ;  the  quantity  required  per  hour  will  be  accordingly, 
0.8  X  60  =  48  cubic  feet. 

The  dimensions  of  the  cylinder  for  any  given  power  and  pressure 
may  also  readily  be  found  by  subverting  the  operation. 

The  useful  pressure  at  the  highest  degrees  of  expansion  for  the 
lowest  pressures,  though  impracticable,  are  only  added  as  for  complet- 
ing the  tables. 

Should  the  above  tables  but  prove  useful  to  a  few,  I  shall  he  fully 
rewarded  for  my  labour. 

H.  C.  BOSSCHA,  M.E. 

Deventer,  Holland, 
March  20,  1852. 


PILBROWS  WATER  WASTE  PREVENTER. 

A  strong  objection  always  urged  against  the  constant  supply  of 
water  system,  has  been  the  loss  which  the  Companies  are  always  liable 
to  sustain  through  the  carelessness  or  malice  of  those  who  have  it  in 
their  power  to  set  the  water  running,  and  leave  it  so.  The  Companies 
of  course  have  one  remedy,  which  monopolists  are  never  slow  to  em- 
ploy— that  is,  to  charge  enough  to  cover  all  risks.  It  is,  however,  a 
point  of  vital  importance  to  remove  this  objection ;  and  we  are  glad  to 
see  that  the  want  has  produced  a  supply. 

It  may  be  described  as  a  small  cistern  which,  when  once  emptied, 
cannot  be  again  refilled  without  shutting-ofF  the  delivery.  Fig.  2  is  a 
side  elevation  of  this  apparatus,  in  which  A  is  the  suction,  and  B  the 
delivery  pipe.  Fig.  1  is  a  section,  showing  the  method  of  action.  The 
cylinder  contains  a  ball-valve,  which  when  the  water  is  at  rest,  remains 
at  the  suction  end,  as  at  A.  When  the  delivery  cock  is  opened  to 
draw  water,  the  ball  slowly  rises,  following  the  current  of  the  water, 
until  it  arrives  at  the  top,  as  at  B,  Fig.  1,  where  it  stops  the  flow  of 
water,  by  covering  the  aperture  of  the  pipe.  To  obtain  a  fresh  supply 
of  water,  therefore,  the  cock  must  be  closed,  when  the  ball,  from  its 
specific  gravity,  will  descend  in  a  few  moments,  and  admit  of  an  addi- 
tional quantity  being  drawn  off.  From  the  simplicity  and  economy  of 
this  arrangement,  it  deserves  to  be  considered  an  important  step 
towards  obtaining  that  inestimable  benefit — a  constant  water  supply, 
which  will  prevent  fevers  and  fires  alike  from  ravaging  our  dwellings. 


They  are  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Guest  and 
whose  high  pressure  cock  we  noticed  at  p.  91. 


Chrimes  of  Rotherham, 


100 


Baillie's  Patent  Volute  Springs. 


[May, 


BAILLIE'S  PATENT  VOLUTE  SPEINGS. 
To  trace  the  causes  which  have  led  to  many  of  our  "  wants  "  in  the 
present  day,  would  probably  be  more  interesting  than  profitable,  and  we 
leave  it  to  the  author  of  "  Stokers  and  Pokers  "  when  he  shall  write 
"  Buffers  and  Puffers,"  to  show  us  pleasantly,  how  the  iron  road  has 
taxed  the  ingenuity  of  thousands,  in  the  attempt  to  satisfy  its  in- 
satiable demands.    Rails,  wheels,  fog  signals,  and  springs,  cum  multis 
aliis,  have  in  turn  been  instrumental  in  making,  or  breaking,  fortunes. 
The  old  fashioned  carriage  spring  was,  naturally  enough,  the  first 
tried  for  railway  purposes,  but  its  weight 
and  cumbersomeness  showed  that  some 
substitute  was  wanted.     A  plentiful  crop 
of  these  soon  appeared,  and  at  pp.  84 — 
135,  vol.    1850,   examples  of  numerous 
springs  are  given  and  discussed,  and  we 
have  now  another  variety  to  add  to  the  list, 
which  from  its   simplicity,   compactness, 
and  economy,  appears  likely  to  become 
available  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes. 
From  its  form  it  is  entitled  the  "Volute  spring,"  and  consists,  as  will 
be  seen  by  the  sketches,  of  a  strip  of  steel, 
tapering  in  width  from  root  to  point,  and  rolled 
into  a  volute.     From  the  distribution  of  the 
material  in  the  line  of  strain,  it  appears  probable 
that  this  arrangement  gives  the  maximum  of 
effect  with  the  minimum  of  material.     At  any 
rate,  two  great  advantages  are  gained,  the  range 
of  the  spring  is  increased  hy  the  spiral  form  over 
the  helical  form,  and  when  the  spring  is  pressed 
Fig.  2.  home,  it  comes  up  to  a  perfectly  fair  bearing 

against  the  plate  on  which  it  rests. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  1,  is  a  wrought  iron  buffer,  scale  1  inch  to  a  foot,  consisting  of 
two  cylinders,  one  sliding  within  the  other. 

Fig.  2  is  a  single  draw  spring  for  trucks  or  carriages,  drawn  to  the 
same  scale.  In  this  instance  the  draw  bar  compresses  the  spring 
against  the  disc  fixed  on   the  buffer  beam. 


kl) 


Fig,  3  is  a  double  draw  spring 
for  a  continuous  rod,  to  the  same 
scale.  The  two  volutes  are  set, 
base  to  base,  with  a  disc  be- 
tween; the  draw  bar  and  tube 
being  slotted  to  allow  of  the  re- 
quisite motion. 

Fig  4,  is  a  single  draw-spring 
acting  both  ways,  a  variety   in 
use  on  the  waggons  on  the  Eastern  Counties  Railway. 

In  applying  these  springs  to  the  axles  of  carriages,  they  are  arranged 
one  on  each  side  of  the  axle  box,  between  it  and  the  carriage  frame, 
with  a  steadying  bolt  to  each. 


Patent 
Mortising  Chisel 


New  Registered 
Tenanting  Chisel. 


For  mining  purposes,  these  springs  are  used  for 
the  connections  between  the  rope  and  the  cage,  as 
shown  in  fig.  5,  and  also  for  the  cage  to  rest  on  at 
the  bottom  of  the  shaft.  In  the  mine  balance 
apparatus,  shown  page  25,  vol.  1850,  there  is  no 
provision  of  this  kind,  and  consequently  nothing  to 
mitigate  the  concussions  to  which  it  is  subjected 
in  use,  which  exercise  a  material  influence  on  the 
durability  of  the  machinery. 

Exhibition  prizes  have  become  such  a  bye-word, 
that  we  are  not  certain  whether  we  are  doing  the 
manufacturers  (Messrs.  J.  Spencer  and  Son,  of  New- 
castle-on-Tyne)  any  favour  by  mentioning  that  these 
springs  were  so  rewarded ;  and,  moreover,  that  they 
were  the  only  ones  which  the  council,  in  their  wis- 
dom, thought  entitled  to  that  distinction.  In  this 
instance,  however,  the  council  were  right,  in  our 
humble  opinion. 

KIMBERLEY'S  PATENT  MORTISING 
MACHINE. 

The  Exhibition,  amongst  other  good  effects 
produced,  was  the  means  of  drawing  attention  to 
the  system  of  applying  steam  power  to  the  con- 
version of  wood  into  the  various  forms  in  which  it 
is  used  by  the  carpenter  and  joiner.  The  sash-bar 
machine,  and  the  gutter-making  machine,  were  but 
little  known  except  to  a  few  large  firms,  and  now 
they  seem  likely  to  have  a  place  in  every  builder's- 
yard,  who  can  boast  of  a  steam  engine ;  and  who 
would  not  have  such  an  untiring  drudge,  when 
engines  can  be  bought  at  <£10  per  horse  power! 
The  mortising  machine  before  us  will  pave  the 
way.  It  does  not  require  much  description  at  our 
hands.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  veritable  wood-slottmo- 
machine,  worked  by  the  foct  of  the  workman.  The 
treadle  is  depressed  by  the  foot  and  raised  by  a 
strong  volute  spring  on  Baillie's  Patent. 

The  tenanting  chisel,  it  will  be  perceived,  cuts 
both  sides  of  the  tenon  simultaneouslv.  The 
maker  cautions  the  workman  as  to  grinding  the 
two  edges  of  the  chisel,  bevilled,  so  as  to  obtain  a 
drawing  cut  and  make  clean  work.  It  is  also  re- 
commended to  cut  the  whole  depth  of  the  tenon 
at  one  stroke,  as  it  makes  truer  work  than  when 
cut  half  down  and  then  reversed.  Our  engineer- 
ing friends  ought  to  patronize  this  machine  for 
their  pattern  shops. 


1852.] 


Cotton  and  its  Manufacturing  Mechanism. 


101 


COTTON  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURING  MECHANISM. 
By  Robert  Scott  Burn,  M.E.,  Mem,  S.A. 

(Continued  from  page  26.) 

We  have  now  to  notice  a  new  machine  for  cleansing  and  opening 
cotton ;  it  is  designated  as  "  Hardacre's  Patent  Cotton  Opener." 

The  principle  of  this  machine  is  that  of  the  batting  sticks  ;  these 
being  applied  horizontally  to  a  vertical  shaft,  revolving  at  a 
velocity  of  700  to  1,000  times  per  minute.  The  cotton  to  be 
opened  and  cleaned  is  taken  at  once  from  the  bales,  and  fed  to  the 
machine  through  an  opening  in  the  lid  or  cover ;  it  passes  between 
rollers  and  thereafter  drops  upon  the  topmost  batting  arm.  The 
heavy  impurities  mixed  with  the  cotton  are  expelled  and  driven 
through  between  the  openings  of  the  cage  which  surrounds  the  butt- 
ing arms,  this  cage  being  formed  of  upright  iron  hooping,  placed  in  a 
position  with  reference  to  the  batting  arms,  so  that  it  receives  the 
lash  of  the  cotton,  which,  as  it  is  being  rapidly  whirled  round,  strikes 
the  angular  edges  of  the  fixed  vertical  hoops  or  blades.  The  inner 
cage  is  surrounded  by  an  exterior  close  case,  the  space  left  between 
them,  forming  receptacles  for  the  sand  and  other  heavy  impurities ; 
these  receptacles  require  to  be  cleaned  out  several  times  daily  when 
the  machine  is  in  full  work,  otherwise  on  becoming  filled,  the  im- 
purities from  the  cotton  not  finding  access  through  the  cage  or  grid, 
the  cleansing  action  would  be  suspended.  The  dust  receptacles  are 
emptied  by  removing  "  shutter  like  portions  of  the  outer  case."  The 
lin-ht  portions  of  the  impurities  along  with  the  contained  dust,  are 
carried  off  by  the  action  of  a  rotating  fan.  The  opened  purified 
cotton  is  driven  through  the  shoot  or  open  passage  near  the  bottom, 
and  is  gradually  carried  forward  up  the  creeper  and  discharged  into  a 
basket,  box,  or  other  suitable  receiver,  in  a  light  feathery  state.  The 
arms  projecting  from  the  main  vertical  shaft  are  not  of  irregular  lengths, 
but  are  placed  so  as  to  form  narrow  steps,  like  the  nosings  of  the  step 
of  a  double  geometrical  staircase.  The  uppermost  pair  of  batting  arms 
are  provided  with  vertical  projecting  teeth,  like  those  of  the  conical 
willow.  The  following  are  some  of  the  advantages  said  to  be  obtained 
by  this  machine  : — first,  economy  in  power  ;  second,  perfect  expansion 
of  the  cotton  without  injury  to  the  staple  from  the  action  of  the  points 
or  teeth  ;  third,  the  more  effectual  separation  of  the  dirt,  seeds,  and  all 
other  extraneous  matter ;  fourth,  compact  form  and  convenience  in 
the  mode  of  working — this  last  advantage  is  obviously  obtained  by  the 
vertical  portion  of  the  machine,  a  high  velocity  being  attainable.  The 
patentees  inform  us  that  one  machine  is  calculated  to  clean  -10,000  lbs. 
of  cotton  per  weeK  of  57^  hours,  requiring  at  this  rate  only  \\  to  1£ 
horse  power.  We  understand  this  estimate  of  its  capabilities  is  con- 
siderably under  the  mark. 

A  modification  of  this  machine  is  extensively  used  in  America,  its 
principal  peculiarity  is  the  employment  of  two  vertical  shafts,  as  a  a, 
the  arms,  b  b,  of  which  intersect  each  other.  "  In  America,"  says  a  good 
authority,  "  it  is  found  equally  effective,  both  as  an  opener  (gin)  and 

a  purifier,  and  to  use 
the  significant  expres- 
sion of  a  practical 
mechanic  "  it  is  more 
like  a  mowing  machine 
than  a  devil."  The 
young  persons  em- 
ployed, have  the  ap- 
pearance of  travellers, 
when  covered  with 
slightly  driven  snow. 
A  handful  of  the  solid 
matted  cotton  becomes  an  armful,  and  an   armful  a  roomful,  being 


almost  instantaneously  converted  into  a  shower  of  beautifully  opened, 
whitened,  and  purified  cotton,  white  as  driven  snow,  when  compared 
with  its  previous  speckled  appearance."  With  reference  to  the  high 
estimation  in  which  this  machine  is  held  by  the  Americans,  the  same 
writer  thus  writes.  "  It  would  be  as  impossible  to  persuade  our 
transatlantic  competitors  to  substitute  the  best  English  '  willow'  for 
Hardacre's  improved  opener,  as  to  persuade  the  Lancashire  spinner  to 
resume  the  '  batting  flake." 

(To  be  continued.) 

LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEERING  IN  AMERICA. 

BY    ZERAH    COLBURN. 

We  have  just  received  a  little  work  by  Mr.  Colburn  on  the  Locomo- 
tive Engine,  which  appears  accurately  to  represent  the  existing  condi- 
tion of  American  experience  on  the  subject.  Although  in  many  respects 
their  system  differs  from  ours,  there  is  still  sufficient  in  common  to 
both,  to  render  an  analysis  of  the  work  in  question  interesting  to  our 
readers. 

The  scarcity  of  bituminous  coal  in  America,  the  difficulty  of  manag- 
ing the  anthracite,  and  the  abundance  of  wood  has  led  to  the  general 
use  of  the  latter  fuel,  both  in  locomotives  and  steam-boats,  and  "  wood- 
ing up"  takes  the  place  of  "  coaling."  One  advantage  of  wood  fuel  is, 
that  it  does  not  contain  any  sulphur,  and  therefore  the  durability  of  the 
boiler  is  slightly  increased.  To  what  extent,  we  are  unable  to  say,  from 
the  want  of  the  necessary  data.  The  following  particulars  are  given  by 
Mr.  Colburn  :— 

The  tubes  in  wood  engines  are  mostly  of  No.  14  copper,  their  outside 
diameter  being  usually  If  inch.  Wrought-iron  thimbles  for  tubes  are  used 
by  most  builders,  generally  at  the  fire-box  end,  but  in  some  cases  at  both 
ends  of  the  tubes.  We  could  point  to  some  engines  having  no  thim- 
bles at  either  end  of  the  tubes,  and  which  show  as  tight  joints  as  many 
engines  having  thimbles.  Much  indeed  depends  upon  the  management 
of  a  boiler.  If  an  engineman  is  in  the  habit  of  putting  out  his  fire  by 
throwing  two  or  three  buckets  of  water  into  the  fire-box  on  every  slight 
emergency,  or  running  with  the  door  open  to  regulate  the  fire,  the  con-, 
traction  produced  in  such  cases  by  the  sudden  cooling  of  the  flue  sheets 
often  works  nearly  every  tube  loose. 

A  method  of  tightening  tubes  has  been  used  by  the  Lowell  Machine 
Shop,  which  has  given  good  results.  It  is  to  take  a  short  piece,  say 
two  inches  in  length,  of  No.  14  copper  tube,  and  of  such  diameter  as  to 
allow  of  its  just  sliding  into  the  mouth  of  the  boiler  tube  ;  it  is  firmly 
united  to  the  latter  by  a  brazed  joint  an  inch  long.  What  remains  of 
the  short  tube  projecting  out  is  passed  through  the  tube  sheet,  which  is 
drilled  to  receive  it ;  and  the  portion  projecting  beyond  the  tube  sheet 
is  then  turned  over  and  headed  in  the  usual  manner.  This  brings  the 
end  of  the  boiler  tube  up  to  a  tight  bearing  with  the  inside  of  the  tube 
sheet. 

With  long  copper  tubes  it  is  sometimes  deemed  advisable  to  give 
them  a  middle  bearing,  for  which  purpose  a  sheet  is  placed  midway  of 
their  length,  and  passing  up  high  enough  to  support  the  top  row.  Our 
opinion,  however,  is,  that  these  intermediate  flue  sheets  intercept  the 
circulation  of  the  water,  and  in  some  cases  occasion  priming.  We  have 
observed  this  to  be  the  case  in  some  of  Norris's  engines,  which,  having 
tubes  10  feet  8  inches  long,  were  provided  with  these  extra  supports. 

The  braces  which  support  the  boiler  and  serve  to  connect  it  to  the 
frame,  are  made  either  round  or  flat.  When  made  round,  they  are 
about  2J  inches  in  diameter,  and  are  turned,  which  adds  much  to  their 
appearance. 

The  angle  iron  which  secures  the  fire-box  to  the  frame  should  extend 
the  whole  length  of  the  fire-box,  if  there  is  nothing  in  the  way  to  pre- 
vent it.  It  should  be  screwed  tightly  to  the  frame,  and  the  screws  to 
fasten  it  to  the  fire-box  should  pass  through  the  water  space,  being 
tapped  through  both  sheets.     The  heads  of  these  screws  should  project 

14 


102 


Locomotive  Engineering  in  America. 


[May, 


outward  considerably,  as  they  are  difficult  to  unscrew  when  it  becomes 
necessary  to  remove  them.  There  should  be  two  rows  of  screws  passing 
into  the  fire-box,  one  above  the  other  ;  and  the  distance  between  the 
screws  should  be  just  sufficient  to  enable  a  wrench  to  be  readily  intro- 
duced to  turn  them. 

The  grates  are  always  of  cast  iron,  and  are  generally  4  inches  deep 
at  the  centre.  Their  thickness  is  about  f-ths  of  an  inch  on  their  upper 
edge,  and  § ths  of  an  inch  at  the  bottom.  The  space  between  them  is 
f  inch.  We  know  of  one  or  two  engines  which  were  found  to  make 
steam  much  better  by  placing  a  piece  of  plate  iron,  six  or  eight  inches 
wide,  across  the  fire-box  at  that  end  of  the  grates  next  the  tube  sheet. 
By  admitting  air  through  the  whole  extent  of  grate  surface,  a  large  quan- 
tity of  cold  air  naturally  passes  up  close  to  the  side  of  the  fire-box, 
below  the  tubes,  the  draft  being  strongest  there,  and,  from  not  passing 
directly  through  the  'fire,  escapes  into  the  tubes  before  it  is  properly 
heated.  As  this  cools  the  tubes,  it  consequently  checks  the  formation 
of  steam ;  therefore,  by  not  admitting  the  air  beneath  the  ends  of  the 
tubes,  but  causing  all  the  air  to  pass  directly  through  the  fire,  it  was 
found  that  more  steam  could  be  produced  with  the  same  fuel. 

The  grate  should  be  a  very  few  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  water- 
space  around  the  fire-box,  in  order  that  the  water  below  it  may  remain 
quiescent,  and  collect  any  sediment  that  may  deposit  itself  there. 

The  junction  of  the  inner  and  outer  fire-box,  at  the  bottom  of  the  water- 
space,  is  made  with  a  bar  of  wrought  iron,  TJ  inches  thick,  having  rivets 
passed  through  it,  and  headed  on  the  outside  of  the  fire-box  sheets.  Some, 
however,  bend  the  sheet  of  the  inner  fire-box  outward,  until  it  meets 
that  of  the  outer  fire-box,  and  then  rivet  them  together.  This  method, 
though  cheaper,  does  not  allow  the  water-spaces  to  be  so  readily  cleared 
of  mud  and  deposit. 

Norris  and  some  other  southern  builders  construct  their  boilers  with 
the  top  of  the  fire-box  worked  into  a  hemispherical  form,  and  having  a 
small  cast-iron  dome  placed  upon  the  top.  This  makes  a  very  high  dome, 
and  gives  a  large  amount  of  steam  room  ;  but  this  form  of  fire-box  has 
several  disadvantages,  among  which  is  the  extra  expense  of  a  boiler  con- 
structed in  this  way,  there  being  work  about  the  fire-box  which  can  be 
done  only  by  very  skilful  workmen,  and  requiring  much  more  rivetting. 
Again ;  the  height  of  the  dome  is  liable  to  make  the  engine  top-heavy, 
which,  in  engines  having  large  wheels,  and  having  the  boiler  set  prett}' 
well  up,  is  quite  a  serious  objection.  The  dome  also,  from  exposing  so 
large  an  extent  of  heated  surface,  makes  the  interior  of  the  "  cab  "  over 
the  foot  board  insufferably  hot,  which  is  by  no  means  a  trifling  matter  to 
a  man  who  has  to  stand  in  its  heat  for  several  hours  together.  With  all 
this,  the  size  of  the  dome  obstructs  the  look  out  of  the  engine  man,  and 
the  diagonal  brace  necessary  to  steady  it  lies  directly  in  his  way.  With  all 
these  objections  against  it,  this  form  of  dome  can  hardly  be  said  to 
possess  any  advantages  over  the  old  fashioned  waggon-top  fire-box, 
having  a  low  cylindrical  dome  ;  although  it  is  generally  considered  that 
drier  steam  can  be  worked  from  a  "  dome  boiler,"  as  these  boilers  are 
termed. 

Hinckley  forms  a  cylindrical  dome,  about  22  inches  diameter  and  18 
inches  in  height,  about  midway  on  the  boiler  between  the  fire-box  and 
smoke-box.  This  dome  has  a  cast  iron  cover  of  sufficient  thickness  to 
withstand  the  pressure  of  the  steam,  and  of  such  size  that  the  aperture 
which  it  closes  may  admit  a  man  to  the  interior  of  the  boiler.  The 
steam  pipe  and  throttle  are  placed  on  one  side  of  the  dome,  so  as  not  to 
obstruct  the  passage.  The  dome  is  made  of  the  same  iron  as  the  shell 
of  the  boiler,  is  lagged  and  covered  with  sheet  iron  in  the  same  manner, 
and  has  a  thin  cast  iron  base  and  cap. 

It  is  believed  by  many  that  a  point  near  the  smoke-box  end  of  the 
boiler  is  the  most  favourable  place  from  which  to  take  the  steam,  as  it 
is  considered  that  the  water  is  not  in  so  violent  a  state  of  ebullition  at 
that  point  as  at  the  fire-box  end. 


The  spark  arresters  in  general  use  on  New  England  locomotives  are 
the  common  bonnet  sparker,  the  patent  sparker  of  French  and  Baird, 
of  Philadelphia,  and  Cutting's  sparker.  The  bonnet  sparker  is  the  most 
common.  A  chimney  of  sheet  iron,  about  4  feet  in  height,  is  placed 
over  the  opening  in  the  smoke-box,  and  a  curved  cast  iron  disc  is  placed 
immediately  over  the  chimney. 

A  disadvantage  attending  the  use  of  wood  is  the  shower  of  sparks 
emitted  from  the  chimney ;  indeed  "  sparks"  is  too  mild  a  term  for 
burning  pieces  of  wood,  which  continue  incandescent  for  a  considerable 
period,  and  render  it  dangerous  to  open  the  windows  in  the  carriages. 
From  the  large  quantity  of  timber  used  in  the  construction  of  Ame- 
rican railways,  accidents  from  fire  not  unfrequently  happen,  in  spite  of 
all  the  precautions  taken  to  prevent  them. 

The  cinders  and  sparks  projected  by  the  blast  pipes  against  this  disc, 
receive  from  the  form  given  to  it  a  change  in  their  motion,  which 
throws  them  down  between  the  bottom  of  the  chimney  and  the  outer 
casing  surrounding  it.  The  smoke  and  steam  also  receive  this  motion, 
but  readily  rise,  and,  passing  around  the  disc,  come  out  through  a  wire 
netting  at  the  top.  This  wire-netting  is  to  throw  down  such  sparks  as 
might  have  been  carried  with  the  steam,  and  would  otherwise  have  been 
thrown  out  upon  the  track,  becoming  a  source  of  danger  to  bridges  and 
buildings  along  the  line.  A  pipe  sometimes  leads  from  the  bottom  of 
the  outer  casing  of  the  sparker  to  a  spark-box  on  the  front  or  sides  of 
the  smoke-box.    This  box,  we  believe,  is  termed  the  "  Sub-Treasury."* 

Glass  gauges  appear  to  meet  with  but  little  favour  in  the  eyes  of 
American  engineers.  "  One  tried  on  an  engine  on  the  Maine  road 
broke  in  the  first  trial."  If  it  only  "  broke,"  the  experimenter  was  for- 
tunate, for  we  have  seen  a  piece  of  glass  driven  through  the  driver's 
hand,  and  been  considerably  drenched  ourselves  into  the  bargain,  by 
one  of  these  unlucky  accidents.  We  are  informed,  on  good  authority, 
that  five  or  six  glasses  have  been  broken  on  one  engine  in  a  day.  All 
these  minor  grievances  will  now,  we  hope,  be  abolished  by  the  intro- 
duction of  the  "  Percussion  gauge,"  which  we  are  surprised  to  find  Mr. 
Colburn  has  not  alluded  to.  The  following  are  the  principal  dimen- 
sions of  five  patterns  of  engines  : — 


Builders. 

Boston 

Locomotive 

Works,  for 

6  feet  gauge. 

Hinkleyand 
Drury. 

Lowell  Ma- 
chine Shop. 

Lowell  Ma- 
chine shop. 

John 
Souther. 

Diameters  of  cylinder   .... 

Diameter  of  drivers 

Diameter  of  inside  of  boilers 

15  inches 
20      „ 
5  feet 
44  inches 
11  feet 

141 
lfin. 
36  inches 
40      „ 
50i     „ 
710.9 
56.74 
9.74 
69.6 

10.1,  x  l^in. 

l0A  x  !Wn- 

inside 

13J  inches 
20 

4J  feet 

37  inches 

9J  feet 

88 
2  inches 
30 
39 
36 
437.5 
39.33 
8.12 
40.6 
32.1 

outside 

154  inches 
18 

5A  feet 
43  inches 
11  feet 
140 
2  inches 
31*       „ 
36*      „ 
53 
806.3 
56.4 
8. 
69.0 
41.5 
10  x  1  inch. 
10  x  2|    „ 
inside 

14  inches 
18      „ 

5  feet 
40  inches 
10      „ 
119 

2  inches 

34  „ 

35  „ 
48J     „ 

623 

52.67 
8.25 

56.6 

33.2 
10  x  IJin. 
10  X  2Jin. 

inside 

1 5  inches 
20      „ 
5*  feet 
42  inches 
104  feet 

135 
If  inch. 
37      „ 
37*    „ 
53       „ 
649.42 
60.8 
9.63 

9f  X  1 

9i  x  1* 

inside 

Outside  diameter  of  tubes . . 

Tube  surface,  square  feet.. 
Fire-bos                 do. 
Area  of  grate         do. 
Water-room,  cubic  feet. . . . 
Steam                     do. 
Size  of  steam  ports    

The  15-inch  cylinder  machines  built  at  Taunton  have  /2G  square  feet 
of  tube  surface,  11*23  square  feet  of  grate,  and  steam  ports  14  by  1  in. 
The  performance  of  these  engines  (with  blast  pipes  2f  in.  at  the  mouth) 
is  very  superior.  The  Taunton  Company  give  the  largest  proportion 
of  heating  surface  to  a  given  capacity  of  cylinder  of  any  of  the  eno-ine 
builders  in  New  England. 

In  giving  the  fire-box  surface,  we  have  reckoned  every  inch  of  surface 
above  the  grate,  deducting  only  for  the  tubes  and  the  door.  It  is  of 
course  plain  that  all  this  surface  is  in  contact  with  the  water  iu  the 

*  In  the  glossary,  Mr  Colburn  facetiously  defines  this  as  "  A  receptacle  for  sparks,  slightly 
different  from  those  at  the  Custom-house,  but  quite  as  beneficial." 


1852.] 


Locomotive  Engineering  in  America. 


103 


boiler,  although  it  is  customary  among  engineers  not  to  include  any 
portion  of  that  side  of  the  fire-box  next  the  tubes  as  heating  surface. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  table  that  Hinkley  and  Drury's  15-inch 
cylinder  engine  has  the  greatest  extent  of  heating  surface,  compared 
with  its  capacity  of  cylinder,  of  the  five  engines  given ;  and  as  the  pro- 
portions adopted  appear  to  answer  very  well,  we  will  give  the  multi- 
pliers which  will  give  the  same  proportions  for  any  other  size  of  cylin- 
der. Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  by  3' 159  to 
get  the  heating  surface  of  the  tubes ;  by  "252  to  get  the  heating  surface 
in  the  fire-box ;  by  '0433  to  get  the  area  of  the  grate ;  by  *309  to  get 
the  cubic  feet  of  water  room  in  the  boiler;  by  "1S2  to  get  the  cubic 
feet  of  steam  room  in  the  boiler.  All  the  engines  of  which  proportions 
are  given  in  the  preceding  table,  have  four  driving  wheels  and  truck, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Engine  by  Hinkley  and  Drury,  having  13| 
inch  cylinders;  this  engine  has  four  driving  wheels,  upon  which  the 
whole  weight  of  the  engine  rests. 

The  heating  surface  of  locomotive  boilers  has  of  late  years  been  con- 
siderably increased,  not  only  having  been  extended  with  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  cylinders,  but  in  a  much  higher  ratio.  In  some  recent  1/ 
inch  cylinder  engines,  constructed  at  Taunton,  for  the  New  York  and 
Erie  Railroad,  the  fire-box  surface  included  about  90  square  feet,  while 
the  tube  surface  fell  but  little  short  of  1000  superficial  feet. 

We  will  add  a  few  particulars  of  an  engine  for  burning  bituminous 
coal,  which  was  constructed  for  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  by 
Thacher  Perkins,  master  of  machinery  on  that  road.  The  performance 
of  this  engine  during  the  year  1849  was  upwards  of  23, 000  miles,  and 
was  higher  than  that  of  any  other  first  class  engine  on  that  road  for  the 
the  same  time. 

The  diameter  of  the  cylinders  was  17  inches;  stroke  of  piston,  22 
inches  ;  four  pairs  of  driving  wheels,  having  chilled  tires,  43  inches  in 
diameter. 

The  diameter  of  the  boiler  was  44  inches,  and  there  were  1 25  wrought 
iron  tubes,  12  feet  6  inches  long,  and  2^  diameter  at  the  fire-box  end, 
and  2§-  diameter  at  the  smoke-box  ends  of  same.  The  grate  was  37J 
inches  long  by  41i  inches  wide,  and  the  inside  depth  from  crown  sheet 
to  grate  was  50  inches.  Attached  to  the  boiler  of  this  engine  was  the 
patent  apparatus  for  heating  the  feed  water  by  the  surplus  exhaust 
steam  of  the  engine,  which  was  invented  by  Mr.  Perkins.  The  exhaust 
steam  from  both  cylinders  enters  a  square  box,  in  the  centre  of  the 
smoke  box.  In  this  box  is  a  moveable  valve  by  which  the  steam  can 
be  discharged  through  the  ordinary  blast  pipes,  or  turned  into  a  pipe 
leading  to  a  steam  casing  surrounding  the  smoke  box.  This  pipe  also 
continues  along  beneath  the  boiler,  and  is  united  to  a  steam  belt  sur- 
rounding the  same  at  the  fire  box  end,  and  from  which  the  steam  finally 
escapes  through  a  pipe  for  that  purpose.  The  feed  water  can  be  ad- 
mitted directly  to  the  boiler,  near  the  fire  box  end  of  this  pipe,  or, 
which  is  intended  in  running,  it  can  be  pumped  into  a  casing  surround- 
ing this  pipe,  from  whence  it  passes  into  a  water  casing  surrounding 
the  smoke  box  and  within  the  steam  casing  already  mentioned.  From  here 
it  passes  into  the  boihr  a  little  below  the  water  level,  at  the  smoke  box 
end.  In  this  arrangement,  the  moveable  valve  in  the  steam  box  can  be 
regulated  to  discharge  steam  enough  through  the  blast  pipes  for  all 
ordinary  purposes  of  draught,  and  also  to  maintain  a  flow  of  steam 
through  the  pipe  beneath  the  boiler.  The  feed  water  receives  a  large 
nortion  of  the  heat  of  this  steam,  from  its  contact  with  it  in  the  casing 
surrounding  the  pipe ;  and  retaining  the  heat  so  obtained,  it  passes 
into  the  water  casing  in  the  smoke  box,  where  it  is  exposed  to  the 
heat  °of  the  waste  steam  on  the  outside,  and  to  the  temperature  of 
the  smuke  box  within.  It  thus,  when  finally  admitted  to  the  boiler, 
becomes  heated  quite  to  the  boiling  point,  as  the  heat  within  the 
smoke  box  of  a  coal  engine  is  very  great,  even  with  long  tubes. 
This   arrangement   operates  as  a  variable  exhaust,   by  allowing  any 


portion  of  the  waste  steam  to  be  turned  off  from  the  blast  pipes ;  it 
effects  a  considerable  economy  in  fuel,  by  giving  the  water  to  the  boiler, 
already  heated  very  hot ;  and  the  water  casing  surrounding  the  smoke 
box  prevents  the  destruction  of  the  latter  by  the  heat  emitted  from  the 
tubes. 

In  the  details  of  this  engine,  the  expansion  valve  was  worked  from 
the  backing  eccentric,  and  one  lever  sufficed  for  reversing  the  engine 
and  throwing  on  the  cut-off.  This  was  effected  by  making  the  cut-off 
rocker  arm  work  as  a  shell  on  the  main  valve  rocker  shaft,  the  cambs 
for  throwing  out  all  the  hooks  being  on  the  same  camb  shaft,  and  that 
for  the  forward  hook  being  only  a  quarter  camb,  so  as  to  allow  that 
hook  to  be  on  its  pin  in  the  rocker  arm  in  two  positions  of  the  reversing 
lever ;  that  is  to  say,  going  forward  with  the  cut-off  on,  and  forward 
with  it  off. 

Mr.  Colburn  appears  to  take  for  granted  the  suppositions  as  to  the 
amount  of  power  absorbed  by  the  blast,  and  quotes  "  Stephenson,  of 
Newcastle,"  as  stating  the  loss  at  high  speeds  at  one-half.  "  High 
speeds"  is  such  a  vague  term  that  we  do  not  know  how  to  deal  with 
it :  but  a  reference  to  Mr.  Clark's  work  (Ante  p.  269)  will  at  once  show 
that  in  a  properly  proportioned  engine,  the  loss  from  this  source  is 
much  less  than  is  commonly  supposed. 

It  seems  extraordinary  that  the  value  of  the  link  motion  is  not  suffi- 
ciently appreciated  in  America.     Mr.  Colburn  says — 

The  valve  motion  generally  used  is  the  indirect  attachment  of  the 
eccentric,  through  the  rocker  shaft.  In  ordinary  inside  cylinder  en- 
gines, a  shaft  If  inch  in  diameter  is  secured  by  stands  to  the  cross  girt 
supporting  the  slides.  On  this  shaft  there  are  two  wrought-iron  tubes 
or  shells,  one  for  receiving  and  communicating  the  motion  for  each 
valve.  The  thickness  of  these  tubes  is  |  inch.  The  rocker  arms  which 
support  the  books  are  6§  inches  between  the  centres;  their  hubs,  £  to 
£  inch  thick ;  and  the  arms  are  J  inch  thick.  The  pins  or  bolts  which 
support  the  hooks  have  thimbles  1  £  inch  diameter  and  -^  inch  thick. 
The  rocker  shaft,  tubes,  arms,  and  thimbles,  are  all  of  wrought  iron.  In 
some  instances,  cast-iron  tubes,  with  the  arms  cast  therewith,  have  been 
used,  and,  when  working  on  a  wrought-iron  shaft,  have  less  friction  than 
the  wrought-iron  tubes.  TheTauntouCompauyhaveusedcast-iron  rocker 
tubes  on  upwards  of  sixty  engines,  without  breakage.  The  pin  for  the  valve 
stem  is  turned  with  a  shouWer,  and  is  passed  through  the  end  of  the 
upper  arm,  and  secured  by  a  nut  on  the  back  side  of  same.  The  thickness 
of  the  upper  arm  is  I5  to  lh  inches,  and  is  of  the  same  length  as  the 
lower  arm.  The  arms  on  the  rocker  shaft,  which  receive  the  motion  of 
the  hand  hooks,  are  10  inches  between  the  centres.  The  object  of  the 
hand  hooks  is  to  catch  the  eccentric  hooks  when  the  engine  is  reversed, 
and  also  to  assist  in  starting  in  difficult  situations,  as  in  a  drift;  of  snow. 
The  inside  of  the  eccentric  hooks,  where  they  wear  on  the  thimbles  of 
the  rocker  arms,  is  faced  with  a  wedge  or  dowell  of  hardened  steel.  The 
eccentric  rods  are  H  to  If  inches  in  diameter,  and  have  right  and  left 
nuts  to  adjust  their  length.  The  end  of  the  rod  is  secured  to  the  brass 
hoop  or  eccentric  band  by  bolts,  or  by  being  passed  through  a  hub  formed 
on  same,  with  nuts  and  check  nuts  on  each  side.  The  eccentric  band  is 
1£  inches  thick,  and  is  lined  with  Babbitt  metal.  The  eccentrics 
generally  have  three  inches  throw,  and  in  inside  cylinder  engines,  must 
be  cast  in  two  pieces  to  allow  of  their  being  placed  between  the  cranks. 
The  eccentrics  are  secured  to  the  axle  by  set  screws  turned  at  their 
ends  to  a  blunt  point,  and  entering  the  axle.  This  is  to  give  a  chance 
for  altering  the  lead  of  the  valve  when  required,  which  could  not  be  so 
readily  done  were  the  eccentrics  keyed  to  the  axle.  It  is  for  this  reason 
also,  that  the  eccentrics  are  generally  cast  separately,  although  some 
engines  have  the  four  eccentrics  for  forward  and  backward  motion  for 
each  valve  cast  in  one  piece,  or  at  least  in  two  pieces,  to  put  together 
around  the  axle.  The  strap  under  the  hook  is  l  to  £  in.  thick,  and  long 
enough  that  the  hook  may  traverse,  when  thrown  out,  in  either  direction 


104 


Locomotive  Engineering  in  America. 


[May, 


without  striking  the  thimble  in  the  rocker  arms.  Thecambs  for  raising 
the  hooks  are  of  cast  iron,  and  have  a  throw  of  2  inches  or  more. 
These  cambs  are  secured  to  a  wrought  iron  shaft  \\  to  If  inches  in 
diameter,  having  a  pinion  of  12  or  14  teeth  on  one  end  and  turned  by  a 
segment,  which  is  worked  by  the  reversing  lever  on  the  footboard. 

The  expansion  valve  is  worked  through  the  medium  of  a  separate 
rocker  shaft,  having  also  a  camb  shaft  with  reversing  rod  to  work  the 
same.  As  this  camb  shaft  requires  to  be  turned  but  one  quarter  around, 
a  simple  arm  attached  to  it  is  all  that  is  necessary. 

The  hooks  are  sometimes  formed  with  V-shaped  openings,  in  order 
that  they  may  readily  catch  the  pins  when  reversed. 

This  general  arrangement  of  operating  the  valve  has  been  recently 
superseded  in  a  measure  by  the  introduction  of  Stephenson's  link 
motion,  although  the  old  establishments  still  adhere  to  the  use  of  the 
rocker  shaft. 

The  pumps  of  an  engine  are  either  attached  directly  to  the  crosshead, 
and  have  the  same  stroke  as  the  piston,  or  they  are  worked  by  the  same 
through  a  lever  proportioned  so  as  to  give  the  pump  plunger  one-half 
or  one-third  the  stroke  of  the  piston.  Many  recent  engines,  however, 
including  Hinkley's  patterns,  have  an  arm  attached  to  the  outside  crank 
pin,  which  communicates  motion  to  the  hind  pair  of  drivers,  the  end  of 
this  arm  being  brought  up  to  within  3|  inches  from  the  centre  of  the 
wheel,  and  working  the  pump  plunger,  giving  it  a  stroke  of  7i  inches. 
The  pumps,  when  this  connection  is  used,  are  placed  at  the  hind  end 
of  the  outside  framing,  and  beneath  the  footboard.  The  feed  water 
enters  tbe  boiler  on  the  side  on  the  fire-box,  at  a  point  about  as  high 
as  the  lower  row  of  tubes.  Some  contend  that  the  feed-water  should 
be  injected  at  the  bottom  of  the  water  space  about  the  fire-box,  or  at 
the  smoke-box  end  of  the  boiler,  in  order  that  the  cooling  effects 
of  the  water  may  not  act  directly  upon  the  tube  sheets,  and  by  alter- 
nately contracting  and  expanding  them,  cause  the  tubes  to  leak. 

Pumps  having  one-half  or  one-third  stroke  are  generally  better  for 
engines  running  quick,  than  full  stroke  pumps,  as  the  barrel  of  the 
pump  is  more  sure  to  fill  while  the  wear  of  the  valves  is  not  per- 
ceptible. 

The  pumps  on  all  recent  engines  are  provided  with  air-vessels  of  iron 
or  brass.  The  form  of  cup-valve,  working  in  a  brass  cage,  used  by 
Sowther,  appears  to  us  the  simplest  form  of  Valve  which  can  be  devised. 
It  requires  much  less  fitting  than  any  other  form  of  valve  which  we  re- 
member to  have  seen. 

The  joints  between  the  pump  and  the  suction  and  air-chambers,  and  the 
joint  in  the  check-valve  chamber,  are  usually  ground  joints  of  cast-iron. 
These,  however,  when  long  in  use,  frequently  become  leaky,  as  a  cast- 
iron  joint  about  a  pump,  or  in  any  place  where  the  water  has  access 
to  it,  is  found  not  to  hold  its/«ce  well.  If  a  composition  ring  be  placed 
inside  the  valve  chamber,  to  make  a  joint  upon,  the  iron  with  which  it 
is  in  contact  becomes  subject  to  a  peculiar  oxidation,  arising  from  a 
kind  of  galvanic  action  with  the  composition  ring.  The  iron  about  this 
ring  often  becomes  eat  full  of  small  holes.  To  remedy  this  evil,  the 
purnps  of  Souther's  engines  have  rings  of  a  composition  cast  inside  the 
valve  chambers,  and  in  every  situation  about  the  pump  where  a  ground 
joint  is  required.  These  rings  are  first  cast  by  themselves,  and  their 
composition  is  so  proportioned  that,  when  placed  in  the  mould  of  the 
valve  chambers,  and  having  the  melted  iron  poured  around  them,  the 
iron  just  melts  the  surface  of  the  ring,  and  thereby  becomes  firmly  cast 
with  it,  so  that  water,  which  is  necessary  for  the  galvanic  action  des- 
cribed, cannot  enter  between  them.  We  regard  this  as  a  very  excellent 
plan,  as  it  saves  much  expense  in  keeping  the  pumps  in  order,  and  makes 
no  material  difference  in  the  first  cost  of  the  pump. 

The  keys  to  tighten  the  bearings  about  an  engine  should  not  have 
too  much  taper,  as  there  is  danger  of  their  becoming  set  so  tight,  as  to 
cause  the  melting  of  the  Babbitt  lining  of  the  boxes.     When  much 


tapered,  they  are  also  liable  to  work  out,  but  this  does  not  prevent 
them  from  being  set  so  tight  as  to  create  the  mischief  referred  to.  All 
the  bolts  should  be  turned  and  fitted,  and  for  such  as  pass  through  the 
straps  of  the  connecting  rods,  and  other  parts  in  motion,  check  nuts  are 
required.  The  thread  of  the  screws  should  not  be  too  coarse,  as  in  that 
case  the  nuts  are  apt  to  work  off,  while  if  too  fine,  the  thread  is  liable 
to  strip.  Threads  of  eleven  to  the  inch  answer  very  well  for  the  medium 
sized  bolts. 

REMARKS    ON   THE    MANAGEMENT    OF   ENGINES. 

A  well-built  engine,  having  its  parts  easily  accessible,  and  possessing 
good  qualities  for  the  production  of  steam,  may,  with  careful  manage- 
ment, be  made  to  run  for  a  long  time  with  but  little  expense  for  repairs. 
The  points  to  which  the  careful  engineman  directs  his  attention  are  the 
manner  of  firing,  the  supply  of  feed  water,  the  proper  adaptation  of  the 
production  of  steam  to  the  features  of  the  road,  and  various  other  par- 
ticulars of  a  like  nature,  which  are  necessary  for  the  proper  performance 
of  a  locomotive.  It  is  of  course  necessary  to  fire  up  oftener  when  the 
engine  is  performing  hard  work,  than  when  the  load  is  light.  The  fire 
should  be  maintained  at  a  proper  point,  to  make  sufficient  steam,  and 
should  not  be  suffered  to  get  so  low  as  to  affect  the  pressure  in  the 
boiler.  It  is  an  object,  however,  in  approaching  a  terminal  station,  to 
have  barely  sufficient  fire  to  reach  the  engine  house.  The  supply  of 
feed  water  to  the  boiler  is  regulated  very  much  by  local  circumstances 
on  the  road.  In  ascending  grades,  the  injection  of  cold  water  would 
check  the  formation  of  steam,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  have  a 
good  supply  of  water  in  the  boiler  before  reaching  the  foot  of  an  un- 
favourable grade.  On  long  levels  and  on  descending  grades,  one  pump 
may  be  kept  working  to  nearly  its  full  extent.  It  is  seldom  that  bath 
pumps  require  to  be  at  work  at  the  same  time.  There  should  also  be 
plenty  of  water  in  the  boiler  before  reaching  either  roadside  or  terminal 
stations.  The  fire  door  should  be  kept  open  as  little  as  possible,  as  the 
entrance  of  the  cold  air  through  it  contracts  the  tube  sheets,  and  is  some- 
times the  cause  of  their  leaking. 

If  an  engine  has  a  variable  exhaust,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  open  it  to 
nearly  its  full  extent,  when  firing,  and  to  immediately  contract  it  very 
much,  so  as  to  recover  the  fire  quickly.  The  cylinders  and  valves  re- 
quire to  be  oiled  at  every  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  of  the  journey.  Melted 
tallow  is  used  for  this  purpose.  If  the  ports  of  the  throttle  valve  are 
of  the  same  area  as  the  steam  pipe,  it  is  found  best  to  keep  the  throttle 
partly  closed,  as  when  the  pressure  in  the  steam  pipe  is  rather  less  than 
in  the  boilers,  the  engine  is  not  so  liable  to  prime.  The  proper  opening 
for  the  throttle  of  any  engine  can  soon  be  determined  from  observation. 

In  going  through  covered  bridges  and  station  houses,  enginemen  are 
generally  cautioned  to  shut  their  dampers,  and  to  otherwise  check  the 
draft  of  their  engines,  so  as  to  guard  against  fire. 

The  boiler  requires  to  be  blown  off  at  intervals  of  a  week  or  more. 
The  times  at  which  this  operation  should  be  performed  will  depend  verv 
much  on  the  purity  of  the  water  used.  When  a  scale  deposits  on  the 
tube*  and  on  the  internal  shell  of  the  boiler,  a  double  handful  of  ma- 
hogany sawdust  thrown  in  at  the  safety  valve  will  tend  to  remove  it. 

There  should  be  as  few  putty  joints  about  an  engine  as  possible;  but 
where  there  are  any  joints  requiring  packing,  putty  seems  to  answer 
better  than  India  rubber.  It  should  be  mixed  to  have  a  very  firm  and 
even  consistency,  which  end  is  best  attained  by  mixing  the  red  and 
white  lead  of  which  it  is  composed,  by  beating  with  a  heavr  hand 
hammer. 

The  hemp  for  packing  the  piston  rods,  valve  stems,  and  pump 
plungers,  should  be  soaked  in  warm  water  before  using.  Some  en- 
gineers soak  it  in  melted  tallow,  but  this  appears  to  rot  it.  Hemo 
simply  soaked  in  warm  water  will  be  found  strong  after  two  months  use. 
Good  hemp  is  to  be  preferred  to  India  rubber  for  stuffing  boxes. 

The  frequent  use  of  the  sand  box  on  freight  engines  has  the  effect  of 


1852.] 


Usher's  Steam  Plough. 


105 


rapidly  wearing  out  the  tires  of  the  wheels.     Its  use  should,  therefore, 
be  restricted  to  cases  where  it  cannot  be  dispensed  with. 

In  re-painting  the  woodwork  about  an  engine,  the  best  way  of  clean- 
ing the  work  from  grease  and  dirt  is  to  wet  it  with  spirits  of  turpentine 
on  a  handful  of  waste.  The  steam  chimneys  are  best  polished  with 
rotten  stone  used  with  oil  on  a  woollen  cloth. 

Recent  Modifications  of  Engines. 

Within  a  year  or  two,  there  have  been  constructed  several  engines, 
in  various  parts  of  the  country,  of  novel  and  peculiar  design.  The  chief 
feature,  however,  in  these  engines,  has  been  an  increase  in  the  size  of 
the  driving  wheels.  Among  these  engines  was  one  built  by  Edward  S. 
Norris,  of  Schenectady,  N.Y.,  for  the  Utica  and  Schenectady  railroad, 
of  the  following  dimensions  : — 

Sixteen  inch  cylinder,  22-inch  stroke;  boiler,  42  inches  in  diameter; 
116  two-inch  tubes,  10  feet  3  inches  long;  grate  about  14  square  feet; 
one  pair  of  wrought-iron  driving  wheels  behind  the  fire-box,  and  7  feet 
in  diameter;  one  pair  of  wrought-iron  bearing  wheels,  just  forward  of 
the  fire-box,  and  4  feet  in  diameter;  and  a  truck  frame,  beneath  the 
smoke-box,  of  four  3^-feet  wrought-iron  wheels.  The  cylinders  are  out- 
side, and  are  placed  in  a  horizontal  position,  midway  between  the  fire  and 
smoke  boxes.  A  large  dome,  at  a  corresponding  point  on  the  top  of  the 
boiler,  supplies  steam  to  the  cylinders,  through  pipes  running  down 
outside  the  boiler  to  the  steam-chests.  The  valve  motion  is  the  modified 
form  of  Stephenson's  link  motion,  on  which  we  have  remarked  on  a 
preceding  page.  The  frame  of  the  engine  is  below  the  axle  of  the 
driving-wheels,  and  above  that  of  the  4-feet  bearing-wheels,  the  jaws 
for  the  bearings  of  the  driving-axle  being  formed  on  the  upper  side  of 
the  frame.  There  is  also  an  outside  frame  having  a  floating  bearing  for 
the  end  of  the  driving-axle ;  the  crank  and  eccentrics  being  between 
this  bearing  and  the  wheel. 

The  performance  of  this  engine  is  represented  as  being  remarkably 
good. 

(To  be  continued.) 


USHER'S  STEAM  PLOUGH. 

Mr.  James  Usher,  of  Edinburgh,  has  favoured  us  with  the  following 
description  of  his  steam  plough,  which  we  have  not  ourselves  seen  at 
work,  but  of  which  a  favourable  account  is  given  by  those  well  qualified 
to  judge.  The  weight  of  the  machine  is  stated  to  be  5  tons,  and  the 
engine  is  of  10-horse  nominal  power.  It  has  been  hitherto  worked  with 
4  ploughs,  which  turn  over  a  breadth  of  about  3  feet,  stirring  the  ground 
from  7  to  9  inches,  like  spade  husbandry.  From  the  size  of  the  roller 
no  difficulty  is  experienced  in  going  over  soft  ground  which  has  been 
once  ploughed.     The  Scottish  Press  says — 

"  The  cost  of  the  machine  is  about  ,£300,  and  is  adapted  to  plough- 
ins,  thrashing,  rolling,  and  harrowing.  It  travels  2,550  yards  per 
hour,  turning  over  50  inches  in  breadth,  which  is  equal  to  7  acres  in 
10  hours,  at  a  daily  expense  of  17s.  or  18s.,  which  is  about  2s.  6d.  per 
acre;  while  it  costs  9s.  or  10s.  to  plough  an  acre  with  horses.  The 
actual  saving  to  Britain,  if  steam  is  made  subservient  to  tillage,  cannot 
be  accurately  estimated.  There  are  47,69S,000  acres  of  arable  land 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  ;  and  even  if  we  do  not  take  the  difference 
at  the  rate  specified  above,  but  at  the  minimum  saving  of  4s.  per  acre, 
the  saving  in  value  will  amount  to  .£9,539,600.  And  although,  as  we 
have  said,  the  first  machine  may  not  be  perfect,  still  the  fact  is  unde- 
niable that  the  great  obstacle  to  ploughing  by  steam  has  been  got  over, 
and  with  a  little  improvement  the  inventor  has  no  doubt  of  making  the 
machine  perfect. 

"  The  cost  of  the  steam  plough  per  day  is  estimated  as  follows  : — 


Coals 

Engineer 

2  Labourers 

Horse — 2  hours 

Interest  on  machine  and  repairs 


6s. 

Od. 

3s. 

6d. 

4s. 

Od. 

Is. 

6d. 

2s. 

6d. 

17s.  6d. 


The  following  is  a  description  of  the  various  details :- 


Fig.  1  shows  a  side  elevation  of  steam  machinery  arranged  suitably 
for  carrying  out  this  invention;  fig.  2  is  a  plan  thereof,  the  steam  boiler 
and  engine  being  removed.  By  referring  to  fig.  1  it  will  be  seen,  that 
the  under  edge  of  the  mouldboard  and  share  is  formed  to  a  curve  struck 
from  the  centre  of  the  shaft  or  axis  on  which  the  ploughs  are  affixed ; 
a  a  indicate  the  bed-frame  or  carriage  of  the  machine.  The  fore  car- 
riage wheels,  b  b,  are  mounted  on  an  axle,  which  turns  in  bearings,  c, 
attached  to  the  swivel  frame,  D,  which  moves  on  the  bolts,  d,  for  the 
purpose  of  causing  the  machine  to  turn  round  in  a  small  space.  A 
portion  of  the  swivel  frame,  D,  is  toothed,  and  acted  upon  by  the  pinion 
and  winch,  e ;  the  hind  part  of  the  carriage  is  here  shown  supported 
upon  the  hollow  cylinder  or  roller,  f,  composed  of  two  extreme  parts, 
/'  and  f2,  which  are  wheels  similar  to  b  b,  the  intermediate  part,  /, 
being  by  preference  removable  at  pleasure,  so  as  to  render  these  bearin"' 
parts  suitable  to  the  different  stages  of  cultivation  to  which  the  machine 
may  be  applied.  This  compound  cylinder  has  its  axle  supported  in  the 
bearings,  g,  attached  to  the  lower  or  to  the  under  side  of  the  carriage 
frame.  The  axle  of  this  cylinder  carries  also  at  one  end  the  wheel,  h, 
to  be  afterwards  noticed. 


106 


Report  on  Liscard  Farm. 


[May, 


A  moveable  lever  "frame,  i,  i,  i,  i,  is  supported  on  an  axle  or  shaft, 
k,  as  a  fulcrum.  The  free  ends,  i'  i',  are  formed  into  the  toothed  seg- 
ments, 7,  and  are  concentric  to  k,  these  segments  being  acted  upon  by 
the  two  toothed  pinions  and  spindles,  m,  which  elevates  or  depresses  the 
hind  part,  i  i,  of  the  lever  frame,  and  all  that  it  carries,  at  the  pleasure 
of  the  conductor. 

On  the  carriage  thus  constructed  is  placed  the  locomotive  boiler, 
with  its  engines  of  any  ordinary  construction,  as  n  n,  the  power  of 
which  is  applied  through  the  medium  of  connecting  rods,  o,  to  the  crank 
shaft,  p,  the  two  arms  of  which  stand  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  in 
the  usual  way.  The  crank  shaft,  p,  is  supported  on  two  standards,  q, 
securely  fixed  to  the  carriage.  On  the  shaft,  p,  there  is  also  fixed  the 
spur  pinion,  indicated  by  the  dotted  circle, pJp',  in  fig.  1;  and  this 
pinion,  by  taking  into  the  wheel,  r,  mounted  on  the  shaft,  k,  gives 
motion  at  the  same  time  to  the  pinion,  t,  which  is  carried  round  on  the 
same  shaft,  k.  The  pinion,  t,  thus  actuated,  takes  into  the  wheel,  h, 
before  referred  to,  on  the  bearing  cylinder,/^  and  it  is  preferred  that 
the  pinion,  t,  should  be  applied  so  as  readily  to  be  put  into  and  out  of 
gear  with  its  wheel,  though  not  so  shown  in  the  engraving.  By  this 
arrangement  of  parts,  a  slow  progressive  motion  is  obtained  for  the 
whole  machine,  on  the  one  hand  through  the  cylinder,  f,  and  on  the 
other  hand  a  separate  rotary  motion,  at  a  certain  increase  of  speed,  is 
communicated  through  the  wheel,  r,  to  the  pinion,  w,  fixed  upon  the 
shaft,  u  u,  which  last-named  shaft  has  its  bearings,  v  v,  attached  to  the 
moveable  frame,  i  i. 

On  the  shaft,  u  u,  are  placed  a  series  of  plates  of  plates  or  projections, 
fixed  at  regular  distances.  Or  such  plates  or  projections,  with  their 
ploughs  afterwards  described,  ma)'  be  placed  upon  separate  shafts,  each 
with  its  own  proper  gearing ;  but  it  is  preferred  to  place  them  on  one  shaft. 
These  plates  or  projections  on  the  axis  are  shaped  in  such  manner  as 
to  receive  and  have  affixed  to  each  of  them  several  ploughs,  adapted  by 
their  revolving  motion  to  penetrate  the  soil,  and  by  their  mouldboards 
to  elevate  and  turn  over  portions  thereof;  a  a  are  the  plates  or  pro- 
jections fixed  upon  the  shaft  u ;  they  are  each  formed  with  a  strong  boss  at 
the  centre,  by  which  it  may  be  securely  fixed  to  the  shaft.  Each  plate, 
a',  has  three  arms  or  prolongations,  b  b  b,  which  terminate  in  the  radial 
direction  shown;  a  further  prolongation,  d'  d',  is  carried  obliquely  upon 
each  of  these  arms.  Upon  the  plate  and  projections  thus  constructed 
is  affixed  the  tilling  apparatus,  which  consists,  firstly,  of  the  part  e', 
which  acts  the  part  of  the  mouldboard  or  turn-furrow  in  the  common 
plough ;  and  it  is  to  be  fixed  by  screw  bolts,  or  otherwise,  to  the  pro- 
longation, d'  d'.  To  the  fore  part  of  this  mouldboard,  e  e,  is  affixed  a 
bar  of  wrought  iron,  which  is  also  furnished  with  a  lug  by  which  it  is 
attached  to  the  plate,  by  means  of  screw  bolts  or  otherwise;  the  bar, 
thus  secured,  forms  a  head  or  share-bearer,  as  in  many  common  ploughs. 
To  the  fore  part  of  the  bar  the  share  is  adapted,  and  fixed  by  its  socket. 
The  mouldboard,  and  also  the  share,  may  be  varied  in  form.  A  fore- 
cutter  or  coulter  is  affixed  in  front  of  each  share,  by  screw  bolts  or 
otherwise,  and  is  provided  with  the  means  of  adjustment,  through  the 
counter  slits  in  itself  and  in  the  plate  ;  but  in  order  to  meet  the  different 
qualities  of  soils,  and  the  various  stages  of  tillage,  further  provisions  may 
be  employed.  The  number  of  plates  or  projections,  and  also  the  number 
of  ploughs  in  each,  may  be  varied. 

It  will  be  seen  that  not  only  the  ploughs  which  are  set  in  the  same 
plane  around  the  axis  follow  each  other  into  action,  but  that  the  ploughs 
of  the  other  sets  (which  are  affixed  around  the  axis  in  parallel  planes), 
are  arranged  and  come  into  action,  so  that  two  ploughshares  will  not 
strike  the  earth  at  the  same  instant.  In  the  arrangement  of  the  appa- 
ratus before  described,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  propelling  of  the  machine 
along  the  land  is  by  reason  of  the  resistance  of  the  land  to  the  ploughs 
■<\n  they  enter  and  travel  through  the  earth,  and  the  motion  communicated 
to  the  wheels  or  rollers.    This  part  of  the  invention  is  applicable  where 


teeth  or  tines  suitable  for  tilling  the  earth  are  applied  about  an  axis,  and 
will  be  found  to  act  better  than  machines  in  which  tines  or  teeth  set 
around  an  axis,  have  had  motion  communicated  to  them  from  the  wheels 
which  run  on  the  land.  In  thus  using  this  part  of  the  invention,  the  only 
change  necessary  will  be  to  employ  a  rotary  axis,  u,  having  tines  or  teeth 
of  any  suitable  shape,  in  place  of  the  ploughs  shown  in  the  engravings. 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING. 

REPORT  TO  THE  BOARD  OF  HEALTH  ON  LISCARD  FARM, 
NEAR  BIRKENHEAD. 

BY  W.  LEE,  ESQ.,  SUPERINTENDING  INSPECTOE. 

This  farm  is  situated  about  four  miles  westward  of  Birkenhead,  in  the 
county  of  Chester,  and  contains,  altogether  about  450  acres,  350  of  which 
which  belong  to  Harold  Littledale,  Esq.,  the  occupier,  and  the  remainder, 
rented  by  him,  consists  of  low  poor  land  of  comparatively  little  value. 

The  geological  stratum  is  the  lower  new  red  sandstone,  with  a  combina- 
tion of  diluvial  drift,  and  the  alluvium  of  the  estuary  of  the  Mersey. 

Mr.  Littledale  has  drained  all  the  land  capable  of  being  drained.  Both 
pipes  and  tiles  have  been  used.  Some  of  the  drains  are  laid  only  2^  feet 
deep,  others  4  feet,  and  latterly,  the  depth  has  been  5  feet.  The  depth  has 
been  increased  as  the  result  of  experience.  The  widths  apart  vary  from  6  to 
9  yards.  The  average  would  be  about  7  yards.  The  cost  was  £4  to  £5  per 
acre. 

The  arrangements  for  collecting  and  applying  liquid  manure  are  similar 
to  those  in  Ayrshire,  and  Mr.  Young,  the  engine- maker  of  Ayr,  has  been 
employed  in  the  construction  of  the  works. 

The  tank  is  60  feet  long,  12  feet  wide,  and  13  feet  deep,  furnished  with 
lever  agitators,  similar  to  those  at  Myer  Mill  farm.  The  capacity  of  the 
tank  is  equal  to  58,300  gallons,  and  the  cost  about  £200. 

The  steam  engine  is  of  10  horse  power  high  pressure.  The  cylinder  is  10 
inches  diameter,  with  a  30  inch  stroke.  At  the  time  of  my  visit  it  was  work- 
ing 43  strokes  per  minute,  with  a  pressure  of  28  lbs  on  the  square  inch.  At 
full  speed  it  works  60  strokes  per  minute.  The  original  cost  was  £80  ;  but 
it  has  been  improved  and  altered  so  that  its  present  value  may  be  stated  at 
£150.  As  in  the  other  instances  brought  before  you,  this  engine  chops, 
grinds,  crushes,  steams,  thrashes,  churns,  pumps  water,  and  does  all  the 
farming  work  capable  of  being  performed  by  machinery,  in  addition  to  the 
pumping-  and  forcing  of  liquid  manure. 

Mr.  Littledale's  bailiff,  Mr.  Teasdale,  said,  that  the  engine  cannot  perform 
all  these  operations  at  the  same  time;  but  that  the  irrigation,  when  it  is  going 
on,  scarcely  requires  four  horse  power.  As  to  the  time  occupied  for  this 
part  of  its  work,  I  was  informed  that  a  blacksmith  does  all  the  shoeing,  re- 
pairing, and  ironwork  of  the  farm,  besides  attending  to  the  engine.  The 
latter  does  not  take  up  one  third  of  his  time,  as  the  engine  only  works  two 
days  in  the  week.  It  was  also  said  that  one  day  per  week  would  be  a  liberal 
allowance  for  manuring.  The  w.ages  paid  to  this  man  are  26s.  per  week 
and  four  tenths  of  one  day  would  give  Is.  9d.  as  the  weekly  sum  due 
to  the  irrigation.  The  distribution  is  conducted  by  a  man  and  a  boy,  whose 
united  wages  are  20s.  weekly.  One  day  to  the  irrigation  will  be  3*.  id. 
per  week. 

The  engine,  when  working,  consumes  10  cwt.  of  coals  per  day  often  hours, 
at  a  cost  of  8s.  per  ton.  The  proportionate  sum  per  week,  therefore,  due  to 
the  irrigation  works  for  coals,  is  Is.  8d. 

There  are  two  pumps,  each  4i  inches  diameter,  with  24-inch  stroke,  and 
working  25  strokes  per  minute.  At  this  rate  of  working,  they  are  capable  of 
raising  41,154  gallons  per  dayof  ten  hours.  The  cost  of  the  pumps  would  be 
about  £70.  The  liquid  manure  is  conveyed  by  iron  pipes  3  inches  diameter, 
and  the  present  extentis  about|2  miles,  serving  for  150  acres.  The  pipes  have 
been  brought  from  Scotland,  aud  the  cost  including  laying  is  Is.  did.  per 
yard.  There  is  a  hydrant  for  every  300  yards  of  main,  and  the  cost  of  each 
is  18s.  The  hydrants  are  so  fixed  that  with  1 50  yards  of  hose  the  distribu- 
tor aud  boy  can  irrigate  10  acres  per  day.  This  being  an  acre  per  hour,  a 
reference  to  the  quantity  pumped  will  give  4,115  gallons  per  acre  for  each 
application. 

The  hose  pipe  is  of  gutta  percha,  and  consists  of  75  yards,  2  inches  dia- 


1852.] 


Report  on  Liscard  Farm. 


107 


meter,  costing  2s.  6d.  per  yard,  and  75  yards  li  inch  diameter,  costing  2s. 
per  yard. 

The  liquid  manure  is  now  sent  out  to  a  distance  of  half  a  mile,  and  the 
jet  from  a  circular  orifice  of  an  inch  in  the  discharge  pipe  will  rise  nearly  30 
yards  high,  and  falls  like  a  shower  at  a  distance  of  25  yards  from  the  distri- 
butor. Mr.  Littledale  intends  to  have  another  tank  of  the  same  size  as  the 
one  already  constructed,  so  as  always  to  have  plenty  of  liquid  manure  in 
spring. 

Following  the  course  I  have  pursued  throughout  these  investigations,  I 
now  proceed  to  draw  out  Mr.  Littledale's  capital  account  for  the  irrigation. 

Tank             £200  0  0 

Proportion  of  steam  engine           60  0  0 

Two  pumps 70  0  0 

Iron  pipes    ...          ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  315  6  4 

Hydrants      9  18  0 

75  yards  of  2-inch  gutta  percha  hose       9  7  6 

75  yards  of  l£  inch            ditto                7  10  0 


£672     1  10 

From  the  data  already  ascertained,  the  following  will  be  the  annual  ac- 
count for  interest  and  working  expenses: — 

Interest  upon  £672,  and  wear  and  tear,  at  7i  per  cent.  £50     8     0 

Fuel  due  to  irrigation 4     6     8 

Wages      13     4     4 


£67   19     0 


Divided  by  150,  the  number  of  acres  irrigated,  the  amount  is  equal  to  an 
average  of  9s.  Of  d  per  acre. 

This  mode  of  fertilizing  has  not  been  long  in  operation  at  Liscard  farm, 
but  liquid  manures  have  been  for  a  considerable  time  applied  there  by  the 
more  expensive  and  clumsy  method  of  carting  on  the  land.  Like  the  Duke 
of  Sutherland's,  therefore,  this  farm  is  in  a  transition  state,  and  I  would  not 
claim  for  the  specific  mode  of  application  a  degree  of  fertility  that  is  pri- 
marily due  to  the  nature  of  the  fluid  laid  on. 

The  liquid  manure  used  being  the  same,  however,  in  both  methods  of  ap- 
plication, it  is  fair  to  conclude  that  an  equal  quantity  laid  on  evenly,  without 
poaching  the  land,  would  be,  at  least,  as  productive  as  if  distributed  from 
a  cart. 

The  cost  of  the  various  modes  of  applying  manures  may  be  considered 
distinctly  from  the  productive  results;  and  the  works  being  already  in  opera- 
tion in  this  instance,  I  am  able  to  state  the  outlay  and  working  expenses  as 
accurately  as  if  the  economy  had  been  tested  by  the  experience  of  years  in- 
stead of  months. 

It  is  exceedingly  interesting  to  review  occasionally  the  progress  made  in 
matters  of  public  and  national  importance,  and,  after  looking  back  at  the 
original  views  of  the  promulgators  of  new  doctrines  in  social  economy,  to 
see  how  far  those  views  have  proved  correct,  or  have  become  modified  by 
experience.  About  ten  years  ago,  Mr.  Chadwick,  recommending  the  collec- 
tion of  all  fertilizing  matters  in  tanks,  wrote — 

"  The  mode  of  emptying  by  a  pump  and  hose,  whatever  may  be  the  distance 
acquired  for  the  conveyance  of  the  manure,  will  be  found  to  be  much  cheaper 
than  the  water  cart.  With  the  hose,  the  refuse  may  be  got  on  to  gardens, 
lawns,  and  places  where  the  cart  cannot  go,  and  may  be  got  at  all  times. 
With  the  force-pump,  it  may  be  carried  to  all  heights  under  120  or  130  feet, 
and  the  hose  may  extend  to  half  a  mile  or  three  quarters  of  a  mile,  or  more. 
Within  such  lifts  as  seven  or  eight  feet,  and  over  all  descents,  the  labour  of 
pumping  which  would  be  required  to  get  the  liquid  manure  into  a  water 
cart  would,  with  the  hose,  convey  it  to  a  considerable  distance." 

According  to  the  estimates  already  given,  the  expense  in  fuel  and  labour 
for  the  distribution  of  4,115  gallons  of  liquid  manure  by  the  hose  and  jet, 
would  be  8d.  The  quantity  is  equal  to  20  loads,  and  the  distribution  by  a 
water  cart,  including  the  pumping  from  the  tank,  carrrying  half  a  mile,  and 
laying  on,  would  cost  8d.  for  a  load,  or  13s.  4d.  for  4,115  gallons. 

I  have  stated  elsewhere  that  the  liquid  manure  produced  a  crop  of  Swede 
turnips  equal  to  that  produced  by  25  to  30  tons  of  solid  manure,  which  cost 


about  £2  10s.  for  application.  I  need  not  therefore  waste  time  by  any  further 
remarks  on  the  comparative  economy  of  laying  on  liquid  versus  solid.  The 
facts  are  self-evident.  Mr.  Littledale  has  had  the  farm  about  eleven  years, 
and  has  erected  all  the  present  buildings,  including  a  lodge,  a  house  for  the 
bailiff,  and  eight  cottages  for  the  labourers. 

A  million  of  bricks  were  made  out  of  two  old  marl  pits  close  by,  and  the 
excavation  was  then  converted  into  a  water  reservoir  for  the  whole  establish- 
ment. All  the  spouts  of  the  buildings  run  into  it.  The  water  is  pumped  by 
the  engine  into  a  raised  cistern  of  wrought  iron,  holding  10,000  gallons,  and 
thence  distributed  by  taps.  The  bailiffsays  the  water  is  good  and  abundant, 
and  now  that  they  have  got  a  large  manure  tank,  they  intend  to  apply  water 
to  the  solid  manure  to  liquify  it. 

The  present  live  stock  yielding  manure  consists  of  81  milk  cows,  2  bulls, 
nearly  100  pigs,  and  12  horses.  All  the  liquid  from  the  stables,  cow-houses, 
piggeries,  yards,  cottages,  and  the  bailiffs  house,  drains  underground  to  the 
tank. 

As  the  general  result  of  drainage,  liquid  manures,  and  other  improvements- 
effected  by  Mr.  Littledale,  I  was  informed  that  the  yield  of  the  whole  farm 
is  double  what  it  was  10  years  ago. 

The  liquid  manure  has  been  hitherto  applied  to  nothing  but  grass.  It  is 
intended  now,  however,  to  apply  it  to  other  crops. 

My  informant  said — 

"  We  have  now  80  acres  of  Italian  rye  grass,  and  look  to  it  first  for  food 
for  the  cows.  We  buy  nothing  for  the  cattle  but  malt  grains,  the  annual 
account  for  which  is  about  £130.  We  sell  a  portion  of  the  turnips  at  times, 
but  shall  have  none  to  spare  this  year.  We  also  sell  some  potatoes  and 
straw,  but  generally  the  crops  are  consumed  on  the  farm." 

The  Italian  rye  grass  has  had  none  but  liquid  manure,  and  has  been  cut 
three  or  four  times  during  the  summer  and  autumn.  The  crops  averaged 
from  2i  feet  to  3  feet  thick  each  cutting.  The  fourth  crop  from  one  piece 
was  weighed,  and  produced  10  tons  per  acre. 

That  was  the  least  of  the  crops  from  the  same  land,  but  the  whole  produce 
of  that  piece  was  above  the  average. 

Many  calves  are  sold,  but  the  value  of  the  young  stock  is  low  in  the  mar- 
ket, and  I  could  not  ascertain  the  sum  realised. 

From  50  to  60  pigs  are  killed  per  annum.  Some  few  are  sold  as  pork, 
but  the  greater  part  is  made  into  bacon.  The  average  weight  is  about  20 
stones  each,  and  the  bacon  sells  wholesale  at  7c?.,  and  the  hams  at  9d.  per 
pound. 

Two  hundred  gallons  of  milk  per  day,  on  the  average,  are  sold  to  New 
Brighton  and  Seacombe,  at  Is.  per  gallon. 

The  butter  averages  180  lbs.  per  week,  at  Is.  2d.  per  pound. 

Taking  the  bacon  and  hams  at  7id.  per  lb.,  on  the  average,  the  annual 
produce  of  the  farm  in  these  three  items  alone  is  as  follows  : — 


Bacon 

Milk 

Butter 


£  s.  d. 

481  5  0 

3,650  0  0 

546  0  0 

£4,677  5  0 


The  farms  occupied  by  Mr.  Littledale  and  Mr.  Neilson  are  ten  miles  from 
each  other,  in  a  district  very  favourable  for  agricultural  improvements,  and 
within  accessible  distance  from  an  immense  population. 

It  might  reasonably  have  been  expected,  therefore,  that  these  examples 
would  have  induced  a  spirit  of  emulation  throughout  the  district,  and 
that  steam  engines  and  liquid  manure  tanks,  &c.,  would  have  been  almost  as 
numerous  as  farms. 

I  made  enquiry  and  found,  that  although  the  modes  of  farming  have  im- 
proved within  the  last  ten  years,  there  is  still  very  little  of  what  is  called  high 
farming  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  farms  in  general  are  small,  and  few  are 
disposed  to  copy  the  examples  set  before  them  by  Mr.  Littledale  and  Mr. 
Neilson.  I  eould  only  hear  of  one  steam  engine,  five  miles  distant  from  Mr. 
Littledale's  farm,  used  for  any  agricultural  purpose. 


108 


On  Ventilation  by  the  Parlour  Fire. 


[May, 


ON  VENTILATION  BY  THE  PARLOUR  EIRE. 

By  William  Hosking,  Esq. 

Professor  of  Architecture  and  of  Engineering  Construction,  at  King's  College,  London. 

(Concluded  from  page  89.) 

The  mode  thus  indicated  of  increasing  the  effect  of  the  familiar  fire,  and 
making  it  subservient  to  the  important  function  of  free  and  wholesome  ven- 
tilation, is  not  to  be  taken  as  a  mere  suggestion,  and  now  for  the  first  time 
made.  It  has  been  in  effective  operation  for  six  or  seven  years,  and  is  found 
to  answer  well  with  the  simple  appliances  referred  to.  But  it  is  the  mode 
and  the  principle  of  action  that  it  is  desired  to  recommend,  and  not  the  ap- 
pliances, since  persons  more  skilled  in  mechanical  contrivances  than  the 
author  professes  to  be,  may  probably  be  able  to  devise  others  better  adapted 
to  the  purpose.* 

The  mode  referred  to  of  warming  and  ventilating  apartments  by  their 
own  fires  is  most  easy  of  application,  and  in  houses  of  all  kinds,  great  and 
small,  old  and  new,  and  as  the  warmth  derived  from  the  fire  in  any  case 
comes  directly  by  the  in-drafted  air,  as  well  as  by  radiation  of  heat  into  the 
air  of  the  apartment,  fuel  is  economized.  If  the  register  flap  be  made  to 
open  and  shut,  by  any  means  which  give  easy  command  over  it,  so  that  it 
may  be  opened  more  or  less  according  to  the  occasion,  and  this  be  attended 
to,  the  economy  will  be  assured ;  for  it  is  quite  unnecessary  to  leave  the  same 
space  open  over  the  fire  after  the  steam  and  smoke  arising  from  fresh  fuel  have 
been  thrown  off,  as  may  be  necessary  immediately  after  coaling.  The  open- 
ing by  the  register  valve  into  the  flue  may  be  reduced  when  the  smoke  has 
been  thrown  off,  so  as  to  check  the  draft  of  air  through  the  fire,  and  greatly 
to  increase  the  draft  by  the  upper  opening  into  the  flue,  to  the  advantage  of 
the  ventilation  and  to  the  saving  of  fuel,  while  the  heat  from  the  incandescent 
fuel  will  be  thereby  rather  increased  than  diminished. 

Moreover,  the  system  being  applicable  in  the  cottage  of  the  labourer,  as 
fully  and  easily  as  in  the  better  appointed  dwellings  of  those  who  need  not 
economize  so  closely  as  labouring  people  are  obliged  to  economize,  the 
warmed  air  about  the  grate  in  a  lower  room  may  be  conveyed  directly 
from  the  air-chamber  about  the  grate  by  a  metal  or  pot  pipe,  up  the 
chimney  flue,  and  be  delivered  in  any  upper  room  next  to  the  same  flue  and 
requiring  warmth  and  ventilation,  the  process  of  ventilation  applied  to  the 
lower  room  being  applicable  to  the  upper  ro  >m  also. 

The  indicated  means  by  which  winter  ventilation  is  obtained  are  not  of 
course  equally  efficient  in  summer,  for  the  draft  of  the  fire  is  wanting  ;  but 
the  inlet  at  the  low  level  for  fresh  air,  and  the  outlet  for  the  spent  air  at 
the  upper  level  continuing  always  open,  the  heat  which  the  flue  will  in  most 
cases  retain  through  the  summer,  aided  by  that  of  the  sun's  rays  upon  the 
chimney  top,  secures  a  certain  amount  of  up-draft,  which  is  not  without  its 
effect  upon  the  in-draft  by  the  lower  inlet,  even  when  windows  and  doors 
are  shut. 

While  it  is  obvious  that  the  air  drawn  into  any  house  fur  the  purpose  of 
in-door  ventilation  need  not  be  other  than  that  which  would  enter  by  the 
windows  of  the  same  house,  it  may  be  necessary  to  enter  into  an  inquiry  as 
to  the  condition  of  the  air  heretofore  spoken  of  as  fresh  and  pure.  "  Eresh" 
and  "  pure"  applied  to  air  must  be  taken  to  mean  the  freshest  and  purest 
immediately  obtainable,  and  that  will  be  the  same  whether  it  be  drawn  in 
through  a  grated  hole  in  a  wall,  or  by  a  glazed  opening  closed  by  it  in  the 
same  wall.  But  it  is  a  fair  subject  for  inquiry,  whether — speaking  in  London 
to  Londoners — the  air  about  our  houses  in  London  is  as  pure — or  as  free 
from  impurity — as  it  might  be. 

The  out-door  ventilation  of  large  towns  may  be  taken  to  be  more  complete 
above  the  tops  of  the  houses  and  of  their  chimneys  than  it  is,  or,  perhaps, 
can  be  among  and  about  the  houses.  The  processes  of  nature  are  there  not 
only  unchecked,  but  are  in  fact  aided  by  the  heat  thrown  up  by  the  chimneys 
into  the  upper  air,  and  impurities  which  can  be  passed  off  by  chimney  flues, 
will  be  more  certainly  and  more  effectually  removed  and  changed  by  Nature's 
chemistry,  than  if  they  are  kept  down  to  fester  under  foot  and  to  exhale  in 
our  streets  and  about  our  doors  and  windows. 

At  this  time  every  endeavour  is  made  to  provide  for  removing  from  our 
dwellings  all  excrementitious  matter,  and  all  soluble  refuse,  by  drains  into 

»  The  applian  ces  used  by  Mr.  Hosking  will  be  found  more  fully  described  in  his  "  Healthy 
Homes,"  published  by  Mr.  Murray. 


sewers,  and  so  by  the  sewers  to  some  outfall  for  discharge.  The  drain  ne- 
cessarily falls  towards  the  sewer,  and  the  sewer  again  to  its  outfall,  and  the 
sullage  or  soil  drainage  being  rendered  liquid  thus  passes  in  the  usual  course. 
But  the  usages  and  the  necessities  of  civilized  life  cause  a  large  proportion 
of  the  liquid  refuse  from  dwelling-houses  to  pass  off  in  a  heated  state,  or  to 
be  followed  by  hot  water  arising  from  culinary  processes,  and  from  washing 
in  all  its  varieties.  The  heat  so  entering  the  drains  causes  the  evolution  of 
fetid  and  noxious  gases  from  the  matters  which  go  with,  or  have  gone  before, 
the  hot  water;  and  with  these  gases  house-drains  almost  always,  and  sewers 
commonly,  stand  charged.  They  are  light  fluids,  and  do  not  go  down  with 
the  heavy  liquid  matters  from  which  they  have  been  evolved,  but  they  seek 
to  rise,  and  constantly  do  rise  in  almost  every  house  through  imperfections 
or  derangements  of  the  flaps  and  traps  which  are  intended  to  keep  them 
down,  but  which  only,  when  they  do  act,  compel  some  of  the  foul  air  to  enter 
the  sewers,  and  there  to  seek  outlet  to  the  upper  air,  which  they  find  by  the 
gulley  gratings  in  the  streets. 

It  can  hardly  be  said,  perhaps,  that  too  much  attention  has  been  given  of 
late  to  the  scour  of  sewers  by  water;  but  it  is  most  certain  that  too  little 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  consideration  last  stated,  for  nothing  has 
been  done  to  relieve  the  drains  and  sewers  of  their  worst  offence.  The  evo- 
lution of  foul  and  noxious  gases  in  the  drains  is  certainly  not  prevented  by 
scouring  the  sewers.  In  the  meantime  the  poison  exists  under  foot,  and 
exudes  at  every  pregnable  point  within  and  about  our  houses,  and  it  rises  at 
every  grating  in  our  streets,  though  the  senses  may  become  dull  to  them  by 
constant  suffering. 

Now,  this  is  an  evil  which  can  be  greatly  ameliorated,  if  it  cannot  indeed 
be  wholly  cured;  but  it  is  by  a  process  that,  to  be  effective,  must  be  general, 
and,  therefore,  it  must  be  added,  compulsory.  The  process  is  of  familiar  ap- 
plication in  the  ventilation  of  mines,  and  particularly  of  coal  mines.  An  up- 
cast shaft  containing  a  common  chimney -flue  carried  up  at  the  back  of  every 
house,  and  connected  with  the  house-drains  at  their  highest  level,  would  give 
vent  to  the  foul  air  in  the  drains,  and  discharge  it  into  the  upper  air.  The 
foul  air  evolved  by  heat  expands,  and  expanding  it  rises,  and  rising  it  would 
be  followed  by  cold  air  settling  down  by  the  gulley  gratings  in  the  streets, 
thus  constituting  their  inlets  downcast  shafts,  and  the  sewers  and  drains 
themselves  channels  for  the  currents  setting  to  the  up-cast  shafts,  by  which 
they  would  be  relieved.  The  down  draft  into  the  sewers  would  carry  with 
it  much  soot  and  fine  dust,  which  would  settle  upon  the  liquid  current  and 
pass  off  with  it,  and  so  remove  some  of  the  tangible  as  well  as  the  intangible 
impurities  before  referred  to,  from  the  air  in  our  streets  and  about  our 
houses. 

Much  in  this  way  might  be  effected  by  the  aid  of  causes  in  constant  opera- 
tion ;  but  if  the  upcast  shaft  to  every  house  were  also  a  fire-flue,  or  were  only 
aided  by  the  draft  of  a  neighbouring  fire,  the  up-current  would  be  sufficient 
not  only  to  prevent  the  house  drains  from  retaining  foul  air,  but  the  foul 
air  would  be  thrown  off  into  the  upper  air  with  better  effect,  and  be  dissi- 
pated innocuously  and  without  offtjnce,  instead  of  steaming  as  it  now  does 
from  the  sewers  into  the  air  where  it  cannot  be  avoided. 


REPORT  ON  SCREW  STEAM  BOATS,  EMPLOYED  ON  THE 

GRAND  CANAL. 

By  Sir  John  Macneill,  C.E.,  E.R.S.,  &c.  &c. 

(Concluded  from  p.  25.) 

No.  2  boat  was  built  at  the  Ringsend  Works,  and  the  engines  and 
machinery  were  made  and  put  into  her  by  Mr.  Inshaw,  of  Birmingham, 
who  has  constructed  several  steamboats  used  on  English  canals.  The 
length  of  this  boat  is  60  feet,  and  its  width  12  feet.  The  boiler  is  4  feet 
6  inches  in  diameter,  containing  48  tubes  of  2§  inches  diameter,  and 
6  feet  long;  the  cylinders  are  7  inches  in  diameter;  length  of  stroke 
18  inches,  and  calculated  to  make  120  strokes  per  minute,  the  pressure 
being  oOlbs.  The  boat  is  propelled  by  two  screws,  4  feet  pitch,  3  feet 
in  diameter,  and  2  feet  long,  placed  at  each  side  of  the  stern-post, 
worked  with  bevelled  gear  and  two-fold  multiphjing  power.  This 
principle  of  construction  appears  to  answer  very  much  better  than  that 
of  No.  2  Boat  with  one  screw,  for  it  is  capable  of  being  stopped,  and  the 


1852.] 


Report  on  Screw  Steam  Boats,  Employed  on  the  Grand  Canal. 


109 


motion  reversed,  with  much  greater  ease  than  the  other,  and  it  steers 
stern  foremost  almost  as  well  as  when  running  forward,  which  is  a  most 
important  and  essential  requisite  in  any  steam-boat  employed  in  canal 
traffic,  where  obstacles  and  interruptions  are  so  frequent,  and  which 
might  be  attended  with  danger,  if  the  power  of  reversing  was  not  easy 
and  effective;  in  this  respect  it  is  very  superior  to  the  boat  with  one 
screw,  which  does  not  steer  at  all  when  the  motion  is  reversed,  hut  runs 
direct  across  to  one  side  or  other,  according  to  the  position  of  the  boat 
at  the  moment  of  reversing.  This  boat  (No.  2),  was  engaged  by  the 
builders  to  carry  40  tons  gross,  to  be  furnished  with  engines  of  12-horse 
power  (nominal),  consisting  of  two  oscillating  cylinders,  and  a  tubular 
boiler,  with  feed-pipes  and  reversing  gear,  and  capable  of  going  with 
that  load  at  about  5  to  6  miles  per  hour,  and  of  propelling  itself  and 
another  boat  at  the  rate  of  about  3  Irish  miles,  or  3f  English  miles  per 
hour.  This  agreement  does  not,  however  state  what  load  the  boat  to 
be  propelled  or  towed  was  to  carry,  but  it  would  appear  to  be  the  same 
as  in  the  steam-boat,  that  is,  40  tons  gross.  By  the  experiments  made 
with  this  boat,  it  is  evident  that  she  falls  very  much  short  of  this  per- 
formance, for  with  41  tons  she  went  only  at  the  rate  of  3J  miles  per 
hour,  instead  of  5  to  6  miles ;  and  when  towing  a  boat  loaded  with 
52  tons,  she  went  at  a  rate  of  only  2^  miles  per  hour,  instead  of  3|. 
In  fact,  when  loaded  with  20  tons  only,  she  went  at  the  rate  of  4  miles 
only  per  hour ;  this  discrepancy  would  appear  to  arise  from  want  of 
power  in  the  engines,  for  it  does  not  appear  that  they  are  more  than 
b'-horse  power,  instead  of  12;  it  may,  however,  be  possible,  that  other 
circumstances,  connected  with  the  form  or  arrangement  of  the  screw, 
may  be  the  cause  of  the  want  of  speed,  but  want  of  power  in  the  engine 
is  the  most  apparent  defect.  Before,  however,  drawing  any  conclusion 
from  the  experiments  referred  to,  it  will  be  proper  to  describe  them. 
The  first  set  of  these  experiments  was  made  on  the  24th  April;  the 
weather  was  cold,  but  there  was  little  or  no  wind  to  affect  the  free 
movement  of  the  boats. 

First  Experiment,  24th  April,  1851,  was  made  with  steam-boat  No. 
2,  loaded  with  41  tons.  The  distance  of  half-a-mile  (measured),  was 
run  in  8'  25",  being  at  the  rate  of  3'56  miles  per  hour.  During  this 
experiment,  the  pressure  on  the  boiler  was  501bs.,  and  the  average 
number  of  strokes  was  102. 

Second  Experiment. — In  this  experiment,  the  boat  was  loaded  with 
41  tons  as  before,  and  a  barge  was  attached  to  it  by  a  tow  rope. 
This  barge  was  loaded  with  52  tons;  the  pressure  was  421bs.,  and  the 
average  number  of  strokes  per  minute  was  87.  The  same  distance  as 
before  was  run  in  13'  6",  or  at  the  rate  of  2"29  miles  per  hour. 

Third  Experiment. — In  this  experiment  two  barges  were  attached  to 
the  steam-boat ;  one  was  loaded  with  53  tons,  the  other  with  30  tons, 
besides  the  41  tons  in  the  steam-boat,  in  all  124  tons.  The  pressure 
on  the  boiler  was  501bs.,  as  in  the  first  experiment ;  and  the  average 
number  of  strokes  of  the  piston  was  98,  whilst  the  time  occupied  in 
passing  over  the  same  space  was  14'  40',  or  at  the  rate  of  2'05  miles 
per  hour. 

On  the  26th  April  the  following  experiments  were  made  with  the 
same  boat : — 

First  Experiment. — The  boat  was  loaded  with  20  tons,  the  pressure 
was  501bs.  on  the  safety-valve,  the  average  number  of  strokes  was  100 
per  minute,  and  the  same  distance  of  half-a-mile  was  run  in  7'  30'',  or 
at  the  rate  of  4'0  miles  per  hour. 

Second  Experiment. — In  this  experiment  one  barge,  loaded  with  50 
tons,  was  attached  to  the  steam  boat  loaded  with  20  tons ;  the  pressure 
as  before  was  501bs,  and  the  average  number  of  strokes  per  minute  was 
90^,  whilst  the  same  space  ran  over  required  12'  20",  or  at  the  rate  of 
2'43  miles  per  hour. 

Third  Experiment. — In  this  experiment  two  boats  loaded  with  50 
tons  each  were  attached  to  the  steam  boat  loaded  with  20  tons,  in  all 


120  tons  of  goods ;  the  pressure  was  501bs.,  the  average  number  of 
strokes  was  94,  and  the  space  was  passed  over  in  12'  55",  which  was  at 
the  rate  of  2-31  miles  per  hour. 

On  the  5th  of  May  the  following  experiments  were  made  with  No.  1 
steam  boat,  having  two  screw  propellers. — 

First  Experiment. — The  boat  was  loaded  with  20  tons  of  goods ;  the 
same  half  mile  distance  was  run  over  as  in  the  former  experiments  with 
No.  2  boat ;  the  pressure  was  45  lbs.,  the  number  of  strokes  averaged 
110  per  minute  ;  the  distance  was  run  in  6'  41",  which  was  at  the  rate 
of  4-49  miles  per  hour. 

Second  Experiment. — In  this  experiment  a  barge  carrying  50  tons 
was  attached  to  the  steam  boat,  which  was  loaded  with  20  tons ;  the 
pressure  was  49  lbs.  as  before ;  the  average  number  of  strokes  per 
minute  was  101,  and  the  time  was  9'  12",  which  was  at  the  rate  of  3-26 
miles  per  hour. 

Third  Experiment. — In  this  experiment  three  boats  were  attached  to 
the  steam  boat — one  was  loaded  with  50  tons,  the  second  with  27  tons, 
and  the  third  with  34  tons,  in  all  131  tons,  including  the  20  tons  in  the 
steam  boat ;  the  pressure  was  49  lbs,,  the  average  number  of  strokes 
per  minute  was  96,  and  the  time  occupied  was  10'  58",  which  was  at  the 
rate  of  2.73  miles  per  hour. 

One  fact,  but  certainly  a  most  important  one,  has  been  established  by 
these  experiments,  and  that  is,  that  a  very  much  greater  and  more  useful 
effect  is  produced  by  hauling  than  by  carrying.  This  fact  was  exempli- 
fied by  every  experiment  that  was  made,  though  it  was  more  apparent 
in  one  of  the  boats  than  the  other,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the 
experiments ;  it  also  appears  that  one  form  of  boat  and  machinery  is 
less  affected  in  speed  than  the  other  by  a  proportional  increase  of  weight 
hauled  than  carried ;  from  this  it  is  evident,  that  the  form  of  boat  and 
machinery  most  suitable  for  carrying  goods  will  differ  from  the  form  of 
boat  and  machinery  suitable  for  haulage.  The  barges  and  boats  on 
your  canal  are  much  too  large,  heavy  and  unwieldly;  they  are  a  heavy 
load  in  themselves,  and  require  considerable  power  to  move  them,  even 
at  a  slow  rate,  when  empty  ;  they  are  also  formed  as  if  they  were  to  be 
employed  as  sailing  barges,  similar  to  those  on  the  Thames  and  other 
rivers  :  this  is  a  very  great  mistake,  and  quite  unsuited  to  canal  naviga- 
tion. If  the  boats  were  built  60  feet  long,  6  feet  6  inches  wide,  with 
upright  sides,  and  upright  cornered  bows,  which  would  admit  two  of 
them  to  enter  a  lock  at  the  same  time,  a  great  amount  of  saving  would 
be  effected  on  your  canal  in  the  power  required  to  haul  such  boats,  as 
compared  with  those  now  in  use,  for  I  have  no  doubt  that  six  of  those 
boats  carrying  35  tons  each,  would  be  as  easily  hauled  as  two  of  the 
present  boats,  50  tons  each — or  in  the  ratio  of  210  to  100 — and  that 
such  a  steam  boat  as  No.  1,  at  present  in  use,  would  be  enabled  to  haul 
these  six  boats  carrying  210  tons  of  goods  at  the  rate  of  three  miles  an 
hour,  and  carry  at  the  same  time  20  tons  of  goods,  besides  the  210  tons 
hauled.  I  would,  therefore,  strongly  recommend  you  to  have  two  such 
boats  built,  and  if  you  found  that  the  saving  in  power  required  for 
hauling  was  what  I  have  stated,  it  would  be  judicious  to  have  all  new 
boats  built  on  the  same  plan.  I  am  well  aware  that  it  is  very  difficult 
to  get  parties  long  accustomed  to  a  particular  form  of  boat  or  carriage  to 
adopt  a  different  one ;  but  I  am  convinced  the  advantages  of  the  light 
and  narrow  boat  would  be  so  apparent,  that  it  would  in  a  short  time  be 
universally  used  in  canals  in  this  country,  as  such  boats  are  at  present 
used  in  most  of  the  canals  in  England  and  Scotland ;  and  in  any  future 
engines  that  may  be  ordered  for  your  canal,  I  would  recommend  that 
the  fire-box  should  be  made  as  large  as  the  construction  of  the  boat  will 
admit  of,  and  that  the  draught  up  the  flue  be  as  moderate  as  possible, 
as  more  suitable  to  a  turf  fire  than  one  of  coke,  for  there  cannot  be  a 
doubt  but  turf  or  peat  fuel  will  answer  every  purpose  of  working  steam 
boats  on  the  canal,  and  will  be  very  much  cheaper  than  either  coal  or 
coke.  My  replies  to  the  queries  put  to  me  will  form  the  subject  of  a 
further  report,  which  shall  be  submitted  with  as  little  delay  as  in  my 
power. 

(Signed)  JOHN  MACNEILL. 

Mount  Pleasant,  Dundalk,  2\st  July,  1852. 

15 


110 


Notes  by  a  Practical  Chemist — Correspondence. 


[May, 


NOTES  BY  A  PRACTICAL   CHEMIST. 


Remarks  on  Drinkable  Waters. — 1.  The  physical  and  chemi- 
cal constitution  of  these  waters  varies  continually. 

2.  When  the  temperature  is  highest,  the  density  of  the  water  is  also 
most  considerable. 

3.  The  water  of  the  ocean  contains  chloride  of  lithium  and  .0092 
gramme  of  iodide  of  sodium  per  quart;  but  no  trace  of  nitrates,  although 
these  salts  are  poured  abundantly  into  the  sea  by  the  currents  of  fresh 
water  flowing  into  it.  The  cause  of  this  singular  phenomenon  is  due 
to  two  reactions: — 1st,  by  the  reductive  action  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
excreted  by  various  mollusca,  the  nitric  acid  of  these  salts  is  transformed 
into  ammonia  and  water;  2nd,  under  the  influence  of  the  respiration  of 
fish  a  similar  phenomenon  is  manifested,  yielding  likewise  an  ammo- 
niacal  product.  The  ammonia  thus  formed  is  eliminated  again  from 
the  water  as  ammonio-phosphate  of  magnesia,  found  in  the  mud  of 
seas  and  rivers. 

4.  Rain  and  snow-waters  generally  contain  traces  of  all  the  mineral- 
izing agents  of  sea-water.  The  former  retain  always  some  traces  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen. 

5.  The  waters  of  the  ante-diluvian  soils  generally  contain  lithia  and 
phosphates,  as  well  as  fluorides,  from  the  decomposition  of  mica. 

6.  Waters  from  lime  soils  contain  traces  of  ferruginous  matter,  often 
accompanied  with  carbonate  of  magnesia. 

8.  Iodine  and  bromine  are  found,  except  under  some  peculiar  circum- 
stances, in  all  natural  waters.  We  can  easily  recognize  their  presence 
even  in  rain  and  snow-water. 

9.  These  two  bodies  may  be  withdrawn  from  water  by  the  action  of 
vegetables. 

10.  Endemic  goitre  and  cretinism  are  due  not  to  the  use  of  calcareous, 
magnesian,  or  selenious  water,  but  to  the  more  or  less  complete  absence 
of  these  elements,  withdrawn  from  the  waters  by  the  plants  whose  roots 
they  have  bathed.  These  diseases  do  not  appear  as  endemics  save  in  coun- 
tries whose  drinkable  waters  wash  a  great  number  of  plants. 

11.  In  cities,  the  watering  of  streets  during  times  of  choleraic  epi- 
demics should  be  prohibited. 

Decolorizing  Power  of  the  Charcoal  and  other  Bodies. 
— M.  Filhol  has  shown  that  charcoal  is  not  the  only  elementary  body 
possessing  the  property  of  decolorizing  liquids ;  sulphur,  arsenic,  and 
iron,  as  reduced  from  the  hydrated  peroxide  by  hydrogen,  possess  this 
property.  The  number  of  compound  bodies  endowed  with  an  appreci- 
able decolorizing  power  is  much  greater  than  has  been  supposed,  and 
depends  much  more  on  the  state  of  division  of  these  bodies  than  on 
their  chemical  qualities.  A  certain  body  which  easily  appropriates  one 
colouring  matter  may  have  very  little  tendency  to  remove  another ; 
thus,  bone,  phosphate  of  lime  (artificially  obtained),  with  difficulty  de- 
colours sulphindigotate  of  soda,  whilst  it  acts  on  tincture  of  litmus  more 
energetically  than  animal  black.  The  decoloration  is,  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  a  purely  physical  phenomenon.  Thus,  the  same  colouring 
matter  is  absorbed  by  metalloids,  metals,  acids,  bases,  salts,  and  organic 
substances ;  besides,  it  is  easy,  by  means  of  suitable  solvents,  to  pro- 
cure the  colour  unaltered  from  the  body  by  which  they  have  been 
absorbed. 

Magnesia  as  Antidote  to  Copper. — Calcined  magnesia  com- 
pletely arrests  the  symptoms  of  poisoning  by  sulphate  of  copper  when 
administered  sufficiently  early.  The  dose  required  is  at  least  8  parts  of 
the  antidote  to  1  of  the  sulphate.  As  the  magnesia  behaves  towards 
other  salts  of  copper  as  it  does  to  the  sulphate,  it  is  very  probable  that 
it  will  serve  as  an  antidote  to  all  the  salts  of  copper. 

answers  to  correspondents. 
"  Z.  A.  Bolton."     It  is  not  our  opinion  that  the  fibre  of  cotton  un- 
dergoes any  chemical  alteration  in  Mercer's  process.     If  such  were  the 


case,  although  it  might  render  some  colours  more  brilliant,  how  could  \t 
act  favourably  upon  all?  Many  practical  men  of  our  acquaintance 
suppose  that  the  cotton  fibre  is  merely  split  up  into  fine  filaments  by 
the  action  of  the  soda,  and  by  thus  reflecting  light  from  a  greater  num- 
ber of  points,  it  gives  increased  lustre  to  any  superinduced  colour.  Our 
correspondent  is  of  course  aware  that  if  a  piece  of  cotton  velvet  and  one 
of  calico  are  passed  through  the  same  vats,  the  former,  from  the  differ- 
ent mechanical  state  of  its  fibre,  will  appear  far  more  brilliant. 
"  Mr.  J.  Edwards."     Your  sample  has  not  been  received. 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


ON  THE  LOSS  OF  THE  BIRKENHEAD. 
To  the  Editor  of  the  Artizan. 
Sir — I  beg  to  hand  you  extracts  from  my  letters  to  the  Admiralty, 
which  will,  I  think,  require  no  comment  on  my  part. 

To  Sir  Francis  Baring,  on  sending  the  '  Birkenheud '  to  sea  with  troops 
in  her  dangerous  state,  April  2lst,  1851. 
"  Every  disinterested  person  acquainted  with  the  merits  of  the  subject, 
must  be  aware  that  the  slightest  accident  is  liable  to  send  the  Birkenhead  to 
the  bottom  with  all  on  board  at  the  shortest  notice,  and  that  the  water-tight 
compartments  with  which  she  is  fitted,  will  afford  but  a  slender  chance  of 
keeping  her  from  foundering  in  the  ocean  before  it  be  possible  to  take 
effectual  steps  to  save  the  crew  and  troops  from  the  fate  to  which  you  have 
thought  proper  to  expose  them ;  and,  as  I  observed  but  a  few  weeks  since, 
you  only  can  be  considered  responsible  for  the  ill  fated  catastrophe,  should 
it  unfortunately  occur." 

I  objected  to  iron  ships  in  their  present  unfinished  state  the  moment 
I  inspected  the  first  ship,  and  considered  they  would  not  be  made  safe 
without  an  impervious  ceiling ;  but  the  Admiralty  refused  to  attend  to 
me.  After  this  the  bulkhead  system  was  introduced,  but  I  could  not 
admit  that  it  was  a  sufficient  protection,  and  experience  fully  bears 
me  out  in  that  opinion ;  still,  up  to  this  moment,  iron  ship  builders 
continue  to  act  upon  it. 

My  patent  embraces  the  building  of  iron  ships  in  various  ways,  to 
add  security  and  strength,  and  I  feel  assured  will  not  add  much,  if 
any,  to  the  present  expense. 

I  propose  to  ceil  them  throughout,  or  in  part,  and  to  make  the 
engine  room  of  steamers  a  perfect  safety  chamber  without  reducing 
its  capacity.  I  have  also  safety  holds  or  cabins,  which  it  will  be  im- 
possible for  the  water  to  break  into  ;  of  sufficient  capacity  to  keep  the 
vessel  afloat,  should  all  the  other  parts  of  her  get  filled  with  water ; 
and  should  the  vessel  break  to  pieces,  these  safety  holds  or  cabins  are 
so  constructed  that  they  will  separate  from  the  vessel  without  danger, 
and  form  a  complete  vessel  for  the  crew  to  take  shelter  in.  They  are 
light,  buoyant  and  strong,  and  will  add  strength  to  the  whole  fabric, 
and  be  perfectly  capable  of  carrying  all  that  is  necessary  in  the  event 
of  danger  ;  and  should  the  vessel  wreck  on  rocks,  they  will  carry  the 
crew,  by  their  buoyancy  and  strength,  nearer  the  shore  to  escape.  I 
beg  again  to  observe  the  expense  of  those  fittings  will  not  amount  to 
any  thing  great ;  and  such  vessels  so  fitted,  may  be  insured  at  a  less 
rate  than  other  vessels,  which  will  more  than  compensate  for  the 
original  building. 

I  am,  Sir,  your  obedient  Servant, 

JOHN  POAD  DRAKE. 
St.  Austell,  April,  1852. 

METALLIC  PACKING. 
To  the  Editor  of  the  Artizan. 
Sir, — Seeing  in  your  last  number  a  plate  and  description  of  a  metallic 
packing,  patented  in  this  country  by  C.  W.  Copeland,  of  the  United  States' 
navy,  I  enclose  a  lithograph  of  a  metallic  packing  invented  by  me  in  1848, 
and  now  in  extensive  use.  I  have  varied  the  design  according  to  circum- 
stances.   In  some  instances  the  matrix  or  conical  piece  forms  the  bush. 


1852.] 


The  Steam  Frigate  Birkenhead. 


Ill 


In  the  "  Albion,"  locomotive  engine,  it  was  £  inch  less  than  the  inside  of  the 
gland,  as  shown,  "  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  the  packing  to  move  to  suit 
any  irregularity  in  the  parallel  motion."  In  others,  the  cone  and  rings  were 
inverted,  the  former  being  bored  out  of  the  gland,  and  the  latter  resting  upon 
the  bush.  The  rings  were  in  some  cases  cut  square  across,  in  others  diago- 
nally, and  always  placed  to  break  joint. 

I  have  tried  numerous  compositions  of  metals  for  packing  rings,  and  find 
pure  tin  the  best. 

I  do  not  often  protrude  myself  before  the  public,  and  therefore  I  cannot 
let  this  opportunity  pass  without  recording  that  the  volute  springs,  as  pa- 
tented by  Baillie,  and  the  conical  springs,  patented  by  Brown,  were  both 
invented  by  me  in  1845,  or  1846,  and  applied  as  engine -buffers,  and  are  no 
doubt  still  in  existence  as  such. 

Trusting  you  will  give  this  letter  and  sketch  in  your  next  publication, 

I  am  Sir,  yours,  &c. 

Thos.  Hunt. 

London  and  North  Western  Bailway, 
Preston,  April  8th,  1852. 

[We  have  not  engraved  the  diagram  of  the  packing  which  Mr.  Hunt  has 
forwarded  to  us,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  is  exactly  similar  in  principle 
to  Mr.  Copeland's.  The  present  is  another  example,  in  addition  to  those 
which  we  every  day  experience,  of  the  way  in  which  inventors  sacrifice  their 
own  interests  and  those  of  the  mechanical  world  at  large,  by  not  publishing 
their  plans  as  soon  as  matured.  We  have  no  doubt  that  there  are  some  hun- 
dreds of  our  readers  in  a  similar  predicament,  and  yet  who  will  not  muster 
up  sufficient  courage  to  put  pen  to  paper. — Ed.] 

PRESERVATION  OF  THE  CRYSTAL  PALACE. 

My  Dear  Sie, — As  one  of  the  objections  to  the  permanent  establishment 
of  the  Crystal  Palace,  as  a  place  of  refined  amusement,  recreation,  and  in- 
tellectual culture  to  all  classes,  is  the  great  cost  of  maintaining  it,  I  beg  to 
give  you  somewhat  more  in  detail  and  with  slight  additions,  the  items  of  an 
estimated  annual  revenue  which  I  addressed  to  you  as  long  ago  as  last  July, 
when  I  formed  those  opinions  which  I  have  since  had  the  pleasure  of  partici- 
pating with  you  of  the  great  public  utility  to  which  this  splendid  creation  of 
yours  might  be  devoted. 

Assuming  that  the  general  arrangements  of  the  interior  would  be  a  large 
conservatory,  with  walks,  fountains,  plants,  and  shrubs  that  would  live  in  a 
low  temperature,  collections  of  mineralogy,  botany,  geology,  architectural 
models,  designs  of  various  kinds  to  interest  and  instruct  all  classes  of  visitors; 
to  which  might  be  added  schools  of  design,  lecture  rooms,  collections  of  in- 
ventions and  mechanical  improvements  by  ingenious  artizans — I  am  of  opinion 
that  the  following  schedule  represents  by  no  means  an  exaggerated  estimate 
of  the  sum  which  might  be  derived  from  the  CyrstalPalace  annually : — 

Estimate  of  Revenue. 

If  the  outer  division  of  the  parallelogram  was  devoted  to  £      s.     d 

equestrians,  having  a  light  railing  dividing  it  from  the 
rest  of  the  building,  I  propose  that  all  parties  having  the 
privilege  of  riding  there,  should  pay  one  guinea  annually, 
and  that  there  may  be  800  subscribers      . .  . .  . .  840     0    0 

All  persons  desirous  of  having  the  entree  to  the  rest  of  the 
building  every  day  in  the  year  (Sunday  included)  should 
have  tickets  of  admission  at  £1  Is.  A  register  to  be  kept  of 
their  names  and  residences;  and  the  General  Board  of 
Management  to  determine  as  to  their  eligibility.  I  expect 
from  this  source  10,000  subscribers,  representing            ..       10,500     0    0 
Note. — Viewing  the  success  of  the  Horticultural,  Botani- 
cal, and  Zoological  Societies,  where  to  become  a  member,  it 
is  necessary  to  be  proposed,  seconded,  balloted  for,  and  pay 
a  large  entrance  fee,  I  think  the  foregoing  item  (divested  of 
those  formalities)  is  not  over  estimated. 
I  propose  that  Monday  and  Tuesday  in  each  week  be  de- 
voted to  the  working  classes,  who  shall  visit  the  whole  of 
the  building  on  payment  of  3d.  each.    I  estimate  5,000 
daily 6,500    0    0 


Wednesday  and  Thursday  should  be  devoted  to  visitors  at 
6d.  each.    I  estimate  on  each  of  these  days  5,000  . .      13,000    0    0 

Eriday  Is.,  say  5,000 13,000    0    0 

Saturday  2s.  6d.  each,  on  which  day  there  might  be  musical 
entertainments,  or  other  attractions  calculated  for  the 
upper  classes,  5,000  each  day        . .         . .  . .  . .      32,500     0     0 


76,340     0     0 


Other  sources  of  profit  might  be  made  available  from  the 
privilege  of  selling  refreshments,  say  annually     . .  . .         1,000     0     0 

For  placing  statuary  or  works  of  art,  1,000  objects  at  Is. 
each  per  week  2,600    0    0 

£79,940    0     0 

The  foregoing  estimate  may  be  considered  rough  and  inaccurate,  but  it 
may  lead  to  the  question  being  minutely  investigated,  and  brought  to  prac- 
tical working,  if  we  are  fortunate  enough  to  preserve  the  building  from  the 
destruction  that  awaits  it. 

I  remain,  my  dear  Sir,  yours  very  truly, 

BENJAMIN  OLIVEIRA. 
Sir  Joseph  Paxton. 
London,  5th  April,  1852,  8,  Upper  Hyde  Parh-street. 


THE  STEAM  FRIGATE  BIRKENHEAD.— IRON    VERSUS 
WOOD. 

(From  the  Liverpool  Albion.) 
The  Birkenhead  was  constructed  (under  the  immediate  inspection  of  Mr. 
G.D.  Banes,  of  Chatham  Dockyard)  of  great  strength  in  thickness  of  plates 
and  size  of  frames,  &c,  as  the  following  statement  of  the  comparative  weight 
of  the  hulls  of  several  large  steam  frigates  conclusively  shows,  oak  and  teak- 
built  vessels,  such  as  those  the  comparison  is  made  with,  being  generally 
much  heavier  than  iron  vessels  : — 


Name. 

Builder. 

Iron  or 

Tonnage, 

Weight  of  Hull 

Wood. 

10.  Rule. 

when  launched. 

Birkenhead 

Laird 

Iron 

1,400 

903  tons. 

Megsera       

Fairbairn  ... 

Iron 

1,395 

743     „ 

Vulcan        

Mare 

Iron 

1,764 

1,000     „ 

Terrible       

Dockyard  ... 

Wood 

1,850 

1,130     „ 

Sampson      

Ditto 

Wood 

1,299 

730     „ 

Retribution 

Ditto 

Wood 

1,641 

1,217     „ 

Mozuffer      

E.  India  Co. 

Wood 

1,440 

991     „ 

by  Messrs.  G.  Forrester  and  Co.,  and  left  this  port  in  1846,  and  on  her  pas- 
sage to  Plymouth  was  reported  by  the  officer  in  charge  to  have  made  12  to 
13  knots  on  her  passage  round.  She  was  at  this  time  in  fair  trim,  not  being 
fitted  with  the  heavy  poop  and  forecastle  afterwards  added  to  increase  her 
accommodation  as  a  troopship.  For  some  time  she  was  laid  up,  but  eventu- 
ally commissioned  by  Captain  Ingram,  and  employed  in  various  ways  on 
the  coasts  of  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,  and  towed  the  Great  Britain 
from  Dundrum  Bay  to  Liverpool.  Her  next  employment  was  carrying 
troops  to  the  Channel  Islands,  Lisbon,  &c,  which  services  she  was  consi- 
dered to  have  performed  very  satisfactorily,  making  some  remarkably  quick 
runs.  She  was  commissioned  in  1850  by  Commander  Salmond,  and  has 
since  been  to  Halifax,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  &c.;  her  last  run  from  Halifax 
to  Woolwich  was  made  in  13£  days,  with  a  large  number  of  troops  on  board, 
and,  by  a  judicious  arrangement  of  only  working  one  boiler  and  the  engines 
expansively,  Captain  Salmond  was  enabled  to  steam  long  distances  with  a 
very  small  expenditure  of  fuel. 

Her  speed  may  be  best  tested  by  her  passage  to  the  Cape  last  year,  with 
troops,  as  contrasted  with  other  vessels  in  the  navy  sent  on  similar  service  :— 

Birkenhead  . .  . .  45  days. 

Vulcan 

Retribution 

Siclon.. 

Cyclops 
And  her  return  home  in  October  was  made  in  37  days,  including  stoppages. 


56 
65 
64 
59 


112 


Notes  on  Recent  English  Patents. 


[May, 


Her  last  passage  out  occupied  47  days,  having  left  last  January,  during  very 
bad  weather.  The  Megaera,  that  sailed  about  the  same  time,  had  been  54 
days  out,  and  had  not  arrived  when  the  last  Cape  mail  left. 

On  the  whole,  her  performances  prove  her  to  have  been  the  fastest,  most 
carrying,  and  comfortable  vessel  in  Her  Majesty's  service  as  a  troop-ship, 
and  one  that  could  be  fully  relied  on,  both  in  hull  and  machinery.  The 
Admiralty  appear  to  have  taken  every  precaution  to  keep  her  in  efficient 
condition,  as  she  was  docked  on  her  return  from  the  Cape  in  October,  1851, 
and  her  hull  examined  and  reported  in  perfect  order  ;  her  machinery  was 
improved  with  a  view  of  economizing  fuel;  and,  on  her  trial  at  Spithead, 
after  this  refit,  she  made,  with  400  tons  of  coal,  60  tons  of  water,  and  four 
months'  stores  on  board,  fully  10  knots  per  hour. 

All  accounts  from  the  survivors  of  the  Birkenhead's  melancholy  loss  agree 
in  one  respect,  that  the  cause  of  the  accident  was  striking  upon  a  sharp- 
pointed  rock,  going  at  a  speed  through  the  water  of  eight  and  a  half  knots; 
and  when  we  consider  that  her  weight  or  displacement  at  her  load  draught, 
as  a  troop-ship,  was  upwards  of  2,000  tons,  the  effect  of  such  a  blow  may  be 
readily  imagined.  The  Birkenhead  was  divided  into  eight  water-tight  com- 
partments, by  athwartship  bulkheads;  and  the  engine-room  was  subdivided 
by  two  longitudinal  bulkheads  into  four  additional  compartments,  forming 
the  coal-bunkers;  making  in  all  12  water-tight  sections. 

The  first  blow  (from  the  description  of  Captain  Wright  and  other  sur- 
vivors) evidently  ripped  open  the  compartment  between  the  engine-room 
and  fore-peak,  and  to  such  an  extent  that  the  water  instantaneously  filled  it, 
as  stated  by  the  engineer,  Mr.  Renwick;  and  the  next  blow  stove  in  the 
bilge  of  the  vessel  in  the  engine-room,  thus  filling  the  two  largest  compart- 
ments in  the  vessel  in  four  or  five  minutes  after  she  struck.  Had  she  been  a 
wooden  vessel,  or  not  built  in  compartments,  she  must  have  gone  down,  like 
Her  Majesty's  steam-frigate  Avenger,  in  five  minutes  after  she  first  struck. 
As  it  was,  the  buoyancy  of  the  after  compartment  alone  was  the  means  of 
giving  time  to  get  the  boats  out  and  saving  most  of  those  who  were  rescued 
from  death. 

Eventually  the  long  swell,  and  at  least  1,000  tons  weight  of  machinery, 
coals,  &c,  amidships,  acting  against  the  buoyancy  of  the  after  division, 
caused  her  to  break  off  as  described,  and  sink  in  deep  water.  The  case 
appears  to  be  parallel  with  the  Orion's,  the  sides  and  bilge  having  in  both 
instances  been  ripped  open  in  the  forward  and  engine-room  compartment. 

The  case  of  the  Nemesis  striking  on  the  rocks  off  St.  Ives,  10  or  12  years 
ago,  was  somewhat  similar,  excepting  that  she  ran  stem  on,  and  conse- 
quently only  damaged  her  fore-foot,  and  admitted  the  water  into  her  fore- 
most small  compartments. 

Many  other  accidents  have  happened,  proving  the  vast  superiority  of  iron 
vessels  in  cases  of  grounding,  and,  in  proof  of  this  we  may,  in  conclusion, 
quote  the  evidence  given  by  Mr.  A.  F.  B.  Creuze,  Chief-Surveyor  of  Lloyd's, 
before  the  Committee  on  Army  and  Navy  Estimates  of  1848 : — 

"  Are  there  any  points  in  which,  in  your  opinion,  iron  has  an  advantage 
over  wood  as  a  material  for  building  ships? — It  has,  from  the  before-men- 
tioned reasoning,  the]  advantage  of  greater  lightness  combined  with  the 
same  quantity  of  strength,  or  more  strength  combined  with  equal  lightness  ; 
you  may  consequently  build  a  better  formed  ship  of  iron ;  you  may  take 
advantage  of  its  comparative  lightness  to  build  a  ship  of  a  better  form.  The 
expense  of  the  repair  of  iron  is  exceedingly  trifling  compared  with  the 
expense  of  the  repair  of  wood,  and  the  facilities  for  repair  extraordinary. 
There  are  two  or  three  remarkable  instances  of  this  on  record.  There  is  the 
Nemesis,  one  of  the  vessels  of  which  I  spoke,  which  went  out  to  China. 
When  she  was  passing  round  the  Cape  she  encountered  a  gale  of  wind,  and 
she  literally  split  down  ;  she  was  run  on  shore  and  repaired  by  her  crew  in  a 
very  short  space  of  time,  and  went  to  sea  again,  and  they  went  with  her 
direct  to  the  China  war.  The  Phlegethon  ran  on  a  rock ;  she  knocked  a 
hole  in  her  bottom  that  was  12  feet  in  length.  I  saw  a  letter  from  the  com- 
mander to  say  he  could  walk  in  and  out  of  it.  In  10  days  she  was  repaired 
and  fit  for  all  purposes  by  the  crew  alone.  That  would  have  been  perfectly 
impossible  with  a  timber-built  ship.  The  Nemesis  ran  upon  a  rock  off  the 
Scilly  Islands  in  going  from  Liverpool  to  Odessa ;  she  put  into  Portsmouth  ; 
she  had  knocked  a  hole  in  her  stem  ;  she  was  repaired  at  an  expense  of  £30, 
though  Mr.  Laird  had  to  send  for  the  workmen  from  Liverpool  to  do  so. 


"  If  a  wooden  vessel  had  struck  in  the  same  way,  do  you  think  she  would 
have  gone  down? — Decidedly  so." 

Details  of  the  Birkenhead,  as  given  by  Mr.  Laird,  will  be  found  in  the 
Artizan  for  1849,  p.  103. 

J.  AND  K.  WHITE'S  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  SHIP  BUILDING. 

Messrs.  J.  and  Pi.  White,  the  eminent  ship  builders,  of  Medina 
docks,  Cowes,  have  lately  obtained  a  patent  for  an  improvement  in 
the  build  of  vessels,  on  what  is  familiarly  called  the  "bread-and-butter 
system,"  that  is,  where  the  frame  timbers  are  dispensed  with,  and  the 
planking  laid  diagonally  in  three  thicknesses.  Some  of  our  finest  ves- 
sels, such  as  the  Banshee,  by  Oliver  Lang,  are  built  on  this  plan. 
Some  difficulty,  however,  is  experienced,  from  the  necessity,  in  the 
ordinary  arrangement,   shown  in  fig.  1,  of  bending  the  planks  under 


Fig.  1. 

the  floor  timbers,  at  the  stem  and  stern  of  the  vessel,  where  the  floor 
rises  and  the  angle  is  more  acute.  Messrs.  White  propose  to  overcome 
this  by  not  carrying  the  planking  round  the  vessel,  but  by  rabbetting 
the  ends  into  the  keel,  as  shown  in  fig  2.      It  will  be  understood  that 


Fig.  2. 

the  two  inner  thicknesses  of  plank  are  crossed  diagonally,  and  the 
outer  one  laid  longitudinally. 

An  important  addition  to  the  strength  of  the  vessel  is  gained  by  the 
arrangement  of  keel  in  fig.  2,  by  its  being  so  much  deeper,  and  being 
better  secured  ;  whereas  in  fig.  1  it  is  merely  a  shallow  piece,  unsup- 
ported, and  liable  to  be  carried  away. 

The  advantages  of  the  "  bread-and-butter  system "  ("  Sandwich 
system,"  we  would  suggest  as  a  better  title)  are — that  greater  internal 
capacity  is  obtained,  by  10  to  20  per  cent.,  with,  of  course,  greater 
buoyancy,  greater  strength  from  the  more  perfect  combination  of  the 
materials,  and  greater  durability  and  facility  of  repair. 

NOTES  ON  BECENT  ENGLISH  PATENTS. 
Timothy  Kenrick,  of  Edgbaston,  near  Birmingham,  ironfounder,  for  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  wrought-iron  tubes.  Sept.  4,  1851. 
These  improvements  consist  in  glazing  wrought-iron  pipes,  for  which  two 
compositions  are  used.  The  body  is  composed  of  calcined  flints,  borax,  and 
potter's  clay,  ground  up  with  water,  which  is  applied  in  a  liquid  state  to  the 
whole  of  the  interior  of  the  tube.  A  surface  glaze  or  enamel  is  then  applied, 
in  the  form  of  powder,  and  the  tube  exposed  to  heat  sufficient  to  vitrify  the 
glaze.  Cast-iron  pipes  having  been  already  glazed,  the  patentee  only  claims 
its  application  to  wrought  iron. 

Gail  Borden,  of  Texas,  for  improvements  in  the  treatment  of  certain  animal 
and  vegetable  substances,  to  render  them  more  convenient  for  use  as  articles 
of  food,  and  for  their  better  preservation.     Sept.  5,  1851. 


1852.] 


Recent  American  Patent?. 


113 


The  patentee's  process  is  to  extract  all  the  nutriment  in  the  meat  by  boiling, 
and  then  to  evaporate  it  to  the  consistence  of  treacle,  in  which  state  it  is 
mixed  with  flour  or  powdered  biscuit,  into  a  dough,  which  undergoes  the 
usual  processes  of  biscuit  making  and  baking.  The  biscuits  are  to  be  kept  in 
air-tight  cases,  and,  when  used,  only  require  boiling  in  hot  water,  with  the 
addition  of  salt,  &c. 

Baron  Wedderstedt,  for  improvements  in  preserving  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances.    Sept.  4,  1851. 

In  this  case,  the  inventor  desiccates  the  meat  only,  by  cutting  it,  freed 
from  bone  and  fat,  into  small  pieces,  and  exposing  it,  mixed  with  flour,  to  a 
temperature  rising  from  70°  to  120°.  When  dry,  the  meat  is  to  be  packed  in 
air-tight  cases. 

Canvass  and  similar  fabrics  are  proposed  to  he  preserved  from  decay,  by 
rubbing  into  them  a  mixture  of  lime  and  resin  in  hot  water.  The  canvass  is 
also  to  be  treated  with  a  mixture  of  sperm  and  linseed  oil. 

RECENT  AMERICAN  PATENTS. 
For  an  improvement  in  ships'  winches ;  Thomas  G.  Boone,  Brooklyn,  New 

York,  October  21. 

"  The  nature  of  my  invention  consists  in  the  investing  of  the  power  of  the 
lowering  motion  of  one  load  or  burden,  so  as  to  make  it  aid  in  the  hoisting 
of  another;  thereby  greatly  facilitating  the^loading  and  unloading  of  shipping, 
making  the  labour  easier  and  the  despatch  greater." 

Claim, — "  Having  described  my  invention,  its  mod*  of  construction  and 
operation,  I  do  not  claim  the  rigging  of  a  winch  or  windlass  with  counter- 
falls,  for  the  hoisting  and  lowering  of  burdens  on  the  counterpoise  principle, 
at  whatever  relative  distance  of  hoisting  and  lowering  it  may  be  fixed,  simply 
as  such. 

"  But  I  claim  the  combination,  in  a  ship's  winch,  of  the  principle  of  ad- 
justability with  the  principle  of  counterpoise,  whereby  I  am  enabled  to  vary 
the  relative  distances  of  the  hoisting  to  that  of  the  lowering  motion,  so  as  to 
adapt  its  action  to  various  changes  of  the  relative  distances  of  the  hoisting  to 
that  of  the  lowering,  as  required  in  the  lading  and  unlading  of  vessels. 

"  I  claim  also  therewith,  the  principle  of  using  a  hoisting  in  connexion 
with  a  lowering  fall,  so  that  the  burden  is  hoisted  by  one  fall,  and  lowered 
by  the  other,  instead  of  interchanging  the  falls  ;  so  that  each  load  or  parcel 
is  both  raised  and  lowered  by  the  same  fall,  as  has  been  practised  in  other 
counterpoise  machines,  by  which  means  my  winch  is  mere  convenient  to  use 
than  it  would  otherwise  be,  when  the  hoisting  and  lowering  distances  are 
dissimilar. 

"  2nd,  I  claim  a  fall,  or  chain  and  hook,  suspended  over  the  deck  or  scaffold, 
working  as  a  suspension  chain  and  medium  of  transfer  from  the  hoisting  to 
the  lowering  fall  of  a  ship's  winch,  whereby  I  am.  enabled,  as  described,  to 
transfer  packages  or  burdens,  in  sling,  from  the  hoisting  to  the  lowering  fall, 
without  re-slinging  or  otherwise  resting  them." 
For  an  improvement  in  pianoforte  strings;  Henry  J.  Newton,  City  of  New 

York,  October  21. 

"My  invention  consists  simply  in  coating  the"  smaller  strings  of  pianos 
with  silver,  in  any  of  the  usual  ways,  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  tone, 
at  the  same  time  protecting  them  from  the  rusting  action  of  the  atmosphere." 

Claim. — "  1  do  not  claim  as  my  invention  simply  the  application  of  silver 
to  the  strings  of  pianos,  for  the  purpose  stated,  as  that  has  before  been  done 
by  wrapping  the  strings  with  silver  wire  ;  but  when  wrapped  with  wire,  are 
liable  to  rattle  when  struck  with  the  hammers  ;  but  what  I  do  claim  as  my 
invention  is,  coating  the  smaller  strings  of  pianos  with  silver,  or  an  alloy 
thereof,  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  tone,  and  preventing  the  rusting  of 
the  strings,  substantially  as  specified." 

STEAM  MARINE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.* 
At  the  last  session  of  Congress,  the  Senate,  by  resolution,  directed  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  collect  and  report  statistics,  exhibiting  officially 
the  external  and  internal  Steam  marine  of  the  United  States.  William  D. 
Galiagher,  Esq.,  was  commissioned  to  obtain  the  inland,  and  Professor  E. 
D.  Mansfield  the  external ;  and  most  faithfully  and  ably  have  they  discharged 
the  arduous  duty.  The  aggregate  results  far  exceed,  in  magnitude  and 
importance,  the  most  extravagant  estimates    and  anticipations.      These 


reliable  facts  and  statistics  were  reported  to  the  Senate  on  Thursday  last,  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  We  take  the  subjoined  statements  from  that 
report : — 

The  steam  marine  of  the  United  States,  on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is  as  follows: — 

From  Passamaquoddy  Bay  to  Cape  Sable,  there  are  46  ocean  steamers ; 
274  ordinary  steamers;  65  propellers,  and  80  ferry  boats.  Tonnage, 
154,270  tons.  High  pressure  steamers,  116;  low  pressure,  342.  Number 
of  officers  and  crews,  8,348.  Passengers  annually,  33,114,782.  Average 
miles  travelled,  8,118,989.  These  statistics  refer  to  the  year  ending  July  1, 
1851. 

The  steam,  marine  on  the  Gulf  of,  Mexico,  from  Cape  Sable  to  the  Rio 
Grande,  consists  of  12  ocean  steamers;  95  ordinary  steamers;  2  propellers. 
Tonnage,  23,244.  High  pressure,  97;  low  pressure,  10.  Number  of  officers 
and  crews,  3,473.  Passengers  during  the  year,  148,700.  Number  of  miles 
travelled,  1,360,380. 

The  steam  marine  on  the  Pacific  coast  consists  of  37  ocean  steamers;,  13 
ordinary  steamers.  Tonnage,  34,986.  High  pressure,  3  ;  low  pressure,  47. 
Officers  and  crews,  1,949.     Average  miles  travelled,  79,2,09. 

The  aggregates  of  the  external  steam  marine  are — 

Ocean  steamers,  96;  ordinary  steamers,  382;  propellers,  67;  ferryboats, 
80.  Total,  625.  Total  tonnage,,  212,500.  High  pressure,  213;  low  pres- 
sure, 412.  Officers  and  crews,  11,770.  Annual  passengers,  33,342,846.  Of 
the  annual  passengers,  24,009,550  were  by  ferry  boats. 

The  shipwrecks  in  the  United  States,  on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts 
and  Gulf  of  Mexico,  during  the  year  ending  July  1,  1851,  were  50  ships,  59 
brigs,  190  schooners,  9  sloops,  and  20  steamers.  Total,  328  ;  of  which  278 
were  by  tempest,  14  by  fire,  15  by  collision,  19  by  snags,  and  2  by  explosion. 
The  number  of  bves  lost  was  318. 

The  "  human  movement "  by  steamboat,  on  the  principal  tide  water  lines 
was  as  follows : — 

No.  of  Passengers. 


On  long  Island  Sound 
On  Hudson  river 

Between  New  York  and  Philadelphia  by  steamers  . 
On  Potomac  and  James  rivers  and  Chesapeake  Bay 
Gulf  of  Mexico 
Pacific  coast 

In  26  districts  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  there  were  160  vessels  lost,  valued  at 
1,559,171  dollars,  and  on  which  insurance  was  paid  to  the  amount  of 
968,350  dollars. 

In  New  York,  the  marine  insurance  paid  was.. 
In  Philadelphia 
In  Boston 

The  total  marine  (not  inland)  insurance  paid  during  the  year  is  estimated 
at  6,227,000  dollars. 

The  inland  steam  marine  of  the  United  States  comprises  three  grand 
divisions — the  northern  frontier,  the  Ohio  basin,  and  the  Mississippi  valley: — 
Steamers.         Tonnage.^  Officers  &  Crew.    Passengers. 
The  northern  frontier  has     164  69,165  2,855         1,513,390 

The  Ohio  basin  . .         . .      348  67,601  8,338         3,464,967 

The  Mississippi  valley  . .      255  67,957  6,414  882,593. 


302,397 
995,100 
840,000 
422,100 
169,508 
79,209 


3,520,161  dol. 
906,616  „ 
554,865  „ 


Total  ..         ..     765.  204,723  17,607         5,860,950 

Of  the  passengers,  2,481,916  were  by  ferry  boats,  and  in  addition  to  the 
above,  there  were  1,325,911  passengers  by  railroads,  86,000  by  canals,  and 
27,872  by  stages,  on  the  northern  frontier  line  of  travel,  and  265,936  rail- 
road and  28,773  stage  passengers  on  the  Ohio  basin  line. 

Travel  to  and  from  Inland  Commercial  Centres. 

Pittsburgh  (last  year)  466,856 

St.  Louis  ,.  ..      367,795 

Buffalo  ...         ..  ..      622,423 

Chicago  .. 199,883 


Total. . 


1,656,957 


From  the  New  York  Tribune,  January  26,  1852. 


114 


Novelties. 


jMay, 


The  resident  population  of  these  four  cities  is  but  217,966. 

The  travel  to  and  from  Buffalo  "comes  and  goes  "  as  follows:— 
By  ordinary  steamers  . .         •  •  •  •         •  •      157,257 

Propellers         14.300 

Ferryboats •  ••       26,280 

Buffalo  and  Rochester  railroad         262,386 

Niagara  railroad         ..  ••  ••         ••  ••     119,200 

Erie  canal        43,000 

Total 622,423 

St.  Louis  has  131  steamers  ;  New  Orleans,  109  ;  Detroit,  47 ;  Buffalo,  42  ; 
Pittsburgh,  12.  During  eight  years  ending  July  1,  1851,  the  tonnage  in  the 
Buffalo  district  has  increased  19,217  tons;  in  Presque  Isle,  2,778;  Cuyahoga, 
4,563;  and  in  Detroit,  14,416.  The  steamboat  tonnage  of  the  Upper  Lakes 
has  more  than  quadrupled  in  eight  years,  and  on  the  Mississippi  valley  it  has 
doubled  in  nine  years. 

The  steamboat  disasters  on  the  Mississippi  and  tributaries  since  the  intro- 
duction of  steam  to  the  year  1848,  are,  by  collision,  45;  fire,  104;  snags, 
469  ;  total,  618.  The  original  cost  of  the  boats,  9,899,748  dollars;  defici- 
ency in  value,  5,176,757  dollars;  final  losses,  4,719,991  dollars.  The  loss  in 
1849  is  stated  at  2,000,000  dollars. 

Losses  on  the  lakes  and  rivers  during  the  year  ending  July  1,  1851,  by 
tempest,  35;  fire,  30;  collision,  18;  snags,  32.  Persons  lost  on  the  lakes, 
87,  and  on  the  rivers,  628;  total,  695. 

The  average  tonnage  of  lake  steamers  is  437  tons;  of  the  Ohio  basin,  206; 
and  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  273. 

Of  the  558  ordinary  steamers  on  the  rivers,  317  are  enrolled  in  the  dis- 
tricts of  the  Ohio  basin,  and  241  in  those  of  the  Mississippi  valley. 

Of  the  147  ordinary  steamers  and  propellers  on  the  lakes,  31  are  enrolled 
on  the  Lakes  Champlain  and  Ontario  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  66  on  Lake 
Erie,  and  60  at  Detroit  and  the  lakes  above. 

Of  the  164  steam  vessels  on  the  lakes,  105  are  ordinary  steamers,  52  are 
propellers,  and  43  are  ferry  boats. 

Of  the  601  steam  vessels  on  the  rivers,  558  are  ordinary,  and  43  are  ferry 
boats. 

With  but  two  very  slight  exceptions,  there  is  an  uninterrupted  line  of 
steam  navigation  from  the  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  those  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico —  a  distance  of  about  28,000  miles,  and  upon  which  is  em- 
ployed, for  the  purposes  of  trade  and  travel,  a  steam  tonnage  of  60,166  tons. 
The  Ohio  basin  forms,  of  itself,  a  cross  section  of  about  1,100  miles  in  length. 

The  steam  marine  of  Great  Britain  and  her  dependencies  is  stated  to 
consist  of  1,184  boats,  with  142,080  tonnage;  while  the  inland  steam  marine 
of  the  United  States  consists  of  766  boats,  with  a  tonnage  of  204,613  tons  ; 
showing  that,  exclusive  of  the  steam  tonnage  of  [the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
seaboard  and  the  Gulf  coast,  the  inland  steam  tonnage  exceeds  that  of  Great 
Great  Britain  and  her  dependencies  by  62,533  tons. 


lookin"-  at  the  points  and  dimensions  of  their  propeller  ships,  is  to  make 
them  as  low  as  is  consistent  with  comfort  and  safety,  and  to  obtain  capacity 
by  length.    Which  is  right?     Will  some  one  answer? — Franklin  Institute. 


ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN  PROPELLERS  FOR  ATLANTIC 
NAVIGATION. 

The  success  attending  the  City  of  Glasgow  and  Manchester,  running  to 
this  port,  and  the  Glasgow  to  New  York,  all  English  vessels,  has  led  many, 
myself  among  the  number,  to  be  very  much  surprised  at  the  partial  failure, 
at  least,  of  the  S.  S.  Lewis,  running  to  Boston,  the  Pioneer,  to  New  York, 
and  the  City  of  Pittsburgh,  to  this  port.  And  it  has  occurred  to  me  that  the 
great  height  of  our  American  propellers  above  the  water,  and  the  consequent 
instability  caused  thereby,  together  with  their  very  heavy  rig,  will  account 
for  the  whole  difference  ;  for  example,  the  City  of  Manchester  is  274  feet 
long,  37|  feet  beam,  and  31  feet  hold,  with  an  average  draft  of  water  of  about 
18  feet;  while  the  City  of  Pittsburgh  is  24  feet  long,  38  feet  beam,  and  33  feet 
hold,  with  heavy  houses  on  deck  in  addition,  and  to  this  must  be  added 
about  l£  feet  as  the  difference  of  thickness  of  the  bottom  between  wood  and 
iron  ;  her  average  draft  is  20  feet ;  it  is  very  evident  from  this,  that  the 
section  of  the  Pittsburgh  above  and  below  water  is  the  greatest,  which,  com- 
bined with  her  heavy  rig,  must,  during  the  prevalence  of  strong  westerly 
winds  of  winter,  give  the  latter  a  decided  advantage.    The  English  custom, 


NOVELTIES. 

Tokkop's  Patent  Railway  Signal. — The  importance  of  a  perfect  sys- 
tem of  signals  for  railway  purposes  can  hardly  be  over-estimated,  and  we  are 
inclined  to  think  that  railway  managers  are  not  sufficiently  impressed  with 

this  truth.    As  a  con- 


tribution   towards    a 
more  systematic  code 
of  signals,   Mr.  Tor- 
rop's  is  worthy  of  at-  ■ 
tention.      The  signal 
consists  of  a  pole,  16 
feet  high,    on  which 
slides  a  copper  ball, 
18    inches    diameter. 
This  is  wound  up  to 
the  top  as  soon  as  a 
train  has  passed;  and 
as  it  takes  10  minutes, 
or    any    other    given 
time,  to  descend,  the 
driver  of  the  following 
train  is  notified  whe- 
ther within  that  time 
a  train  has  preceded 
him.    a  is  the  copper 
ball,      containing      a 
lamp,  a  ;  c  and  d  are 
similar  lamps  to  mark 
the  top  and  bottom  of 
the  pole.      b  is  the 
machinery   by  which 
the  ball  is  wound  up, 
the  strings  passing  up 
each  side  of  the  pole, 
as  at  b,  and  descend- 
ing through  it,  as  at 
c.      A  signal  of  this 
kind    would    be    ex- 
tremely useful  to  no- 
tify the  departure  of 
trains,    steam    boats, 
Sec,  to  show  the  pas- 
sengers   hurrying    to 
the  station  how  long 
they    had    to    spare. 
And  it  would  be  bet- 
ter than  a  clock,  be- 
cause    it    would    be 
visible  in    all    direc- 
tions at  a  greater  dis- 
tance, and  could  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  exact  minute  at  which  the  train 
started.     This  apparatus  can  be  inspected  at  Mr.  Tidmarsh's  City  Exhibi- 
tion, in  Basinghall  Street. 


Water  Space  Angle  Iron. — Messrs.  Sutton  and  Ash, 
iron  merchants,  of  Birmingham,  have  registered  an  improved 
form  of  angle-iron,  for  the  bottoms  of  water-spaces  in  fire- 
box boilers,  of  which  we  have  given  a  section.  An  advan- 
tage of  this  form  is,  that  the  outside  rivetting  is  conveniently 
accomplished,  more  room  is  given  for  deposit  of  mud,  &c, 
and   a  smooth  surface  is  obtained,  which  can  be  readily 


scraped  clean  through  the  mud-holer. 


1852.] 


List  of  English  Patents. 


115 


Austin's  "  Britisii  Bond." — Under  this  title,  Mr.  W.  Austin,  the  archi- 
tect, has  registered  a  novel  form,  having  for  its  object  the  better  bonding 
Fig.  i,  together  of  the  work.    Fig.  1  is 

a  plan  of  paving,  or  a  solid,  pier, 
formed  of  these  bricks,  showing 
their  dovetailed    form ;    which 
obviously  gives    them    a  very 
strong  hold  of  each  other.  Fig.  2 
is  a  plan  of  a  1|  brick  wall,  a 
portion  of  which  may  be  left 
hollow,  if  desired,  or  may  be 
filled  in  with  bricks  of  a  cor- 
responding shape.    Fig.  3  is  a 
1  brick  wall.    Fig.  4  is  a  single 
brick    of   the     form    required 
for  stretchers,  the  splayed  form 
of  which   serves  well   for   the 
outer  reveals  of  doors  and  win- 
dows.   Bricks  of  ex- 
tra length,  are  made 
so    as    to  form  a  1- 
brick     hollow     wall, 
with   spaces  for  ver- 
tical      iron       pipes, 
through    which    hot- 
air    can    be    passed, 
for     warming      con- 
servatories,    picture- 
galleries,    and    other 
buildings,  where  open 
fires     are    objection- 
able.    Now  that  the 
abolition  of  the  brick 
excise     has    set     so 
many  ingenious  heads 
to    work,    we   ought 
to    have   the    benefit 
of  it  in  all  our  newly- 
built  dwellings. 

Invert  Block  for  Sewers.  —  Messrs. 
H.  Doulton  and  Co.,  of  the  Potteries,  Lam- 
beth, have  recently  registered  an  improve- 
ment in  the  construction  of  sewers  which 
"vy 111  materially  increase  their  stability  and 
efficiency.  For  information  on  this  subject, 
we  may  refer  the  reader  to  p.  29,  vol.  1846, 
where  examples  of  the  failure  of  various 
forms  from  being  crushed  in  are  given. 
The  egg  shaped  sewer,  with  the  small  end 
downwards,  is  unquestionably  the  most 
efficacious,  in  facilitating  the  scouring  effect 
of  the  water,  vide  p.  279,  vol.  1848.  The 
stability  of  the  egg,  however,  has  been  a 
problem  hitherto  only  to  be  solved  by  a 
Columbus  breaking  the  point.  Messrs, 
Doulton  and  Co.,  in  a  more  business-like 
manner,  have  provided  the  egg  with  a  fiat 
base,  which  not  only  provides  an  excellent 
foundation  for  the  sewer,  but  also  saves  a  Fig.  2. 

great  deal  of  time  and  trouble  in  turning  the  sharp  invert,  which  oannot  be 
effectually  done  except  with  guaged  bricks.  Fig.  1,  is  a  transverse  section 
of  a  sewer,  built  in  this  manner  with  the  earthenware  base,  which  is  per- 
fectly impermeable  to  water,  and  it  is  hollowed  out  to  save  weight.  Fig.  2, 
is  apian  of  the  base,  the  ends  of  which,  it  will  be  perceived,  are  formed  to 
dovetail  into  each  other,  and  so  bind  the  whole  sewer  together,  and  enable 
it  to  resist  any  side  pressure  to  which  it  may  be  subjected. 


LIST  OF  ENGLISH  PATENTS. 

Fiiom  20th  Makch,  to  22nd  Apkil,  1852. 

Six  months  allowed  for  enrolment,  unless  otherwise  expressed. 

William  Froggatt,  of  Manchester,  house  and  decorative  painter,  for  a  certain  improve- 
ment or  improvements  in  the  process  of  decorative  painting,  which  improvement  or  im- 
provements are  applicable  to  rooms,  halls,  carriages,  furniture,  and  other  purposes  to  which 
decorative  painting  has  or  may  he  applied.    March  20. 

John  M'Dowall,  of  Walkinshaw  Foundry,  Johnstone,  Renfrew,  North  Britain,  engineer, 
for  improvements  in  cutting  wood  and  other  substances,  and  in  the  machinery  or  apparatus 
employed  therein,  and  in  the  application  of  power  to  the  same,  parts  of  which  improvements 
are  applicable  for  the  transmission  of  power  generally.    March  20. 

William  Westley  Richards,  of  Birmingham,  gun-manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements 
in  fire-arms,  and  in  the  means  used  for  discharging  the  same,  also  improvements  in  projec- 
tiles.   March  20. 

William  Symington,  of  Trafalgar-place,  West,  Hacl<ney-rnad,  Middlesex,  gentleman, 
Charles  Finlayson,  of  Manchester,  engineer,  and  John  Reid,  of  the  same  place,  gentleman, 
for  improvements  in  flues,  and  in  heating  air,  and  in  evaporating  certain  fluids  by  heated 
air.    March  22. 

John  Drumgoole  Brady,  of  Cambridge-terrace,  Middlesex,  Esq.,  for  improvements  in 
helmets,  cartridge-boxes,  and  other  military  accoutrements.    March  22. 

Edward  Morewood  and  George  Rogers,  both  of  Enfield,  Bttddlesex,  gentlemen,  for  im- 
provements in  shaping,  coating,  and  applying  sheet  metal  to  building  purposes.    March  24. 

John  Macintosh,  of  Berners -street,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  In  ord- 
nance and  fire-arms,  and  in  balls  and  shells.    March  24. 

Antoine  Maurice  Tardy  de  Montravel,  of  Paris,  France,  gent.,  for  certain  improvements 
in  obtaining  motive  power,  and  the  machinery  employed  therein.    March  24. 

Isaac  Brookes,  of  Birmingham,  manufacturer,  and  William  Lutwyche  Jones,  of  Birming- 
ham, aforesaid,  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements  in  stoves,  and  other  apparatus  for 
heating.    March  24. 

William  Whitaker  Collins,  of  Buckingham-street,  Adelphi,  civil  engineer,  for  certain  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  steel.    March  24. 

William  Cole,  of  Birkenhead,  Chester,  architect,  and  Alfred  Holt,  of  Liverpool,  Lancaster, 
civil  engineer,  for  an  improved  method  of  preventing  and  removing  the  deposit  of  sand, 
mud,  or  silt,  in  tidal  rivers  in  certain  cases,  and  also  in  harbours,  docks,  basins,  guts,  or 
other  channels,  communicating  with  the  sea  through  tidal  rivers,  or  otherwise,  the  same 
being  applicable  in  certain  cases  to  other  rivers  or  moving  waters.    March  24. 

John  White  and  Robert  White,  of  Cowes,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  ship  builders,  for  improve- 
ments in  ship  building.    March  24. 

William  Henry  Hulseberg.  of  Mile-end,  Middlesex,  for  certain  improvements  in  the 
treatment  of  wool,  hair,  feathers,  fur,  and  other  fibrous  substances,  and  in  machinery  or 
apparatus  for  the  same.    March  24. 

William  Archer,  of  Hampton-Court,  Middlesex,  gent.,  for  an  improved  mode,  or  modes 
of  preventing  accidents  on  railways.    March  24. 

Thomas  Bell,  of  Don  Alkali  Works,  South  Shields,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture 
of  sulphuric  acid.    March  24. 

Richard  Parris,  of  Long-acre,  Middlesex,  modeller,  for  improvements  in  machinery  or 
apparatus  for  cutting  and  shaping  cork.    March  24. 

William  Pidding,  of  the  Strand,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  th.e  construction  of 
vehicles  used  on  railways,  or  on  ordinary  roads.    March  24. 

Edward  Hammond  Bentall,  of  Heybridge,  Essex,  ironfounder,  for  improvements  in  the 
construction  of  ploughs.    March  25. 

John  Smith,  of  Bilston,  Stafford,  brassfounder,  for  certain  improvements  in  locomotive 
and  other  steam  engines.    March  25. 

Jean  Jacques  Bourcarr,  of  the  firm  of  Nicholas  Schlumberger  and  Company,  of  Gu6b- 
willer,  France,  for  improvements  in  preparing,  combing,  and  spinning  wool  and  other 
fibrous  materials.    (Being  a  communication.).    March  27. 

William  Thompson,  of  Salfwd,  Lancaster,  machine-maker,  and  John  Hewitt,  of  Salford, 
aforesaid,  machine-maker,  for  improvements  in  machinery  for  spinning,  doubling,  and 
twisting  cotton  and  other  fibrous  substances.    March  27. 

James  Melville,  of  Roebank  Works,,  Lochwinnoch,  Renfrew,  North  Britain,  calico  printer, 
for  improvements  in  weaving  and  printing  shawls  and  other  fabrics.    March  29. 

James  Timmins  Chance,  of  Handsworth,  Stafford,  glass  manufacturer,  for  improvements 
in  the  manufacture  of  glass.    (Being  a  communication.)    March  29. 

Charles  Jack,  of  Tottenham^court,  New-road,  for  improvements  in  machinery  for  grind- 
ing pigments,  colours,  and  other  matters.    March  29. 

John  Whitehead,  of  Holbeck,  York,  machine-manufacturer,  for  improvements  in 
machinery  for  preparing,  combing,  and  drawing  wool,  silk,  and  other  fibrous  substances. 
March  29. 

John  Flack  Winslow,  of  the  City  of  Troy,  in  the  State  of  New  York,  in  the  United  States 
of  America,  iron-master,  for  improvements  in  machinery  for  blooming  iron.    March  3 1 . 

Moses  Poole,  of  the  Patent  Bill-sfflce,  London,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  fire-arms 
(Being  a  communication.)    March  31, 

William  Earnshaw  Cooper,  of  Mottram,  Chester,  tallow-chandler,  for  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  candles  and  candle-wicks,  and  in  the  machinery  or  apparatus 
employed  therein.    April  2. 

Joseph  Pimlott  Oates,  of  Lichfield,  Stafford,  surgeon,  for  certain  improvements  in 
miehinery  for  manufacturing  bricks,  tiles,  quarries,  drain-pipes,  and  such  other  articles  as 
are,  or  may  be  made  of  clay  or  other  plastie  substances.    April  6. 

Samuel  Fox,  of  Stocks  Bridge-works,  Deepear,  near  Sheffield,  for  improvements  in  um- 
brellas and  parasols.    April  6. 

William  Watson  Pattinson,  of  Felling-new-House,  Gateshead,  manufacturing  chemist,  for 
improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  chlorine.    April  6. 

Moses  Poole,  of  the  Patent  Bill-office,  London,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  covering 
wires  for  telegraphic  purposes.    (A  communication.)    April  6. 

John  Walter  De  Longueville  Giffard,  of  Serle-street,  Lincoln's-inn,  Barristev-at-law,  for 
improvements  in  fire-arms  and  projectiles.    April  6. 

Charles  William  Siemens,  of  Birmingham,  engineer,  for  an  improved  fluid  meter.  (Being 
a  communication.)    April  15. 

Francois  Joseph  Beltzung,  of  Paris,  in  the  Republic  of  France,  engineer,  for  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  bottles  and  jars  of  glass,  clay,  gutta  percha,  or  other  plastic 
material,  and  caps  and  stoppers  for  the  same,  and  in  machinery  for  pressing  and  moulding 
the  said  materials.    April  15. 

Edwin  Pettit,  of  Kingsland,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  and  James  Forsyth,  of  Caldbeck, 
Cumberland,  spinner,  for  improvements  in  machinery  for  twisting,  drawing,  doubling,  and 
spinning  of  cotton,  wool,  silk,  flax,  and  other  fibrous  substances.    April  15. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  improvements 
for  preventing  the  incrustation  of  steam  boilers,  which  invention  is  also  applicable  to  the 
,  preservation  of  metals  and  wood.    (Being  a  communication.)    April  15. 

Charles  Seeley,  of  the  City  of  Lincoln,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  flour. 
April  15. 

Thomas  Ellwood  Horton,  of  Priors-lee-Hall,  Salop,  iron-master,  and  Elisha  Wylde,  of 
Birmingham,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  apparatus  for  heating  and  evaporating. 
April  15. 

Simon  Davey,  of  Rouen,  France,  merchant,  and  Adolphe  LudovicChann.of  Taris,  France, 
merchant,  for  improvements  in  explosive  compounds  and  fusees,  end  also  in  methods  of 
firing  the  same.    April  15. 


116 


List  of  English  Patents. 


[May,  1852. 


Henri  Gustave  Delvigne,  of  Brixton,  Surrey,  gentleman,  for  certain  improvements  in 
fire-arms,  and  in  the  methods  of  discharging  the  same ;  also  improvements  in  projectiles. 
April  17. 

William  Edward  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements 
in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  cutting  paper,  pasteboard,  or  other  similar  substances. 
(Being  a  communication.)     April  17. 

William  Edward  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in  the 
method  of  and  apparatus  for  indicating  and  regulating  the  heat  and  the  height  and  supply 
of  water  in  steam  boilers,  which  said  improvements  are  applicable  to  other  purposes,  such 
as  indicating  and  regulating  the  heat  of  buildings,  furnaces,  stoves,  fire-places,  kilns,  and 
ovens,  and  indicating  the  height  and  regulating  the  supply  of  water  in  other  boilers  and 
vessels.   April  17. 

John  Gillett,  of  Brails,  near  Shipston-on-Stour,  Warwick,  agricultural  implement-maker, 
for  certain  improvements  in  ploughs.    April  17. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  lenses.    April  17. 

William  Henry  Dupre  and  Clement  Le  Sueur,  of  Jersey,  for  improvements  in  certain  ap- 
paratus or  apparatuses  for  preventing  smoky  chimneys,  applicable  to  other  purposes  of 
ventilation.    April  17. 

Clemenz  Augustus  Kurtz,  of  Manchester,  manufacturing  chemist,  for  an  improvement  in 
all  preparations  of  every  description  of  madder  roots  and  ground  madder,  in  or  from  what- 
ever country  the  same  are  produced;  also  of  munjeet  in  the  root  and  stem,  from  whatever 
country.    April  17. 

Henry  Stothert,  of  Bath,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  manure. 
(Being  a  communication.)    April  17. 

William  Hyatt,  of  Old  street-road,  Middlesex,  engineer,  for'improvements  in  obtaining 
and  applying  motive  power.    April  17 

John  Knowles,  of  Little  Bolton,  Lancaster,  cotton  spinner,  for  improvements  in  certain 
machinery  for  preparing  cotton  and  other  fibrous  substances,  for  reversing  the  direction  of 
motion  in,  and  for  regulating  the  speed  of  machines.    April  17. 

John  Trotman,  of  Dursley,  Gloucestershire,  for  improvements  in  anchors.    April  20. 

Robert  Griffiths,  of  Clifton,  engineer,  for  apparatus  for  improving  and  restoring  human 
hair.    April  20. 

Robert  Reyburn,  of  Greenock,  chemist,  for  improvements  in  printing  on  silk  and  other 
fabrics  and  yarns.    April  20. 

William  Maddick,  of  Manchester,  manufacturing  chemist,  for  the  production  of  a  liquid 
extract  from  madder  and  its  preparations,  suitable  for  the  purposes  of  dyeing  or  printing 
and  a  new  treatment  of  spent  madder,  garancine,  or  garancaux,  or  other  preparations  of 
madder,  to  render  them  available  for  the  like  purposes.    April  20. 

John  Ridgway,  of  Cauldon^place,  Stafford,  china  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements 
in  the  method  or  process  of  ornamenting  or  decorating  articles  of  glass,  china,  earthenware, 
and  other  ceramic  manufactures.    April  20. 

William  Hindman,  of  Manchester,  gentleman,  and  John  Warhurst,  of  Newton-heath,  near 
Manchester,  cotton  dealer,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  method  of  generating  or  pro- 
ducing steam,  and  in  the  machinery  or  apparatus  connected  therewith.    April  22. 

Edward  Hammond  Bentall,  of  Heybridge,  Essex,  ironfounder,  and  James  Howard,  of  Bed- 
ford, ironfounder,  for  improvements  in  the  mode  of  chilling  cast  iron.    April  22. 

James  Stevens,  of  Birmingham,  glass  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements  in  lamp 
glasses.    April  22. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  improvements 
in  the  method  of  manufacturing,  and  in  machinery  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  wood 
screws,  part  of  which  improvements  is  applicable  to  the  arranging  and  feeding  of  pins  and 
other  like  articles,  and  also  improvements  in  assorting  screws,  pins,  and  other  articles  of 
various  sizes.    (Being  a  communication.)    April  22. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  improvements 
in  the  mode  of  priming  fire-arms,     (Being  a  communication.)    April  22. 


John  Ramsbottom,  of  New  Mills,  Derby,  engraver,  for  certain  improvements  in  machinery 
or  apparatus  for  measuring  or  registering  the  flow  of  water  and  other  liquids  or  vapours 
which  machinery  or  apparatus  is  also  applicable  to  registering  the  speed  of  and  distance 
run  by  vessels  in  motion,  and  also  in  obtaining  motive  power,  and  other  similar  purposes. 
March  17. 

John  Wallace  Duncan,  of  Grove-end-road,  St.  John's  Wood,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for 
improvements  in  engines  in  applying  the  power  of  steam  or  other  fluids  for  impelling  pur- 
poses, and  in  the  manufacture  of  appliances  for  transmitting  motion.  March  22 ;  four 
months. 

Edward  Mosely  Perkins,  of  Mark-lane,  London,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of 
cast  metal  pipes,  retorts,  or  other  hollow  castings.    March  22. 

Charles  Barlow,  of  Chancery-lane,  London,  for  improvements  in  rotary  engines.  (Com- 
munication.)    March  22  ;  four  months. 

William  Pidding,  of  the  Strand,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  mining 
operations,  and  in'machinery  or  apparatus  connected  therewith.    March  22. 

James  Joseph  Brunet,  of  the  Canal  Iron-works,  Poplar,  Middlesex,  engineer,  for  certain 
improved  combinations  of  materials  in  ship-building.     (Communication  J    March  22. 

Emanuel  Charles  Theodore  Croutelle,  manufacturer,  of  Rheims,  France,  for  certain  im- 
provements in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  preparing  woollen  threads  andother  filamentous 
substances  for  weaving.    March  22. 

William  Symington,  of  Trafalgar-place,  West  Hackney,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  Charles 
Finlayson,  of  Manchester,  and  John  Reid,  of  the  same  place,  gentlemen,  for  improvements 
in  flues,  and  in  heating  air,  and  in  evaporating  certain  liquids  by  heated  air.    March  22. 


LIST  OF  SCOTCH  PATENTS. 
From  22nd  op  February,  to  the  22nt>  of  March,  1852. 
'William  Hamer,  of  Manchester,  Lancaster,  for  certain  improvements  in  looms  for  weav- 
ing.   February  23. 

Peter  Armand  Lecomte  de  Fontainemoreau,  of  South-street,  Finsbury,  London,  for 
certain  improvements  in  gas  burners.    (Communication.)    February  26.     Four  months. 

Charles  John  Mare,  of  Blackwall,  for  improvements  in  constructing  iron  ships  or  vessels, 
and  steam  boilers.    March  1. 

Henry  Glynn,  of  Bruton-street,  Berkeley-square,  and  Rudolph  Appel,  of  Gerrard -street, 
Soho,  anastatic  printer,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  or  treatment  of  paper  or 
fabrics,  to  prevent  copies  or  impressions  being  taken  of  any  writing  or  printing  thereon. 
March  1. 

William  Edward  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  London,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in 
the  heddles  or  harness  of  looms  for  weaving,  and  in  the  machinery  for  producing  the  same. 
(Communication.)    March  2. 

Henry  Bessemer,  of  Baxter-house,  Old  St.  Pancras-road,  Middlesex,  for  improvements  in 
expressing  saccharine  fluids,  and  in  the  manufacture,  refining,  and  treating  of  sugar. 
March  3. 

Frederick  Crace  Calvert,  of  Manchester,  Lancaster,  professor  of  chemistry,  for  improve- 
ments in  manufacturing  iron,  and  in  manufacturing  and  purifying  coke.  March  4.  Four 
months. 

John  Henry  Johnson,  of  Lincoln's-inn  Fields,  Middlesex,  and  of  Glasgow,  North  Britain, 
gentleman,  for  improvements  in  weaving  carpets  and  other  fabrics,  and  in  the  machinery 
and  apparatus  employed  therein .     (Communication.)    March  4. 

William  Sinclair,  of  Manchester,  Lancaster,  engineer,  for  certain  improvements  in  locks. 
March  8. 

John  Blair,  of  Irvine,  Ayr,  North  Britain,  gentleman,  for  certain  improvements  in  beds 
and  couches,  and  other  articles  of  furniture.    March  9. 

Perry  G.  Gardiner,  of  New  York,  United  States,  civil  engineer  and  machinist,  for  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  malleable  metal  into  pipes,  hollow  shafts,  railway  wheels, 
or  other  analogous  forms,  which  are  capable  of  being  dressed,  turned  down,  or  polished  in 
a  lathe.    March  10. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  im- 
provements in  machinery  for  combing  wool  and  other  fibrous  substances.  (Communica- 
tion.)   March  15. 

Alexander  Cunningham,  of  Glasgow,  Lanark,  North  Britain,  iron-master,  for  improve- 
ments in  the  treatment  and  application  of  slag,  or  the  refuse  matter  of  blast  furnaces. 
March  15. 

William  Charles  Scott,  of  Camberwell,  Surrey,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  the  con- 
struction of  omnibuses  and  other  public  and  private  carriages.    March  15 ;  four  months. 

William  Stirling  Lacon,  of  Great  Yarmouth,  Norfolk,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in 
the  means  of  suspending  ships'  boats,  and  lowering  the  same  into  the  water.    March  16. 

John  Mercer,  of  Oakenshaw,  Clayton-le-Moors,  chemist,  and  John  Greenwood,  of  Irwell 
Springs,  Bacup,  Turkey-red  dyer,  both  in  Lancaster,  for  certain  improvements  in  pre- 
paring cotton  and  other  fabrics  for  dyeing  and  printing.    March  17. 

Charles  Middleton  Kernot,  of  West  Cowes,  Isle  of  Wight,  doctor  of  philosophy,  and  Wil- 
liam Hirst,  of  Manchester,  Lancaster,  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  manu- 
facture of  woollen  cloth,  and  cloth  made  from  wool  and  other  materials,  and  in  machinery 
or  apparatus  for  manufacturing  the  same.    March  17. 


LIST  OF  IRISH  PATENTS. 
From  21st  of  February,  to  the  16th  of  March  1852. 

George  Gwynne,  of  Hyde-park  Square,  Middlesex,  Esq.,  and  George  Fergusson  Wilson, 
managing  director  of  Price's  Patent  Candle  Company,  of  Belmont,  Vauxhall,  for  improve- 
ments in  treating  fatty  and  oily  matters,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  lamps,  candles,  night 
lights,  and  soap.    February  24. 

Hermann  Turck,  of  Broad-street  Buildings,  London,  merchant,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  resin  oil.    (Communication.)    February  24. 

William  Jean  Jules  Varillat,  of  Rouen,  France,  for  improvements  in  the  extraction  and 
preparation  of  colouring,  tanning,  and  saccharine  matters,  from  various  vegetable  substan- 
ces, and  in  the  apparatus  to  be  employed  therein.    March  15. 

Charles  Middleton  Kernot,  of  West  Cowes,  Isle  of  Wight,  doctor  of  philosophy,  and  Wil- 
liam Hirst,  of  Manchester,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  woollen  cloth, 
and  cloth  made  from  wool,  and  other  materials,  and  in  machinery  and  apparatus  for  manu- 
facturing the  same.    March  15. 

Sir  John  Scott  Lillie,  of  Pall-Mali,  Middlesex,  Companion  of  the  Most  Honourable  Mili- 
tary Order  of  the  Bath,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  construction  and  covering  of  roads, 
floors,  walls,  doors,  and  other  surfaces.    March  16. 

John  Wormald,  of  Manchester,  Lancaster,  maker-up  andpacker,  for  certain  improvements 
in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  spinning  and  doubling  cotton,  wool,  silk,  flax,  or  other 
fibrous  substances.    March  16. 

Henry  Glynn,  of  Bruton-street,  Berkeley-square,  gentleman,  and  Rudolph  Appel,  of 
Gerrard-street,  Soho,  anastatic  printer,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  or  treatment 
of  paper  or  fabrics,  to  prevent  copies  or  impressions  being  taken  of  any  writing  or  print- 
ing thereon.    March  16. 


DESIGNS  FOR  ARTICLES  OF  UTILITY. 
From  the  18th  March,  to  the  22nd  April,  1852,  inclusive. 


March  18,3184, 

„  19,  3185, 

„  19,  3186, 

„  20,  3187, 

„  20,3188, 

„  20,  3189, 

„  23,  3190, 

„  23,  3191, 

„  23,3192, 

„  24, 3193, 

„  24,  3194, 

„  25,3195, 

„  26,  3196, 

„  27,3197, 

„  27,  3198, 

„  29,  3199, 

„  23,  3200, 

„  29,  3201, 

„  29,  3202, 

April     2,  3203, 

„  3,  3204, 


3,  3205, 

7,  3206, 

7,  3207. 

8,  3208, 
10,  3209 
10,  3210. 
10,  3211 
10,3212, 
10,  3213 

14,3214. 
14,3215, 

14,  3216 

15,  3217 
!5,3218: 

15,  3219, 
17,3220. 
17,  3221, 

21,  3222, 

22,  3223, 


T.  Lepeinteur,  College-yard,  Worcester,  "  Glove-binding." 

J.  Schloss,  Friday-street,  "  Briquet." 

H.  and  S.  Schloss,  Paris,  "  Vulcan  porte-cigar." 

J.  Kimberley,  Birmingham,  "Tenoning  or  tenanting-chisel." 

F.  Stammers,  Strand,  "  Facilis  fastening  for  trousers  and  garments." 

S.  Ellithorn  and  John  Shaw,  Preston,  "Tuning-key." 

C.  and  J.  Clark,  Street,  Somerset,  "  Elastic  gusset  for  boots." 

J.  Roberts  and  W.  Winter,  Cotton-hill,  Nottingham,  "  Glove-fastening." 

George  Mullin,  Glen-house,  Guildford,  "  Ring-stone  for  grinding  grain." 

J.  W.  and  D.  Allen,  West  Strand,  "  Elongating  portable  iron  chair." 

J.  Macintosh,  Glasgow,  "Self-acting balance-seat  for  carriages." 

Thomas  Whitehead,  Leeds,  and  Samuel  Smith,  Keighley,  "Dead  spirjdle." 

Simcox,  Pemberton  and  Sons,  Birmingham,  "Rack  pulley." 

Arthur  James,  Redditch,  "  Needle-case." 

James  Coombe  and  Co.,  Belfast,  Flax-holder." 

E.  D.  Maignol  Mataplane,  South-street,  Finsbury,  "  Circular  tilting 
platform." 

Hall  and  Wilson,  King  street,  Manchester,  "  Trimmer  or  beam  for  sup- 
porting hearth  stones." 

W.  B.  Johnson,  Manchester,  "  Steam  pressure  gauge  and  signal  whistle." 

Michel  Roch,  South -street,  Finsbury,  "Letter  envelope." 

W.  S.  Adams,  Haymarket,  "  Sponging-pan  or  bath." 

Fenwick  de  Porquet.  of  the  firm  of  Mary  Wedlake  &  Co.,  Tavistock- 
streetCovent-garden,  and  Fenchurch-street,  "The  Utilitarian,  or  hay 
and  straw-cutting  machine  with  corn-crushing  machine  combined." 

John  Dangerfield,  Hill-top,  West  Broomwich,  "Safety-valve  and  water 
indicator  for  steam  boilers." 

F.  Somner,  Kelso,  North  Britain,  "Stack  or  rick  ventilator." 
W.  Hughes,  Manchester,  "  Typograph  for  the  blind." 

E.  A.  Baker,  Whitechapel-road,  "  Improved  gun  lock." 

J.  Collins,  Birmingham,  "  Safety  lever  bolt." 

E.  Poulson,  Sunderland,  "  Reverse  levers  for  shipping." 

J.  Atkin,  Huntingdon  "  Crutch  elastic' 

W.  Weild,  Manchester,  "Pipe  cutter." 

J.  Howard,  Berners-street,  "Circular  extending  and  oblong  dining 
table." 

J.  Fletcher  and  Co.,  Glasgow,  "Duplex  reversible  and  expanding  cap." 

J.  Brooks,  Birmingham,  "  Clog." 

O.  L.  Detouche  and  E.  Brisbart,  Castle-street,  Holborn,  "Electro- 
magnetic clock." 

George  Bower,  St.  Neot's  Hants,  "  Gas  cooking  stove.'' 

H.  J.  and  D.  Kicoll,  Regent-street,  "  Front  part  of  a  double  breasted 
coat." 

W.  Longdon,  Manchester,  "  Safety  noseband." 

R.  Mead  and  Sons,  Frome,  Somerset,  "  Hat  body." 

G.  Bowden, Little  Queen-street,  "Porte  tableau,  or  artists'  sketch  and 
printing  safety  portfolio." 

I.  Harris  and  H.  Shorthouse,  Kingsbury,  "  Turnip  cutting  machine." 
P.  Hunter,  Edinburgh,  "  Churn." 


PLATE   IX. 


;©®!P!  FAfiif  ©MEMMiiir  mmi© 


m 


External  Elevation  of  Shaft. 


iMiiiiiifaniiiiii iahiaiiBBBiiiEJii5ia  lunnHmmn  iMitmi  ifliiiiSfiiTninrfiiinmTiiminiM 


Plan  of  Bond  Course. 


Plan  of  Stretcher  Course. 


Section  of  Flue. 


Gathering  Brick. 


Plan  of  Shaft  Bricks. 


COMMON  BRICK 


Bricks  for  Bond  Course. 


Bricks  for 
Stretcher  Course. 


Bricks  for 
External  Shafts. 


W.  K.  Whytehead,  C.E.,  direx. 


THE   ARTIZAN  JOURNAL,   1852. 


THE    AKTIZAN. 


No.  VI.— Vol.  X.— JUNE  1st,  1852. 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEERING  IN  AMERICA. 

BY    ZERAH    COLBURN. 

(Concluded  from  page  105.) 
coal  versus  wood,  as  fuel. 

The  coal-burning  engine,  built  by  Ross  Winans,  of  Baltimore,  and 
placed  by  him  for  trial  on  the  Boston  and  Maine  railroad,  had  17-inch 
outside  cylinders,  laid  horizontally,  22-inch  stroke,  and  eight  drivers, 
having  chilled  rims  43  inches  in  diameter ;  all  the  drivers  being  placed 
between  the  fire  and  smoke  boxes.  The  connecting-rod  is  applied  to 
the  third  pair  of  wheels  from  the  smoke-box.  The  distance  between 
the  centres  of  the  extreme  axle  is  11  feet  3  inches ;  between  the  centres 
of  the  cylinders,  6  feet  5  inches.  The  boiler  shell  is  made  of  -^  iron, 
and  measures,  in  its  smallest  inside  diameter,  41  inches.  There  are 
101  two-and-a-half-inch  and  2  two-inch  wrought-iron  tubes,  13  feet  in 
length.  The  upper  row  of  tubes  is  nearly  up  to  the  top  of  the  cylinder 
part  of  the  boiler,  the  water-level  being  in  the  dome  above  the  waist  of 
the  boiler.  The  dome  is  formed  a  little  forward  of  the  middle  point  of 
the  boiler,  having  the  same  diameter,  and  rising  51  inches  above  it. 
There  is  a  step  on  the  back  side  of  the  fire-box,  making  the  length  of 
the  grate  14  inches  more  than  the  length  of  the  crown-sheet.  The  fire- 
box is  of  §  inch  copper,  with  the  exception  of  the  tube-sheet,  which  is 
of  j-inch  iron.  Length  of  grate,  56£  inches ;  at  crown-sheet,  42^  inches ; 
mean  breadth  of  grate,  42|-  inches ;  at  centre  of  boiler,  or  middle  row  of 
tubes,  39 J  inches ;  all  inside  measures.  The  whole  depth  from  the 
crown-sheet  to  grate,  is  51  j  inches. 

The  grate-bars  are  very  heavy,  and  are  cast  but  two  together.  Their 
ends  come  through  the  bottom  of  the  fire-box,  on  the  back-side,  and 
have  round  holes  through  which  to  put  a  bar  to  stir  them  occasionally, 
in  order  to  loosen  the  cinders  and  melted  coal.  The  exhaust  from  both 
cylinders  comes  through  a  cast-iron  box,  or  blast-pipe,  having  moveable 
sides,  so  that  the  aperture  at  its  mouth  may  be  varied  from  3 £  to  10  square 
inches.  There  is  a  pipe  about  9  inches  in  diameter,  passing  up  through 
the  smoke-box,  from  the  bottom  to  the  top,  and  entering  the  chimney, 
leaving  a  few  inches  all  round  it  for  the  smoke  to  rise  through.  The 
exhaust  enters  this  pipe  at  its  bottom,  and  the  partial  vacuum  created 
by  its  action  supplies  the  blast,  as  in  ordinary  locomotives.  The  tube 
surface  of  this  engine  is  860  square  feet ;  of  heating  surface  in  fire-box, 
66  square  feet;  and  the  area  of  grate  is  16f  square  feet. 

Messrs.  Slade  and  Currier,  civil  engineers,  were  commissioned  to 
make  experiments  with  this  engine,  in  order  to  institute  a  comparison 
between  it  and  a  first  class  wood  engine,  but  more  particularly  to  test 
its  actual  value  as  a  coal-burning  engine.  The  results  of  their  experi- 
ments have  been  published,  but  they  neglect  to  state  that  the  "  New 
Hampshire  "  (the  wood  engine)  was  of  a  materially  different  pattern 
from  "  the  Coaler,"  inasmuch  as  it  had  six  driving  wheels  and  a  truck 
frame,  thereby  losing  a  considerable  per  cent,  of  the  adhesion  due  to 
its  weight,  as  compared  with  the  "  Coaler."  The  dimensions  of  the 
"  New  Hampshire  "  were  as  follows  : — 16-inch  cylinder;  20-inch  stroke; 


diameter  of  drivers,  46  inches;  length  of  tubes,  10  feet  6  inches; 
diameter  of  boiler,  45  inches.  This  engine  was  built  by  Hinkley  and 
Drury. 

The  experimental  trips  were  made  in  the  latter  part  of  January,  and 
in  the  beginning  of  February,  1850.  The  entire  distance  from  Boston 
to  Great  Falls  is  given  as  74  miles.  There  was  more  or  less  snow  on 
the  tract  during  the  time  in  which  the  experiments  were  made.  The 
highest  grades  were  about  47  feet  per  mile.  One  point  unfavourable 
for  the  "  Coaler "  was  the  fact,  that  from  there  being  but  about  26 
miles  of  double  tract,  the  freight  trains  were  subject  to  frequent  and  pro- 
tracted delays,  in  waiting  for  passenger  trains  to  pass.  In  waiting,  the 
fire  in  the  wood  engine  could  be  suffered  to  go  nearly  down,  the  fire 
box  being  filled  with  wood  when  the  train  came  in  sight.  In  the  coal 
engine,  however,  it  was  necessary  to  keep  the  furnace  filled  with  coal, 
as,  if  suffered  to  get  down,  it  would  take  considerable  time  to  recover 
the  fire. 

With  the  "  Coaler",  the  average  of  ten  trips  showed  a  consumption 
of  4,786  lbs.  anthracite  coal  to  evaporate  3,512  gallons  in  going  74 
miles ;  this  being  10.31  lbs.  coal  required  to  evaporate  one  cubic  foot  of 
water. 

With  the  wood  engine,  3  cords  and  ,40  of  a  foot  of  wood  of  various 
qualities  and  prices  were  used  to  evaporate  3,734  gallons  of  water. 

The  cost  of  carrying  15,000  tons  one  mile  with  wood  was  found  to 

be  14.04  dol. 

With  coal 12.70  „ 


Favour  of  coal 


1.34  dol. 


The  wood  engine  had  a  sand  box,  and  had  wrought-iron  tires.  The 
"  Coaler  "  had  a  sand  box  also,  but  had  chilled  wheels. 

The  "Coaler"  took  76  cars,  weighing,  with  freight,  433  tons,  up  Ward 
Hill,  in  Bradford,  where  there  is  a  grade  of  47  feet  per  mile,  and  also  a 
very  bad  reversed  curve.  In  going  up  the  hill,  no  sand  was  used,  nor 
did  the  wheels  slip,  except,  as  the  report  states,  some  three  or  four  turns 
where  some  track  repairers  had  taken  off  a  hand  car,  and  left  a  little  snow 
on  the  rails. 

The  wood  engine  took  61  cars  up  the  same  hill,  weighing,  with 
freight,  391  tons.  Sand  was  constantly  running  from  the  sand  box, 
except  when,  to  ascertain  whether  the  engine  was  working  up  to  its  full 
power,  the  sand  was  turned  off,  when  the  wheels  were  found  to  slip 
very  much. 

The  average  cost  of  wood  used  on  the  through  trips  was  3.63  dollars 
per  cord. 

The  cost  of  anthracite  coal  per  ton  of  2,240  pounds,  was  5.25  dollars; 
|th  of  a  ton  of  coal  was  found  to  be  equal  in  effect  for  evaporation  to 
one  cord  of  wood,  or  3.28  dollars  worth  of  coal  equal  to  3.63  dollars 
worth  of  wood. 

The  average  speed  of  the  coaler,  although  having  a  smaller  wheel  and 
a  longer  stroke,  was  found  to  be  ft  of  a  mile  per  hour  greater  than  that 

16 


118 


Locomotive  Engineering  in  America. 


[June, 


of  the  wood  engine.  Their  average  speeds  being  14  T35  and  14  T'3  miles 
per  hour,  respectively.  This  was  probably  owing  to  a  loss  on  the  wood 
engine  by  slipping  the  wheels. 

In  conclusion,  the  commissioners  express  their  opinion  that,  for 
running  heavy  trains,  which  are  not  obliged  to  wait  for  any  considerable 
length  of  time  along  the  line  for  other  trains  to  pass,  they  believe  coal 
to  be  every  way  more  economical  than  wood.  They  also  say  that  in 
their  remarks  tliey  would  not  wish  to  be  considered  as  in  any  way  dis- 
paraging the  "New  Hampshire,"  as  they  consider  that  a  first-class  wood 
engine. 

Winans  has  an  express  engine  on  the  Worcester  road,  having  7  feet 
drivers.  In  this  engine,  however,  the  proportions  of  the  boiler,  &c, 
are  very  much  the  same  as  in  the  freight  engine  we  have  noticed. 
These  seven  feet  drivers  were  cast  with  chilled  rims,  and  were  of  an 
extremely  light  pattern  ;  in  fact  they  became  broken  before  they  had 
been  used  two  months.  There  were  two  small  steam  cylinders  placed 
on  the  sides  of  the  boiler  over  the  bearings  of  the  driving  axle,  by  which 
the  weight  on  the  drivers  could  be  varied  from  three  to  twelve  and  a 
half  tons.  But  when  under  their  utmost  adhesion,  the  drivers  were 
found  to  slip  very  much. 

USE    OF    ANTHRACITE. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  burn  anthracite  coal  effectually 
and  economically.  Winan's  engines  appear  best  adapted  for  the  use  of 
this  kind  of  fuel  of  any  yet  constructed.  We  regard,  however,  a  very 
large  extent  of  grate  with  a  moderate  depth  of  coal  as  still  more  likely 
to  attain  to  superior  results.  For  a  17-inch  cylinder,  let  the  grate  be  6 
feet  by  3§  feet,  the  depth  of  fire-box  being  3  feet,  and  having  two  or 
three  water  bridges  4  inches  in  thickness  traversing  its  entire  length. 
We  are  of  opinion  that  anthracite  might  be  burned  in  such  a  fire-box 
with  increased  effect  in  the  production  of  steam  and  with  a  diminished 
waste  in  the  metal  of  the  fire-box  and  grate  bars.  With  such  a  furnace 
a  pair  of  small  wheels  would  be  necessary  to  support  the  hind  end 
of  it. 

The  difficulties  encountered  in  the  use  of  hard  coal  arise  chiefly  from 
the  intense  and  concentrated  heat  involved  in  its  combustion,  thereby 
destroying  the  grate  bars  and  scaling  the  inside  of  the  fire-box.  This 
rapid  burning  out  of  the  grate  has  led  to  leaving  off  the  ash  pan  on  the 
coal  engine  on  some  of  the  Pennsylvania  roads,  which  appears  to  remove 
to  some  extent  the  destructive  results  attending  the  use  of  the  coal. 
The  ashes  and  cinders  falling  upon  the  track,  if  they  do  not  immediately 
cause  a  fire,  which  must  be  guarded  against,  soon  form  an  impenetrable 
crust  along  the  entire  line,  which  removes  all  further  danger  from  that 
source.  This,  though  it  may  appear  somewhat  improbable  at  the  first 
view,  accords  with  the  experience  of  the  roads  where  it  has  been  tried. 
Much  difficulty  has  been  met  in  the  use  of  copper  tubes,  as  the  action 
of  the  coal,  from  being  projected  in  small  pieces  by  the  blast,  was  found 
to  cut  them  away  near  their  mouths.  This  difficulty  suggested  the  use 
of  wrought-iron  tubes,  which,  however,  require  much  caution  in  setting 
them,  as  the  increased  force  necessary  to  head  up  their  ends  is  apt  to 
spring  or  bend  the  tube  sheet.  A  method  has  been  practised  with 
much  success  on  the  Pensylvania  roads,  which  is  to  turn  off  an  inch  or 
more  of  the  end  of  the  wrought-iron  tube  in  the  form  of  the  frustrum  of 
a  cone,  thereby  reducing  its  thickness  one  half  at  its  extreme  end. 
The  tube  is  then  placed  through  the  tube  sheet,  and  a  thin  thimble  of 
copper,  an  inch  in  length,  and  previously  turned  off  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  tubes,  is  driven  into  the  mouth  of  the  tube,  with  its  sharpest  edge 
foremost.  After  being  driven  as  far  as  it  will  go,  the  thick  edge  pro- 
jecting outwards  is  turned  over  and  headed  in  the  usual  manner. 

The  creation  of  sufficient  blast  by  the  action  of  the  exhaust  steam 
has  also  been  attended  with  some  difficulty. 

Anthracite  requires  for  its  proper  combustion  a  very  steady  and  quite 
powerful  blast,  which  the  intermittent  and  fitful  action  of  the  blast-pipe 


of  a  locomotive  fails  of  producing.  It  has  been  attempted  by  many 
arrangements,  however,  to  render  this  kind  of  blast  regular  and  capable 
of  giving  the  required  intensity  to  the  fire.  The  pipe  described  as 
passing  up  through  the  smoke-box  of  Winan's  engine,  has  this  result 
for  its  object.  Although  steam  enters  the  bottom  of  this  pipe  by  sudden 
and  violent  impulses,  the  pipe  must  be  filled  with  steam,  which  will 
issue  in  a  very  regular  manner  from  the  top  of  it,  where  its  action  is 
first  employed  in  causing  a  draught  through  the  tubes.  It  has  also 
been  tried  to  obtain  a  regular  blast  by  letting  the  exhaust  steam  into  a 
receiver  or  box  a  foot  in  diameter  and  a  foot  high ;  this  box  being  in 
the  middle  of  the  smoke-box.  Eighteen  1-inch  tubes  in  the  top  of  this 
box  afforded  exit  for  the  steam.  This  plan,  however,  from  the  resistance 
caused  by  the  steam  on  the  reverse  side  of  the  piston  (being  solicited 
to  escape  through  so  difficult  a  passage),  has  rendered  its  operation 
inefficient. 

If  future  experience  determines  the  exhaust  steam  to  be  insufficient 
to  give  a  proper  blast  for  burning  anthracite,  it  will  become  necessary 
to  adopt  some  of  the  varieties  of  bituminous  coal,  or  a  mixture  of 
anthracite  and  bituminous  coal.  We  think,  however,  the  exhaust  steam 
will  be  found  sufficient  for  burning  the  former,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, with  a  large  exteut  of  fire-box  surface. 


COST    OF    LOCOMOTIVES. 

The  following  is  an  estimate  which  has  been  furnished  us  of 

penses  of  running  a  first-class  passenger  engine  100  miles  a  day 
year. 

Wages  of  engineman     . .          . .          . .  *8720.00 

fireman           360.00 

Wood,  4  cords  per  day,  280  days,  1,120 

cords  at  ^4.50  per  cord       . .          . .  5,040.00 

Oil,  280  gallons  at  .80 224.00 

Waste,  840  lbs        .02 16.80 

Repairs,  28,000  miles,  .06        . .          . .  1,680.00 

Water  in  Boston            100.00 

Water  and  pumping  on  road     . .          . .  150.00 

Interest  on  first  cost  of  engine  . .          . .  480.80 


the  ex- 
for  one 


Total 


£8,770.80 


Below  we  give  estimates  of  the  weights  of  some  of  the  principal  parts 
about  a  locomotive,  and  about  the  average  prices  usually  charged  for 
such  items. 

42-inch  boiler,  7,500  lbs.,  at  14c £1050-00 

135  If -inch  copper  flues,  10|  feet  long,  2,500  lbs., 

at  30c 75000 

Turning  and  driving  thimbles,  setting  do.,  &c    . .  30-00 

Solid  engine-frame,  2,5001bs.,  at  6c 150.00 

Jaws  of  wrought  iron,  l,0001bs.  at  10c 10000 

Finishing  frame     . .          . .          . .          . .          . .  150-00 

4  Driving  wheels,  for  5§-feet  diameter,  6,0001bs. 

at  3c 180-00 

1  crank  axle,  6|-  inches  finish,  l,5001bs  at  ISc.  . .  270-00 

1  straight  axle,  6501bs.  at  10c 65-00 

2  truck-axles,  3  %-inch  journals,  4801bs.  at  6c.  . .  2S-S0 
4  truck-wheels,  30-inch  diameter  . .  . .  70'00 
4  Lowmoor  tires,  5i  feet,  2,8501bs  at  13c.  . .  370-00 
Finishing  wheels,  cranks,  and  axles  . .  . .  20000 
2  cylinder  castings,  15  inches  in  diameter,  1,600 

lbs.  at  3c 48-00 

Boring  cylinders    . .          . .          ■ .          . .          . .  50-00 

2  rough  connecting  rods,  3601bs.  at  8c.  . .          . .  2S"80 


1852.] 


Cotton  and  its  Manufacturing  Mechanism. 


1.19 


THE    GAUGE    QUESTION. 

At  the  introduction  of  railroads,  engines  were  built  with  cylinders  no 
larger  than  8  inches  in  diameter.  In  1840,  we  think  there  were  no 
engines  with  cylinders  larger  than  12  inches.  In  1844,  we  had  132- 
inch  cylinders  by  47.  15  inches;  and  now,  Perkins,  on  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  road,  is  building  an  engine  with  a  20-inch  cylinder.  The 
gauge  of  our  roads  remains  the  same  now  as  it  was  a  dozen  or  fifteen 
years  ago — four  feet  eight  and  one-half  inches. inside  the  rails.  In  those 
days  two  trains  per  day,  drawn  by  the  light  engines,  were  all  which  the 
business  on  a  road  would  warrant.  Now,  we  have  twenty  to  thirty 
trains  drawn  over  our  principal  roads  daily,  by  engines  averaging  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  tons  in  weight.  These  facts  are  sufficient  to 
show  a  vast  increase  of  business  wherever  railroads  are  extended.  This 
constantly  growing  traffic  must,  at  no  distant  period,  demand  the  adop- 
tion of  a  wider  gauge  for  our  tracks.  Railroad  men  prefer  engines  with 
inside  cylinders  to  those  having  the  cylinders  outside.  Every  engine 
requires  apparatus  for  reversing  and  for  working  expansively,  and  no 
better  means,  we  think,  have  yet  been  found  to  effect  these  objects  than 
the  use  of  six  eccentrics.  Here  the  insufficiency  of  the  width  of  the 
track  becomes  evident;  it  is  only  by  economising  every  inch  of  room 
that  sufficient  space  can  be  found  to  arrange  the  work  of  an  inside 
cylinder  engine.  It  would  be  a  matter  of  very  great  convenience 
were  the  track  wider  than  at  present,  and  we  believe  that  the  experi- 
ence of  a  dozen  years  at  most  will  determine  it  to  be  a  matter  of  abso- 
lute necessity.  The  gauge  of  the  Atlantic  and  St.  Lawrence,  and  the 
Androscoggin  and  Kennebec  roads,  in  Maine,  is  five  feet  six  inches  in- 
side rails,  and  that  of  the  New  York  and  Erie  railroad  is  six  feet. 
Wherever  a  break  of  gauge  is  made,  it  would  seem  of  importance  that 
the  addition  in  width  should  be  uniform  on  all  roads,  as  a  difference  in 
tracks  disturbs  the  traffic,  inasmuch  as  no  means  exist  of  forwarding 
goods  by  such  roads,  except  by  changing  cars. 

RAILWAY    REPAIRING    SHOPS. 

Every  railroad  doing  any  considerable  amount  of  business  should 
have  sufficient  and  capacious  repair  shops  of  its  own.  The  increased 
facility  and  convenience  with  which  they  can  do  their  own  repairs,  and 
the  saving  in  the  profits  which  outside  shops  charge  them,  make  it  a 
matter  of  economy  to  repair  their  own  work.  For  a  railroad  having  15 
to  20  locomotives,  a  shop  120  by  GO  feet,  and  one  story  high,  if  pro- 
perly laid  out,  makes  a  very  convenient  repair  shop.  For  such  a  shop 
there  would  probably  be  required  for  tools,  &c, — 

One  stationary  steam  engine  (25  horse),  say  . .  ^1,500 

„  Locomotive  boiler,  with  wrought- iron  flues    . .  1 ,800 

„  Large  engine  lathe,  to  swing  6  feet     . .  . .  1,500 

„  14  feet  planiDg  machine            ..          ..  ..  800 

„  12  feet  engine  lathe,  with  screw  feed  . .  . .  350 

„  12             ditto             without  ditto      . .  . .  300 

„  10            ditto                  ditto              ..  ..  250 

„  Hand  lathe  for  iron       ..          ..          ..  ..  175 

„         Ditto        for  wood     . .          . .          . .  . .  125 

„  Bolt  cutting  machine    . .          . .          . .  . .  250 

„  Wall  drill            125 

„  Suspended  drill  for  tires           . .          . .  . .  125 

„  Machine  for  drawing  on  wheels           . .  . .  50 

„  Blower  for  blacksmith's  shop   . .          . .  . .  50 

„  Forge  hammer   . .         . .          . .          . .  . .  400 


many  would  lead  them  to  have  many  additional  tools,  such  as  one  16- 
feet  engine  lathe,  a  compound  planer,  (the  expense  of  these  two  being 
about  1,000  dollars) ;  and  for  an  increased  business,  some  would  think 
a  spliner  (500  dollars)  and  some  other  tools  necessary.  We  know, 
however,  of  some  roads  having  twenty  locomotives,  and  doing  all  their 
repairs  with  a  list  of  tools  such  as  is  comprised  in  our  original  estimate. 

COTTON  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURING  MECHANISM. 
By  Robert  Scott  Burn,  M.E.,  M.  S.  A. 
(Continued  from  page  101.) 
In  the  machine  we  have  described,  for  opening  and  cleaning 
cotton,  the  "wool,"  as  it  is  termed,  is  passed  from  it  in  a  loose  state, 
either  discharged  on  the  floor  or  into  a  basket.  In  this  state  the  cotton 
is  generally  taken  to  the  next  machine,  called  the  "scutcher,"  and  laid 
by  hand  upon  the  feed-apron ;  it  is  from  this  machine,  wound  upon 
a  roller,  and  termed  a  "  lap,"  ready  to  be  taken  to  the  next  machine — 
the  carding  engine.  It  would  obviously  be  an  improvement,  could  the 
wool  from  the  willow  be  passed  on  to  rollers  and  wound  thereon,  these 
being  taken  to  the  scutcher  with  greater  ease  than  while  in  the  loose 
state.  This  desideratum  is  proposed  to  be  effected  by  an  ingenious 
attachment  to  the  ordinary  willows  in  use,  which  we  shall,  by  the  aid 
of  a  simple  diagram,  now  endeavour  to  explain.  It  is  the  invention  of 
Messrs.  Mason  and  Collier,  of  Rochdale  and  Halifax.  The  cotton 
from  the  main  cylinder,  provided  with  the  tearing  teeth,  as  above 
described,  is  taken  up  by  the  two  rollers,  a  b  (fig.  1),  the  under  one  of 


*87,800 


We  merely  give  the  above  estimate  to  show  with  how  few  tools  and 
at  how  little  expense  the  repairing  department  of  a  railroad  may  be 
conducted.     In  arranging  such  a  shop,  however,  the  fancy  or  belief  of 


Fig.  1. 

which  is  fluted  on  its  surface.  These  pass  the  cotton  to  the  endless 
apron,  wound  round  the  two  rollers,  c  d  j  on  its  passage  along  this 
apron,  it  is  compressed  by  the  revolving  cage,  e  e,  into  a  flat  lap  ;  this 
is  passed  between  the  roller,  g,  and  apron,  on  c  d,  to  a  second  endless 
apron  on  the  rollers,  h  h.  For  cotton,  in  its  ordinary  state,  the  drum, 
e  e,  is  made  hollow,  and  its  outer  periphery  of  wire-gauze  or  other  per- 
forated metal.  A  partial  vacuum  is  maintained  in  the  interior  by  an 
exhausting  fan.  The  consequence  of  this  arrangement  is,  all  loose  dust 
or  extraneous  matter  existing  in  the  cotton,  while  passing  over  the  first 
endless  apron,  is  passed  through  the  perforations  and  led  off  to  any 
convenient  point  of  exit.  The  cotton  is  taken  from  the  second  endless 
apron,  and  delivered  to  the  lap  roller,  h  h,  in  the  following  ingenious 
manner.  Beneath  the  roller,  h,  another  roller,  m,  revolves  ;  round  this 
is  wrapped  a  long  continuous  cloth,  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  ;  this  is 
passed  under  the  endless  apron,  h  h,  over  the  end  roller  above  the 
apron,  and  is  finally  wound  upon  the  lap  roller,  n  n;  from  this  arrange- 
ment the  wool  is  delivered  to  the  cloth,  and  is  lapped  round  n  n,  the 
cotton  lying  between  the  folds  of  the  continuous  cloth.  On  the  lap- 
roller  being  filled  with  its  determinate  length  of  cloth  and  cotton,  it  is 
taken  out  of  its  bearings  and  an  empty  one  put  in  its  place.  While  on 
this  department,  it  may  be  as  well  to  notice  an  invention  by  the  same 
gentlemen,  applicable  to  machines  for  separating  cotton  from  its  ad- 


120 


Worthington  and  Baker  s  Patent  Steam-Pump. 


[June, 


hering  seeds.  This  is  exemplified  in  diagram  fig.  2.  c  is  the  revolving 
saw ;  e,  the  roller  revolving  nearly  in  contact  with  the  concave  plate,  b. 

The  cotton  passes  between  the 
^\  roller  and  concave  plate ;  this  ar- 
■angement  serves  to  keep  the 
//'  cotton  close  up  to  the  revolving 
saw,  so  that  it  is  cleaned  better 
and  quicker  than  where  this  posi- 
Fig.  2.  tion   is   not  obtained.     This  ar- 

rangement seems  likely  to  be  efficient. 

An  improved  form  of  willow  or  cotton  opener  has  been  recently 
patented  by  Mr.  Christie,  of  Sal  ford,  which  possesses  some  points  of 
novelty ;  we  shall  very  briefly  describe  it.  The  principal  peculiarity 
consists  in  holding  the  cotton  —while  passing  through  the  feed  rollers — 
at  intervals,  thus  presenting  the  fibres  for  some  time  to  the  beating  or 
opening  action  of  the  main  cylinder.  This  is  effected  by  giving  the 
rollers  not  a  continuous,  but  an  intermittent,  movement ;  while  the 
rollers  remaiu  motionless,  the  cotton  is  held  in  one  position,  but  is 
passed  on  when  they  begin  to  move.  The  intermittent  motion  of  the 
feed  rollers  is  produced  very  simply,  thus  : — At  the  extremity  of  one  of 
them  a  small  ratchet  wheel  is  fixed,  and  on  the  axis  a  loose  three-armed 
lever ;  in  close  proximity  to  the  feed  roller  a  wheel  is  placed,  having  on 
its  face  two  projecting  studs ;  one  end  of  the  three-armed  lever  is 
formed  into  a  click,  which  catches  in  the  teeth  of  the  ratchet  wheel ; 
the  other  end  is  weighted,  while  the  third  is  operated  upon  by  the  studs 
in  the  face  of  the  wheel  above  described.  As  this  wheel  revolves,  the 
studs  strike  the  end  of  the  lever  and  actuate  the  click,  and  by  this 
means  the  feed  roller ;  on  the  stud  passing,  the  end  of  the  lever  is  re- 
lieved, and  the  weighted  arm  brings  the  click  into  a  position  ready  to 
act  on  the  ratchet  teeth,  as  soon  as  the  next  stud  strikes  the  lever.  The 
cotton  opener  and  cleaner  to  which  this  intermittent  feed  apparatus  is 
attached  possesses  also  some  novelty  of  arrangement.  A  revolving 
inner  case  has  on  its  outer  periphery  a  series  of  projections  or  beaters ; 
these  pass  between  similar  projections  made  in  the  inner  periphery  of 
the  outer  case  or  cover  of  the  machine.  The  lower  part  of  the  cover 
is  made  of  a  grating,  as  usual  in  such  machines,  the  dirt  and  extraneous 
matter  passing  through  it.  The  cotton,  after  being  thoroughly  opened 
by  the  projecting  beaters,  is  passed  through  a  trap  made  in  the  case 
opposite  to  the  side  at  which  the  cotton  is  fed  to  the  machine ;  this 
trap  is  opened  and  shut  at  intervals,  by  means  of  a  flexible  door  or 
cover.  These  intervals  are  so  arranged,  that  the  beaters  have  ample 
time  to  act  on  the  cotton  contained  within  the  machine.  On  the  door 
being  opened,  the  wool  is  projected  on  to  the  periphery  of  a  revolving 
perforated  cage,  the  interior  of  which  is  partially  exhausted  by  a  fan ; 
passing  from  this  cage  to  an  endless  apron,  it  is  passed  to  the  floor  in 
baskets  prepared  for  its  reception.  The  flexible  door  which  covers  the 
trap  in  the  case,  is  partially  wound  upon  a  roller.  This  roller  receives 
motion  at  intervals  by  the  following  simple  means  : — A  rack  segment  is 
provided  with  a  lever  actuated  by  a  rod  attached  to  the  upper  end ;  the 
other  extremity  of  this  rod  is  alternately  struck  by  the  studs  placed  on 
the  face  of  the  wheel,  which  gives  motion  to  the  feed  rollers,  as  before 
described.  As  the  studs  strike  the  end  of  the  rod,  the  lever  attached  is 
moved ;  this  actuates  the  toothed  segment,  and  through  it  the  roller  on 
which  the  flexible  cover  of  the  trap  is  partially  wound. 

The  cotton  wool  thus  cleaned  is  now  ready  to  be  taken  to  the  ma- 
chine next  in  sequence ;  namely,  the  "  scutcher,"  or  "■  blower,"  as  it  is 
more  frequently  termed.  The  object  of  this  machine  is  to  open  still 
more  thoroughly,  than  was  effected  by  the  willow,  the  fibres  of  the 
cotton,  and  to  free  them  from  their  still-adhering  particles  of  extraneous 
matter.  Its  principle  consists  in  beating  the  fibres  of  cotton  as  they 
exude  from  between  two  rollers,  by  means  of  arms  of  a  rapidly  revolv- 
ing beater  or  scutcher.      Thus,  in  fig.  3,  a  a  are  the  feed  rollers,  b  b 


the  revolving  beaters  or  scutchers,  the  rate  of  revolution  of  which  is 


Fig.  3. 

between  1,800  and  2,000  turns  per  minute ;  the  cotton,  as  it  is  passed 
from  between  the  feed  rollers,  is  struck  violently,  the  dirt  passing  down 
through  the  apertures  of  the  grating,  d  d;  beneath,  a  revolving  fan 
draws  off  to  a  convenient  place  all  the  particles  of  dirt.  In  some  forms 
of  "blowers,"  the  wool,  after  passing  the  beaters,  is  at  once  projected 
on  the  floor  in  a  loose  state.  In  such  cases,  the  cotton  is  again  sub- 
jected to  the  action  of  beaters  in  a  second  "  blower,"  but,  instead  of 
being  sent  out  loosely,  the  fibres  are  lapped  round  a  roller,  and  termed 
"laps."  The  most  improved  form  of  " blower,"  however,  is  that  in 
which  the  scutching  and  lapping  are  produced  in  one  machine.  In  this 
the  cotton  taken  from  the  willow  is  fed  by  hand  to  the  blower,  being 
placed  upon  an  endless  apron,  as  c  c,  fig.  3,  and  passed  to  the  feed 
rollers;  on  exuding  from  which  it  is  struck  by  the  beaters,  the  dirt 
passing  through  the  interstices  of  the  grating  below.  The  cotton  fibres 
are  then  wafted  up  an  inclined  endless  apron,  passed  between  a  revolv- 
ing cage,  thereafter  to  rollers;  on  exuding  from  between  which,  the 
cotton  is  struck  a  second  time  by  beaters.  These  beaters  revolve  more 
rapidly  than  the  first  pair.  The  cotton  is  next  passed  to  a  second 
endless  apron,  under  a  second  revolving  cage,  passed  between  two  iron 
rollers,  which,  being  pressed  together,  in  a  manner  felts  the  cotton ;  and 
it  is  finally  wound  round  a  wooden  cylinder,  termed  the  "lap  cylinder." 
The  axis  of  this  being  loaded  by  hanging  weights,  it  bears  down 
between  two  rollers,  which,  by  their  friction,  make  the  lap  cylinder 
rotate.  As  the  lap  cylinder  becomes  filled,  it  is  evident  that  its 
diameter  increases ;  this  causes  it  to  rise  in  the  slotted  bearings,  in 
which  it  revolves,  carrying  along  with  it  the  links  which  support  the 
hanging  weights.  When  the  lap  cylinder  has  attained  the  determinate 
size,  the  supply  of  cotton  is  stopped  by  very  simple  means ;  namely,  by 
throwing  out  of  gear  the  beaters,  endless  aprons,  &c,  while  the  rollers 
turning  the  lap  cylinder  are  allowed  to  rotate,  the  delivery  rollers  no 
longer  giving  out  the  scutched  cotton  while  the  lap  cylinder  revolves ; 
the  consequence  is,  that  the  lap  is  torn  across  in  the  direction  of  its 
breadth.  The  filled  cylinder  is  then  removed,  an  empty  one  is  put  in 
its  place,  and  the  beaters,  &c,  thrown  into  gear.  The  next  machine 
which  we  have  to  notice  is  the  "lap"  machine,  the  description  and  dia- 
gram of  which  we  shall  reserve  for  our  next. 
(To  be  continued.) 

WORTHINGTON  AND  BAKER'S  PATENT  STEAM-PUMP. 

In  describing  the  application  of  this  steam-pump  to  Mr.  Copeland's 
fresh-water  apparatus  (vide  p.  73),  we  promised  to  give  details  of  this 
particular  portion  of  the  arrangement ;  a  promise  which  we  now  re- 
deem. We  have  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  it  again  at  work  at 
King's  Cross  Station,  and  are  able  to  express  our  entire  satisfaction 
with  its  performance.  Those  who  do  not  mind  waiting  some  ten  or 
twenty  years,  may  get  a  constant  high-pressure  water-supply,  accord- 
ing to  Act  of  Parliament ;  but  any  restless  spirits  have  the  opportunity 
of  obtaining  this  result  by  their  own  act,  and  of  rendering  themselves 
independent  of  either  water-companies  or  fire-insurance  offices,  by 
fixing  such  an  engine  as  this,  which  would  serve  for  a  whole  block  of 


1852.7 


Worthington  and  Bakers  Patent  Steam-Pump. 


121 


houses  and  factories.  We  should  like  to  enlarge  on  this  subject,  but 
for  the  present  we  must  forget  the  iniquities  of  water-companies,  and 
proceed  with  our  analysis. 

Fig.  1  is  an  elevation  of  section,  and  fig.  2  an  end  view,  of  the  steam- 
engine  and  pump,  constructed  on  Worthington  and  Baker's  patent, 
drawn  to  a  scale  off  inch  to  a  foot. 

The  steam  cylinder,  a,  is  bolted  down  to  the  sole  plate,  and  is  con- 
nected to  the  pump  by  a  semi-cylindrical  frame,  having  a  flange  at 
each  end.  The  chief  novelty  in  the  engine  is  the  improved  method  of 
working  the  valve,  by  which  the  concussion  usually  inseparable  from 
the  use  of  tappits  is  entirely  removed.  The  slide  valve,  b,  is,  in  fact, 
two  single  slide-valves,  joined  together ;  the  steam  passing  under  the 
valve,  through  a  recess  cast  in  the  face  of  the  cylinder  for  that  pur- 
pose. The  object  of  this  appears  to  be  to  diminish  the  pressure  on  the 
back  of  the  valve  ;  but,  inasmuch  as  the  valve  requires  to  be  enlarged 
in  size,  this  desirable  effect  is  but  partially  obtained.     To  destroy  the 


that  it  will  pass  through  the  cover ;  the  valve  and  spindle  can  thus  be 
made  in  one  piece,  and  the  handle  pinned  on.  These  valves  are  cheaper 
than  large  cocks,  can  be  kept  tighter,  and,  not  being  liable  tojamb,  are 
more  under  control. 

The  pump  is  of  the  double-acting,  plunger  form,  and  is  provided 
with  circular  India-rubber  valves,  which  work  without  noise.  The 
plunger,  h,  works  in  metallic  packing,  which  is  accessible  by  taking  off 
the  cover  at  the  back  of  the  pump.  The  pump-barrel  is  rectangular  in 
section,  the  top  and  bottom  being  formed  of  the  plates  which  form 
seats  for  the  valves,  of  which,  o  o  are  the  delivery,  and,  6  d  the  suc- 
tion. The  valves  are  simple  discs  of  India-rubber,  and  are  provided 
with  metal  guid^,  which  also  prevent  them  rising  too  high.  At  each 
end  of  the  plunger  are  holes,  n  n,  which  have  the  effect,  just  before  the 
end  of  the  stroke,  of  opening  a  communication  between  the  back  and 
front  of  the  plunger,  which  is  designed  to  mitigate  the  concussion  due 
to  the  inertia  of  the  water.     Hand-holes,  m  m,  are  provided,  to  give 


Fig.  1. 

concussion,  the  valve  is  connected  by  a  rod,  with  a  piston,  c,  working 
in  a  small  cylinder,  cast  on  the  back  of  the  slide  case,  with  which  it 
communicates  by  means  of  a  hole  drilled  through  the  cylinder  bottom. 
A  small  groove  is  cut  in  the  lower  side  of  the  cylinder,  and  the  steam 
can  thus  pass  on  both  sides  of  the  piston,  forming  a  kind  of  spring. 
When  the  tappit,  e,  attached  to  the  main  piston-rod,  strikes  either  of 
the  bosses,  g  g,  the  consequent  sudden  motion  of  the  piston  tends  to 
compress  the  steam  behind  it,  and,  as  the  steam  can  only  escape  gra- 
dually through  the  openings,  the  piston  is  retarded  and  brought  to  a 
state  of  rest ;  and  the  slide  being  always  opened  to  the  proper  extent, 
the  engine  works  with  a  smoothness  and  precision  which  we  could 
hardly  have  believed  possible,  without  being  governed  with  a  crank. 
A  handle,  /,  which  can  be  readily  lifted  out  of  gear  with  the  boss,  g, 
serves  to  move  the  slide  at  starting  the  engine.  A  stop-valve,  d,  is 
cast  on  the  slide-case.  It  is,  in  principle,  like  the  cock  of  Mr.  Chrimes 
{ante  p.  91),  the  spindle  being  screwed,  and  the  cover  forming  the 
nut.  The  most  convenient  way  of  making  these  valves  is  to  make  the 
plain  part  of  the  spindle  smaller  in  diameter  than  the  screwed  part,  so 


access  to  the  end  of  the  pump  not  furnished  with  a  loose  cover.  (In 
plate  6,  the  letter  r  is  erroneously  placed  on  one  of  the  hand-holes, 
instead  of  on  the  suction-pipe.  This  will  be  corrected  in  the  second 
edition.)  The  chambers  at  top  and  bottom  of  the  pump  are  bolted 
through  the  plates  containing  the  valves  and  the  flanges  of  the  pump. 
To  the  bottom  chamber  is  attached  the  suction-pipe,  i,  which  is  steadied 
at  top  by  being  bolted  to  the  upper  chamber,  although  there  is  no 
communication  between  them.  Similar  openings  are  cast  on  both  sides 
of  the  pump,  so  that  the  suction-pipe  may  be  attached  to  either  side, 
as  may  be  convenient,  the  openings  on  the  side  not  in  use  being  closed 
with  blank  flanges.  The  suction-pipe  is  provided  with  an  air-vessel,  s*, 
which  gives  a  more  certain  supply  of  water  to  the  pump. 

The  delivery  pipe,  t,  is  also  provided  with  an  air-vessel,  x.  The 
stop-valve  on  this  pipe  is  arranged  so  as  to  close  either  of  the  two 
branches,  one  when  it  is  down,  and  the  other  when  it  is  up.  As  de- 
scribed at  p.  74,  this  arrangement  admits  of  the  water  being  pumped 


*  Mr.  Carrett,  of  Leeds,  claims  the  merit  of  putting  an  air  vessel  on  the  suction  pipe, 
vide  p.  250,  vol.  1850. 


122 


Worthington  and  Baker's  Patent  Steam-Pump. 


[June, 


through  a  refrigerator,  or  applied  to  washing  decks,  pumping  out  bilge 
water,  or  to  extinguish  fire. 

This  engine  and  pump  looks  more  complicated  on  paper  than  it 
really  is,  but  if  it  be  dissected,  it  will  be  found  to  bear  evidence  of 
having  been  very  skilfully  designed,  a  point  on  which  comparatively 
few  engineers  lay  sufficient  stress. 

The  following  directions  are  given  by  the  makers  : — 

Secure  the  pump  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  so  arrange  as  to  have 
the  suction  pipe  as  short  as  possible.  The  length  of  the  other  pipes  is 
unimportant,  but  the  shorter  the  suction  pipe  the  better  will  the  pump 
work.  It  should  be  made  of  copper,  with  brazed  joints,  and  well  proved 
before  being  attached.  Every  other  kind  of  pipe,  if  tight  at  first,  is 
liable  to  become  imperfect  after  a  time,  by  the  combined  action  of  rust, 
and  jarring.  As  this  pipe  is  usually  covered  up,  great  trouble  is  caused 
by  the  difficulty  of  finding  a  leak,  should  one  occur. 

A  vacuum  chamber  should  be  made  by  carrying  up  the  suction  pipe  as 
shown,  with  an  offset  reaching  to  the  side  pipe ;  the  upper  end  must  be 
perfectly  closed.  This  arrangement  will  prevent  the  "  water  hammer," 
and  cause  the  pump  to  run  smoothly. 

Dimensions  of  pipes. — They  should  be  the  same  size  as  the  holes  in 
the  flanches,  if  not  more  than  ten  feet  long ;  add  one  eighth  of  an  inch 
to  the  diameter  for  every  Jive  feet  additional  length. 

Fire  engine. — The  hose  should  be  of  the  largest  size  used,  and  the 
jet  pipe  not  less  than  |  or  more  than  1^  inch  diameter. 

Heating  of  the  pump. — It  sometimes  happens  that  a  pump  will  get  so 
heated  as  not  to  work.  This  is  caused  either  by  the  water  getting  back 
from  the  boiler  when  the  pump  is  stopped,  or  else  by  the  water  in  the 
heater  becoming  too  warm  to  be  pumped.  To  guard  against  the  water 
from  the  boiler,  as  also  to  allow  of  opening  the  pump  when  it  may  be 
necessary  to  look  at  the  valves,  a  good  tight  stop-valve,  at  or  near  the 
end  of  the  force  pipe,  is  required  in  all  cases  where  the  pump  is  applied 
to  feed  a  boiler.  If  this  valve  should  become  leaky  it  wdl  cause  trouble. 
In  case  a  pump  should  get  hot  and  refuse  to  throw,  it  must  be  cooled 
by  pouring  water  upon  the  cylinder  and  pipes. 

To  start  the  pump.- — At  starting,  let  on  steam  gradually,  by  opening 
the  screw  valve,  and  work  the  valve  rod  back  and  forth  for  a  little  while 
with  the  starting  bar,  until  the  steam  cylinder  is  warmed  up  and  the 
pump  catches  water;  after  which,  set  the  steam  cock  to  give  the  re- 
quired speed.  It  is  much  more  economical,  and  every  way  better,  to 
keep  the  machine  always  moving  just  fast  enough  to  supply. 

If,  upon  trial,  the  steam  valve  is  not  thrown  with  quickness  and  cer- 
tainty, the  tappits  or  nuts  on  the  valve  rod,  at  the  end  where  it  fails, 
must  be  carried  farther  from  the  middle  of  the  valve  rod.  If,  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  thrown  so  forcible  as  to  be  noisy,  they  must  be  brought 
nearer  to  the  middle  of  the  valve  rod.  First  loosen  the  nuts,  and  then 
make  this  adjustment  while  the  machine  is  in  motion,  by  screwing  back 
or  forth  a  little  at  a  time,  until  the  exact  point  is  found  wher,e  the  pump 
runs  smoothly  at  all  speeds.  Then  tighten  up  the  nuts,  using  two 
wrenches,  to  avoid  throwing  any  twist  upon  the  rod.  These  nuts  are 
very  nearly  right  as  they  are  now  set,  but  a  little  adjustment  is  neces. 
sary  for  each  particular  case. 

Causes  of  failure. — Any  unsteady  motion  of  the  machine  proves  either 
that  the  water  valves  do  not  come  to  their  seats,  or  else  that  the  pump 
gets  air.  In  such  case,  therefore,  first  examine  the  water  valves  through 
the  hand-hole  plates,  to  see  that  no  chip  or  sediment  prevents  their 
closing.  If  the  pump  does  not  run  properly,  the  joints  about  the 
suction  pipe,  as  also  the  pipe  itself,  must  be  examined.  As  a  very  small 
leak  will  destroy  the  action  of  a  pump,  this  examination  should  be  very 
thoroughly  made.  If  the  machine  appears  to  need  it,  a  little  good  oil 
may  be  poured  into  the  steam  chest  occasionally. 

To  change  the  flanches. — The  side  pipe  will  fit  on  either  side.  A 
bend  in  the  pipe  may  thus  be  saved,  and  at  the  same  time  the  valve 


cover  be  brought  in  front,  where  it  can  be  easily  taken  off  when  neces- 
sary.    The  exhaust  fianch  may  be  also  changed  by  unscrewing  it. 

Accidents  from  frost. — In  cold  weather  great  care  should  be  taken  at 
night  to  empty  every  part  of  the  pump  and  all  the  pipes.  The  con- 
densed steam  must  also  be  drawn  oif  from  the  steam  and  exhaust  pipes- 
If  possible,  the  pipes  should  be  so  put  up  as  to  allow  the  water  to  run 
to  the  ends  without  lodging  in  the  bends.  The  cylinders  are  provided 
with  screw  plugs  for  drawing  off  the  water.  There  are  several  on  the 
underside,  which  should  not  be  overlooked. 

Lifting  water. — If  a  pump  is  applied  to  feed  a  boiler,  it  should  not 
be  required  to  lift  or  suck  the  water  through  a  distance  greater  than 
fifteen  feet  at  the  farthest.  If  it  is  to  be  heated  before  going  through 
the  pump,  the  water  should,  as  a  general  thing,  be  on  a  level  with,  or, 
if  possible,  above  the  pump.  But  if  the  water  is  only  to  be  drawn  up 
and  forced  into  a  reservoir,  the  suction  may  be  increased  to  twenty-five 
feet  if  necessary.  A  foot  valve  on  the  bottom  of  the  suction  pipe  is 
necessary  for  all  distances  over  ten  feet. 

Repairs. — After  ten  or  twelve  months'  service,  the  steam  slide  valve 
should  be  examined,  as  it  may  require  to  be  re-faced;  any  mechanic 
acquainted  with  such  business  can  easily  do  this.  In  course  of  time 
the  water  plunger  will  also  be  cut  or  worn ;  to  repair  it,  take  off  the  nut 
from  the  end  of  the  piston  rod  with  the  socket  wrench  sent  for  thi3 
purpose ;  then  draw  out  the  plunger,  also  the  ring  through  which 
it  works;  put  the  plunger  upon  a  mandril,  and  turn  it  off  exactly 
to  fit  the  ring,  which  must  either  be  bushed,  or  a  new  one  cast  and 
bored  out.  Be  careful  to  have  the  plunger  work  easily  through  the 
ring  from  end  to  end ;  put  back  the  plunger  with  the  marked  end  out. 
A  spare  ring  and  plunger  will  always  be  furnished  on  short  notice.  The 
ring  is  made  adjustable,  so  as  to  be  followed  up  by  keys  which  close  it 
down  upon  the  plunger,  and  thus  make  it  serviceable  for  a  long  time. 

Proper  working  speed. — For  this  size  80  to  100  strokes  per  minute. 
In  cases  of  emergency,  such  as  fire  or  a  leak,  it  may  be  run  much 
faster,  but  never  as  a  regular  thing. 

Errors  that  occur  in  Practice. 

Considerable  experience  has  shown  the  difficulties  which  arise  from 
neglect  of  these  directions.  They  should  be  preserved  and  kept  for 
future  reference. 

Suction  pipes. — Inattention  to  the  size  and  quality  of  this  pipe,  causes 
more  trouble  than  any  other  defect.  Some  will  insist  upon  drawing 
water  through  two  or  three  hundred  feet  of  bored  logs  that  admit  the 
air  at  every  joint,  as  well  as  through  the  pores  of  the  wood.  Others 
use  an  inch  pipe,  where  three  inches  are  required.  Others 
again  put  down  iron  pipes,  with  numerous  joints,  which  they  never 
prove ;  and  many  pipes,  otherwise  good,  are  fitted  with- leaky  cocks,  or 
connect  with  other  pumps  that  are  leaky.  As  the  pump  gets  the  blame 
in  such  cases,  it  is  fair  to  say  that,  to  run  well,  this  pump  requires  a 
suction  pipe  that  will  not  leak  air,  and  of  sufficient  size  to  fill  the 
cylinder  as  fast  as  the  plunger  recedes. 

Pumping  hot  water. — The  approved  system  of  heating  the  water,  is 
by  forcing  it  through  a  coil  in  the  force  pipe.  There  are  many,  however, 
who  still  adhere  to  the  vicious  method  of  heating  the  water  before  it  goes 
into  the  pump.  This  always  has,  and  al  ways  will,  render  the  action  of  any 
pump  very  uncertain.  It  is  likewise  wasteful,  for  under  the  best  of 
circumstances,  the  water  can  only  be  heated  to  about  180°.  The  remedy 
is  either  to  change  the  arrangement,  or  to  use  a  pump  much  larger  than 
is  necessary,  so  as  to  ensure  a  supply  when  pumping  a  small  portion  of 
water,  and  a  large  one  of  vapour. 

Altering  the  nuts  on  the  valve  rod.— After  these  nuts  have  been  once 
properly  adjusted,  they  should  be  let  alone;  it  is  a  common  error  to 
move  them  every  time  the  pump  fails — no  matter  from  what  cause. 
Hence  we  have  often  found  a  pump  of  nine  inches  stroke  working  only 


1852.] 


Modern  Improvements  in  Fire  Arms. 


123 


three.  If  the  pump  fails  to  work,  the  water  valves  or  pipes  are  probably 
at  fault. 

Running  the  pump  too  fast.  — If  a  chip  happens  to  get  under  the 
water  valve,  it  is  common  to  run  the  pump  faster  to  make  up  for  the 
leak,  instead  of  removing  the  obstruction.  Some  let  the  pump  stand 
quiet  until  the  water  gets  low,  and  then  run  it  at  the  utmost  speed. 
This  excessive  speed  is  almost  sure  to  injure  the  pump. 

Strainer  on  the  suction  pipe. — No  strainer  at  all,  or  an  imperfect 
one,  allows  chips  and  dirt  to  pass  into  the  pump,  so  as  to  interfere  with 
its  action.  In  some  places  this  causes  great  delay  and  trouble,  for  which 
the  pump  is  usually  condemned,  instead  of  the  pipe. 

Freezing. — Accidents  from  this  cause  are  constantly  occurring,  which 
strict  attention  to  the  directions  would  obviate. 

WORTHINGTON  AND  BAKER'S  PATENT  PERCUSSION 

WATEK-GAUGE. 
The  maintenance  of  a  clue  supply  of  water  in  the  boiler  of  a  steam- 
engine  is,  perhaps,  without  exception,  the  most  harassing  part  of  an 
engineer's  duty,  either  on  land  or  at  sea.  We  remember  once  meeting 
an  old  acquaintance,  who  had  been  tempted  by  liberal  pay  to  serve 
under  a  foreign  steam-boat  company  for  three  years,  without  having  a 
"  second,"  in  whom  he  could  put  confidence.  To  a  query  as  to  whe- 
ther he  had  assumed  hair-powder  to  keep  up  his  dignity,  he  shook  his 
head,  and  replied,  "  No,  sir,  but  I  never  slept  for  more  than  a  quarter 
of  an  hour  at  a  time,  without  jumping  out  of  my  berth,  fancying  that 
those  Italian  chaps  bad  let  the  water  get  low,  and  perhaps  that's 
turned  my  hair  grey."  For  such  a  case,  we  fear,  there  is  no  remedy, 
for,  with  the  best  apparatus,  some  men  will  be  careless ;  but,  at  any 
rate,  we  cannot  do  wrong  to  give  them  the  best  means  in  our  power  of 
detecting  the  danger.  Glass  water-gauges  were  a  great  step  in  advance 
of  gauge-cocks,  but  they  have  disadvantages  peculiar  to  themselves. 
The  glasses  break,  or  the  passages  choke  up  and  deceive  the  engineer 
as  to  the  true  water-level.  In  boilers  of  large  size,  too,  the  glass  is 
too  high  up  to  he  conveniently  seen ;  and,  above  all,  at  night  time, 
mistakes  are  liable  to  be  made.  The  percussion  water-gauge  obviates 
all  these  difficulties  by  having  no  parts  liable  to  be  broken  or  to  choke 
up,  and  appealing  as  it  does  to  the  sense 
of  feeling,  can  hardly  be  mistaken,  even 
by  the  most  obtuse.  As  shown  in  the 
engraving,  it  consists  of  a  small  cylinder 
of  cast  iron,  some  four  or  five  inches 
diameter,  connected  to  the  boiler  by  two 
pipes,  a  and  b,  which  are  led,  the  former 
into  the  steam,  and  the  latter  into  the 
water,  where  it  is  not  likely  to  be  influ- 
enced by  currents.  These  pipes  are  not 
absolutely  necessary,  but  in  some  cases 
the  apparatus  is  not  efficient  without 
them.  A  free  communication  existing 
between  the  cylinder  and  boiler,  the 
water-level  will  stand  at  the  same  height 
in  each.  In  this  cylinder,  a  piston,  c,  is 
fitted,  attached  to  a  piston-rod,  passing 
through  a  stuffing-box  in  the  top  of  the 
cylinder,  and  having  connected  to  it  a  rod 
and  handle,  rf,,  of  such  a  length  as  to  be 
within  convenient  reach  of  the  engineer. 
In  the  piston  are  one  or  two  holes,  which 
effect  a  communication  between  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  cylinder.  It  is  obvious 
that  if  the  handle  and  piston  be  brought  down  smartly  on  the  water  in 
the  cylinder,  they  will  be  arrested  rather  abruptly,  when  the  pistonreaches 


the  water-level,  and  the  position  of  the  index,  e,  on  the  rod,  will  indicate 
the  height  of  the  water  in  the  boiler.  However  much  the  water  may 
prime  in  the  boiler,  the  level  in  the  gauge  will  be  a  fair  average,  and  as 
each  time  the  gauge  is  tried  a  portion  of  water  will  be  driven  through  the 
lower  pipe  of  communication,  the  latter  will  be  thereby  kept  clear.  We 
know  that  this  gauge  has  met  with  universal  success  in  the  United 
States,  and  we  predict  for  it  a  similar  result  in  this  country,  so  soon  as 
its  merits  shall  have  become  known. 

MODERN  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  FIRE-ARMS. 

(Concluded  from  p.  95.) 

The  projectile  force  of  gunpowder  depends  upon  the  evolution  of 
various  gases,  the  volume  of  which,  at  the  moment  of  explosion,  cannot 
be  accurately  determined.  A  cubic  inch  of  powder  is  converted  by 
ignition  into  about  250  cubic  inches  of  permanent  gases,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Hutton,  are  increased  in  volume  eight  times,  at  the  moment 
of  formation,  by  the  expansive  influence  of  heat.  At  this  rate,  ignited 
powder  (says  Dr.  Scoffern),  will  exert  at  least  a  force  of  2,000  lbs.  on 
every  square  inch !  Good  powder  should  be  rather  brown  than  black ; 
the  grains  should  be  firm,  not  crushing  by  the  pressure  of  the  finger, 
not  clotted  together,  and  totally  devoid  of  smell. 

The  disagreeable  smell  which  sometimes  arises  from  bad  powder,  is 
caused  by  the  employment  of  too  great  a  heat  in  fusing  the  nitre.  This 
decomposes  it  partially,  and  the  nitrate  of  potash,  re-acting  on  the 
sulphur,  forms  sulphuret  of  potassium,  and  this  in  its  turn  re-acting  on 
aqueous  moisture,  yields  hydro-sulphuric  acid  gas,  to  which  the  dis- 
agreeable odour  is  attributable.  The  simplest  plan  of  analysing  powder 
(as  to  the  relative  proportions  of  its  true  ingredients),  is  by  first  dis- 
solving out  the  nitre  by  means  of  pure  water,  then  the  sulphur  by  aid 
of  a  solution  of  potash,  thus  isolating  the  charcoal.  Each  of  these  sub- 
stances, when  dry,  may  be  weighed.  Dr.  Scoffern  takes  some  pains  to 
expose  the  fallacious  idea  which  many  persons  have  entertained,  who 
propose  to  attain  a  greatly  increased  range  for  projectiles  by  the  employ- 
ment of  fulminating  compounds  more  powerful  than  ordinary  gunpowder. 
An  ounce  of  powder,  fired  loosely,  makes  scarcely  any  noise,  but  in  a 
musket  would  be  a  much  larger  charge  than  would  be  requisite  for  an 
ordinary  ball.  An  ounce  of  fulminating  silver,  on  the  other  hand — nay, 
but  who  would  dare  to  handle  an  ounce  of  such  a  substance  ? — say,  the 
ninety-sixth  part  of  an  ounce,  or  five  grains;  well,  five  grains  of  ful- 
minating silver  are  taken  out  of  a  paper,  with  much  trembling,  touched 
with  no  hard  substance,  for  fear  of  an  explosion,  then  gently  laid  upon 
a  piece  of  metal,  say  a  penny  piece ;  then  suppose  it  ignited,  by  means 
of  a  very  long  stick,  with  a  match  at  one  end,  and — begging  the 
operator's  pardon — with  a  somewhat  rash  man  at  the  other ;  what  is  the 
result?  A  terrible  crash,  which  deafens  the  operator  for  some  days, 
and  the  penny  piece  is  almost  bent  double  !  "  How  strong  !"  exclaims 
the  non-chemical  operator,  "  how  well  this  will  project  a  ball !"  He  tries 
a  small  charge  in  a  musket,  and  what  are  the  results  ?  The  gun  is 
burst,  the  iron  literally  rent  into  threads  and  fragments,  the  ball  perhaps 
is  projected,  but  to  a  very  inconsiderable  distance  ;  if  of  lead,  flattened, 
as  if  by  a  hammer;  if  of  cast-iron,  broken  into  fragments  J  Now,  which 
shall  we  say  is  the  stronger  substance,  gunpowder  or  fulminating  silver? 
It  will  be  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  projectile  value  of  a  substance 
depends  not  only  on  the  intensity  of  the  explosion  or  suddenness  of  the 
liberation  of  the  gases,  but  on  its  duration. 

Dr.  Scoffern  shows  the  difficulty  of  accomplishing  those  extreme 
ranges,  which  have  been  proposed,  if  sufficient  momentum  is  to  be  ob- 
tained by  an  initial  impulse.  The  resistance  of  the  atmosphere 
increases  so  rapidly  with  the  velocity  of  the  ball,  that  a  point  is  soon 
arrived  at,  beyond  which  no  force  will  increase  the  velocity.  The 
author  therefore  suggests  that,  as  far  as  we  know  at  present,  the  only 
path  open  is  the  employment  of  a  shell  and  rocket  combined,  the  latter 


124 


Improvements  in  Bullets  and  Bullet  Moulds. 


[June, 


being  lighted  after  the  former  has  arrived  at  its  extreme  range,  by 
which  means  the  rocket  could  be  carried  to  a  still  greater  distance. 

Another  difficulty,  however,  arises — the  impossibility  of  directing 
such  projectiles  with  any  degree  of  accuracy.  Take  the  case  of  a  com- 
mon musket,  the  path  of  a  ball  fired  from  which,  does  not  merely  vary 
in  the  same  proportion  as  its  distance  from  the  barrel  increases,  but  is 
excessively  irregular  after  the  first  50  yards  of  its  flight.  The  remedy 
of  rifling  the  barrel,  which  answers  so  admirably  for  small  arms,  is 
beset  with  difficulties  when  applied  to  large  guns.  The  expense  of  lead 
as  a  material  for  expansive  bullets  on  the  Delvigne  system  (vide  p.  16) 
renders  it  inadmissible.  Breech  loading  guns,  although  Sweden  con- 
tributed a  splendid  specimen  to  the  Exhibition,  are  not  to  be  depended 
on  if  of  cast  iron,  and  would  be  very  expensive  if  of  wrought  iron. 
Experiments  have  been  made  at  Woolwich  with  feathered  shot,  which 
can  be  thrust  by  hand  down  the  mouth  of  the  gun  ;  but  although  the 
results  gave  hopes  of  ultimate  success,  they  have  not,  we  believe,  been 
officially  reported.  Mr.  Lancaster  has,  indeed,  struck  out  in  a  new 
path,  by  making  the  bore  oval  and  twisted,  on  the  rifle  principle.  Of 
this  plan,  which  is,  at  least,  very  ingenious,  no  experience  has  been 
yet  had,  except  by  the  inventor. 

Rockets  have  scarcely  as  yet  assumed  the  importance  which 
they  are  likely  to  do  in  the  event  of  any  European  war,  where,  from 
the  proximity  of  the  scene  of  operations,  criticism  would  be  more 
vigilant.  In  our  war  with  China,  rockets  were  found  most  efficacious 
in  setting  fire  to,  and  exploding  the  war  junks,  and  whilst  we  are  wri- 
ting, they  may  be  setting  Rangoon  in  flames.  The  construction  of  the 
Cougreve  rocket  differs  from  the  ordinary  rocket  in  the  case  being  made 
of  sheet  iron,  and  the  stick  being  placed  centrically  with  the  case,  the 
discharge  issuing  through  the  annular  space  around  the  stick.  Rockets 
may  be  fired  from  a  tube,  when  accuracy  of  aim  is  a  desideratum,  or 
they  may  be  merely  laid  on  the  ground  and  fired,  when  directed  against 
a  body  of  troops.  In  any  case,  their  erratic  and  fiery  course  carries 
destruction  with  it,  and  no  horse,  however  disciplined,  will  stand  the 
hissing  of  a  rocket.  Sir  W.  Congreve,  indeed,  imagined  that  their 
portability,  freedom  from  recoil  and  rapidity  of  discharge,  would  cause 
them  almost  to  supersede  artillery  altogether.  The  weight  of  a 
12-pounder  gun  is  18  cwt.,  while  that  of  a  12-pounder  rocket  tube, 
which  projects  the  same  weight  of  ammunition,  and  at  least  to  the  same 
distance,  is  only  20  pounds.  The  freedom  from  recoil  is  an  important 
advantage,  as  it  permits  of  their  being  fired  from  a  boat,  where  a 
heavy  gun  would  be  inadmissible.  In  field  operations,  six,  twelve  and 
eighteen  pounder  rockets  are  usually  employed,  but  they  are  made  as 
large  as  300-pounders,  nor  does  there  appear  any  limit  to  their  size. 
The  chief  objection  to  their  use  is  thetroible  which  the  stick  occasions, 
and  even  this  difficulty  appears  to  have  been  completely  obviated  by 
Mr.  Hale,  who  causes  the  gases  evolved  to  be  emitted  in  such  a  way 
that  the  rocket  assumes  a  rotatory  motion,  like  that  of  a  rifle  ball.  The 
precise  means  employed  are  kept  secret,  but  have  been  communicated 
to  the  American,  Swiss,  French  and  Russian  governments.  A  single 
10-pounder  rocket  was  fired  at  Woolwich  by  Mr.  Hale,  on  March  30th, 
1849,  from  a  wrought-iron  tube,  moving  on  a  cast-iron  stand.  The 
rocket,  being  discharged  at  an  angle  of  20  degrees,  without  previously 
grazing,  penetrated  10J  feet  into  wet,  close,  loamy  soil,  at  the  distance 
of  1,733  yards,  which  is  scarcely  less  than  the  effect  of  a  12-pounder 
shot  at  the  same  distance. 

Mr.  Hale  has  introduced  an  improvement  also  in  the  manufacture, 
by  forcing  the.  material  into  the  case  by  a  hydraulic  press,  instead  of  by 
ramming,  as  ordinarily  practised.  In  the  firing  of  his  rockets,  also, 
Mr.  Hale  has  introduced  a  new  principle,  by  confining  them  in  their 
tube,  or  on  their  rest,  until  they  have  acquired  a  certain  predetermined 
initial  force.  Thus,  for  a  10-pound  rocket,  Dr.  Scoffern  says,  the  in- 
ventor uses  a  repressive  force  of  6  pounds,  which  the  rocket  has  to 


Kg.  i. 


overcome,  before  it  can  commence  its  flight.  The  advantage  of  this 
contrivance  is  evident.  As  ordinarily  fired,  as  soon  as  the  inertia  and 
friction  are  overcome,  the  rocket  rushes  forth  into  the  air,  but  in  con- 
sequence of  a  deficiency  of  initial  velocity,  it  droops  on  first  emerging 
from  the  tube,  and  thus  loses  its  accuracy  of  flight.  Mr.  Hale's  plan 
prevents  this. 

IMPROVEMENTS  IN  BULLETS  AND  BULLET  MOULDS. 

A  new  bullet,  destined  possibly  to  supersede  the  necessity  of  rifling 
guns,  has  been  invented  by  Captain  M.  A.  Maher.  The  bullet  is 
shaped  in  section  like  the  Delvigne  or  Minie,  but  dispenses  with  the 
use  of  the  cap.  The  powder  entering  the  hollow  in  its  base,  expands 
the  lead  sufficiently  to  attain  all  purposes.  But  its  chief  feature  is, 
that  the  ball  is  itself  rifled — if  we  may  be  allowed  to  use  the  ex-' 
pression — instead  of  the  barrel,  as  shown  in  the 
subjoined  sketches,  fig.  1  being  an  elevation,  and 
fig.  2  a  plan.  The  upper  portion  is  quatrefoiled 
or  divided  into  four  curvilinear  parts  or  quarters, 
each  quarter  being  slightly  raised  to  the  left,  and 
depressed  on  the  right,  the  line  of  division  from 
the  apex  to  the  circumference  assuming  a  slightly 
hyperbolic  direction.  The  lower  or  cylindrical 
portion  of  the  bullet,  instead  of  being  grooved 
into  a  series  of  parallel  rings  as  of  late,  is  made 
with  a  single  groove  passed  round  spirally,  like  the  thread  of  a  screw. 
The  combination  of  the  raised  hyperbolic  pro- 
jections round  the  apex,  and  the  spiral  screw  of 
the  lower  cylindrical  portion,  adds  materially  to 
the  rapidity  of  the  rotatory  motion  obtained 
while  passing  through  the  air — which  necessarily 
ensures  increased  precision  in  the  line  of  direction 
being  realized.  The  invention  has  been  se- 
cured under  the  name  of  the  "  Mars"  bullet,  and  we  hope  shortly  to 
be  able  to  lay  before  our  readers  a  detailed  account  of  the  results  of 
the  experiments  that  are  being  carried  on,  as  compared  with  trials 
with  the  ordinary  Minie  bullet.  We  need  scarcely  remark  that  its 
adaptation  to  ordinary  fire-arms  is  not  the  least  valuable  recommen- 
dation of  this  invention. 

We  now  proceed  to  explain  the  latest  improvements  which  have 
taken  place  in  the  construction  of  moulds.  The  rapidity  of  the  means 
of  manufacturing  bullets  was  somewhat  impeded  in  consequence  of 
their  being  apt  to  stick  to  one  or  the  other  of  the  "  halves"  of  the 
mould,  until  the  invention  of  the  "  Campion"  mould  lately  registered. 
To  the  axle  or  centre  of  motion  of  the  handles  is  affixed  a  metal  plate, 
the  upper  surface  of  which  supports  the  spill,  and  works  in  the 
same  plane  as  that  of  the  lower  sides  of  the  "  halves,"  so  that  when 
the  mould  is  closed,  a  precise  adjustment  of  the  spill  takes  place.  A 
pin  projecting  from  the  lower  arm  of  the  mould,  catches  in  one  of  two 
projections  on  the  metal  plates,  and  separates  it  from  the  halves,  and 
with  it  the  bullet  carried  by  the  spill.  The  only  points  of  this  design 
which  are  not  new  are  the  additional  plate  which  supports  the  spill, 
and  the  projections  above  mentioned. 

Except  in  the  case  of  the  Beckwith  mould  (ante  p.  76),  and  one  or 
two  others,  the  lead  is  generally  introduced  at  the  apex  of  the  bullet ; 
and,  as  in  the  "  Mars"  bullet,  that  happens  to  form  the  more  import- 
ant part  of  its  configuration,  it  became  necessary,  in  order  to  provide 
a  mould  for  its  manufacture,  to  substitute  some  fitter  mode  of  effect- 
ing the  casting.  Another  serious  objection  raised  against  moulds  of 
the  ordinary  construction,  is  that  the  air  being  allowed  no  other 
escape  than  the  aperture  at  which  the  lead  is  introduced,  expansion  by 
heat  and  compression  by  pressure,  act  as  antagonistic  forces  within  the 
cavity  of  the  mould,  producing  beds  of  lead  in  layers,  flaws,  and  often 


1852.  j 


Beet  Sugar  Manufacture. 


125 


air-holes,  which  materially  alter  the  dynamical  centre  of  the  mass  cast. 
A  perfect  geometrical  outline  and  perfect  solidity  are  indispensable 
characteristics  of  a  good  bullet. 

In  order,  to  ren^edy  these  evils,  seyeral  improvements  have  been 
introduced  in  the  "  Mars  Bullet  Mould,"  designed  for  Captain  Maher 
by  F.  P.  Rovere,  C.  E.,  and  shown  in  the  subjoined  illustrations. 

Fig.  3  is  an  eleyation  with  the  fr.on^t  half  removed  to  show  the  in- 
ternal arrangement;  and 


fig.  4  a  plan  with  the 
halves  closed.  These 
are  formed  with  the 
apex  of  the  mould 
placed  downward,  the 
lower,  side  of  the  cutter 
working  on  the   plane 


J?ig-  3. 


Fig.  4. 


of  the  bullet  opposed  to  the  direction  of  its  motion  through  the  at- 
mosphere. The  cone 
is  affixed  to  the  cutter, 
and  the  plate  of  the 
Campion  mould  altoge- 
ther dispensed  with. 
The  cutter  is  provided 
with  two  perforations, 
the  one  for  the  admis- 
sion of  the  lead,  and 
the  other  for  the  escape  of  the  air.  By  means  of  the  bar  and  slot 
working  on  the  axis  of  motion  of  the  handles,  and  two  small  radius 
bars  shown  in  the  plan,  the  angle  formed  by  the  opening  of  the 
halves  is  bisected  by  the  vertical  plane  passing  through  the  slot  and 
centre  of  the  spill  and  cutters.  By  simply  opening  the  handles,  the 
bullet  not  only  disengages  itself  from  the  halves,  but  drops  by  its  own 
gravity  into  a  box  or  other  receptacle  placed,  to  receive  it,  without 
the  mould  having  to  be  inverted  as  of  old.  The  chief  advantages 
of  the  arrangement  are  these  : — The  air  being  allowed  an  escape,  the 
bullet  can  be  cast  perfectly  solid;  and,  in  the  next  place,  the  whole 
of  the  surface  of  the  bullet  which  has  to  encounter  any  resistance 
from  the  atmosphere  is  left  perfect,  no  portion  whatsoever,  of  its 
curvilineal  surface,  having  to  be  cut  off  by  the  cutter. 

BEET  SUGAE  MANUFACTURE. 

with  plans  of  sugar  works,  as  constructed  by  m. 
Dewilde,  Engineer. 

Translated  for  Tlie  Artizan  from  the  French  of  M.  Armengaud  Aing. 
(Illustrated  by  Plates  11  and  12). 

The  interest  which  the  introduction  of  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar 
into  the  sister  kingdom  has  created-  amongst  that  large  and  important 
class  who  are  dependent,  more  immediately  upon  the  cultivation  of  the 
soil,  has  induced  us  to  undertake  the  collection  of  information  on  this 
subject.  In  France  and  Belgium  this  manufacture  has  made  con- 
siderable progress,  and  it  is  to  them  that  we  must  look  for  instruction. 
In  the  following  paper  it  is  necessary  to  remark,  that  we  have  aimed  at 
giving  the  spirit,  rather  than  a  literal  translation. 

Much  prejudice  has  existed,  and  still  exerts  a  considerable  influence, 
on  the  subject  of  beet-root  sugar.  It  is  generally  supposed  to  be 
lighter,  less  sweet,  and  less  wholesome  than  the  sugar  extracted  from 
the  cane.     These  are  errors  which  it  is  important  to  eradicate. 

The  celebrated  Chaptal  has  said, on  this  subject,  "  Sugars  extracted, 
from  different  plants  are  identical  in  their  nature,  and  differ  in  no' 
respect  when  they  are  carried  by  refining  to  the  same  degree  of  purity. 
The  flavour,  crystallization  colour,  and  weight,  are  identically  the  same ; 
and  any  man,  however  well  accustomed  to  judge  or  to  consume  these 


products,  may  be  defied  to  distinguish  one  from  another." — (Chaptal — 
Chimie  appliquee  a  V Agriculture.) 

No  industry  has  given,  in  so  short  a  time,  results  to  be  compared 
with  those  of  the  home  sugar  manufacture. 

It  was  in  1747,  says  M.  Girardin,  in  his  Traite  de  Chimie  Elementaire, 
that  Margraff,  of  Berlin,  discovered  in  the  beet  root  a  crystallizable 
sugar,  identical  with  that  of  the  cane.  The  Baron  Koppi,  and  Achard, 
of  Berlin,  were  the  first  who,  forty  years  afterwards,  endeavoured  to 
apply  this  discovery  of  the  laboratory  in  practice.  It  was  not,  however, 
in  France,  until  1810,  when  Napoleon  lent  it  his  powerful  aid,  that  this 
idea,  pregnant  with  such  important  results,  was  realized  by  them. 
After  numerous  vicissitudes,  the  extraction  of  home-grown  sugar  has 
become  a  most  important  branch  of  industry,  since,  in  1837,  there  were 
more  than  500  establishments,  producing  upwards,  of  50  millions  of 
kilogrammes.  At  the  present  time,  in  spite  of  the  shackles  of  the 
excise,  there  exist  no  less  than  400  factories,  producing  from  35  to  40 
millions  of  kilogrammes  of  sugar,  which  complete,  with  the  produce  of 
our  colonies,  the  quantity  necessary  for  home  use,  vi?.,  from  120  to 
13.0  millions  of  kilogrammes. 

It  is  in  the  departments  in  the  North  of  France,  that  this  manufac- 
ture is  concentrated,  more  particularly  in  l'Aisne,  la  Somme,  le  Pas  de 
Calais,  and  le  Nord.  This  last  Department  produces  more  than  the 
other  there  collectively,  and  gives  France  one  half  of  her  home-grown 
sugar. 

In  1811,  beet  sugar  produced  to  the  manufacturer  5  francs  per  kilo- 
gramme. At  the  present  time  it  only  costs  from  90  centimes  to  1 
franc,  and  there  is  every  probability  that  the  price  will  descend  to  30 
centimes  the  kilogramme. 

The  beet  roots  are  ordinarily  used  immediately  after  the  crop  is 
taken  up,  the  excess  being  preserved  in  pits  or  trenches,  from  1  metre 
to  1^  metres,  in  dqpth.  The  roots,  after  being  piled  up,  are  covered 
with  a  thick  coat  of  earth,  ridged  up,  and,  drains  are  dug  on  each  side 
of  the  trenches  to  lead  off  the  rain. 

In  spite  of  the  most  minute  precautions,  the  roots  suffer  more  or  less 
alteration,  and  the  sugar  produced  diminishes  both  in  quantity  and 
quality  as  the.  season  advances.  One  process  only,  says  M.  Dumas, 
can  prevent  this  serious  loss,  and.  that  is  desiccation  immediately  after 
the  crop  is  taken  out  of  the  ground- 

Numerous,  attempts  to  accomplish  this  end  have  given  hope  that 
agriculture  will,  one  day,  enjoy  the  immense  advantages  which  the 
manufacture  of  beet  sugar  has  hitherto  but  partially  yielded,  and  when 
the  desiccated  beet,  converted  at  a  low  cost  by  the  cultivator,  and 
brought  into  the  market  like  grain,  can  be  used  at  the  time  and  place 
most  suitable,  and  thereby  reduce  the  price  of  sugar  to  the  lowest  pos- 
sible figure. 

Mr.  Schutzenbach  is  the  first-person  who  has  drawn  public  attention 
to  the  desiccation  of  beet  root,  by  founding  at  Carlsrube  a  factory  for 
this  purpose.  His  apparatus,  which  is  on  the  large  seale,  is  composed 
of  a  high  and  narrow  chamber,  furnished  with  a  series  of  metal  endless 
bands,  forming  "  carriers/'-  placed  •  one  over  the  other,  and  moving  in 
the  direction  of  the  length- of  the  chamber.  They  are  arranged  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  material,  after  .travelling  along  one  band,  falls  on  to 
the  next  lower  one,  and  so  on  until  it  reaches  the  bottom.  The  beet 
root,  cut  into  slices  and  distributed  over  the  topmost  band,  and  carried 
over  the  successive  bands,  to  the  bottom,  and  meeting  with  an  ascending 
current  of  "hot, air,,  is  robbed  of  its  humidity,  and  is  delivered  perfectly 
desiccated. 

'The  beet-roots,  after  being  dried,  are  reduced  to  powder;  this  is 
converted  into  paste  and  diluted  with  double  its  weight  of  water,  slightly 
acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  then  submitted  to  the  action  of  a 
press,  to  obtain  the  juice  as  little  turbid  and  discoloured  as  possible. 
This  juice  is  then  neutralized  with  lime,  boiled  and  refined  in  the  or- 

17 


126 


Notes  by  a  Practical  Chemist. 


[June, 


dinary  way.  M.  Schutzenbach  says,  that  they  thus  obtain  9  per  cent, 
of  crystallized  sugar. 

This  process  has  hardly  been  adopted  to  the  extent  that  it  appears 
to  deserve;  nevertheless,  in  Bavaria,  Wurtemburgh,  and  Baden,  there 
are  some  large  establishments  which  make  use  of  it,  and  with  further 
improvements  made  in  it  by  M.  Jordan. 

M.  De  Lirac,  proprietor  at  Sarriannes,  employs  the  heat  of  the  sun 
to  effect  the  desiccation  with  more  economy.  The  slices  of  beet-root 
are  sprinkled  with  lime,  and  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  from  10 
hours'  exposure  to  which  they  lose  70  per  cent,  of  their  weight.  It  is 
evident  that  it  is  only  in  the  summer  that  this  method  is  available. 

M.  Forbin  Janson,  of  Avignon,  proposed,  in  1840,  a  process  consist- 
ing in  sprinkling  the  slices  of  beet-root,  in  proportion  as  they  are  cut, 
with  animal  charcoal,  vegetable  or  mineral,  reduced  to  a  fine  powder. 
This  substance  contributes  to  preserve  the  beet-root  from  all  alteration, 
occasioned  at  first  by  the  contact  of  the  air  with  the  juice  issuing  from 
the  cells,  in  proportion  as  they  are  cut  by  the  slicing  apparatus,  and 
later,  by  the  humidity  which  the  dried  roots  absorb  in  great  abundance 
from  the  atmosphere.  It  contributes  also  to  render  the  process  of  ex- 
traction of  the  sugar  more  easy,  during  the  maceration,  by  drawing  out 
the  saccharine  particles  contained  in  the  cells.  Above  all,  it  quickens 
the  desiccation  of  the  beet-roots  in  the  sun,  and  gives  in  this  way  to 
the  manufacturer,  a  process  which  unites  all  the  advantages  that  can  be 
desired.  The  proportion  to  be  observed  in  the  use  of  charcoal  is,  two 
to  three  parts  of  charcoal,  according  to  the  quality,  to  100  of  fresh 
beet. 

DETAILS    OF    SUGAR    MANUFACTURE. 

The  extraction  of  the  saccharine  matter  from  the  beet,  and  its  conver- 
sion into  the  refined  sugar  of  commerce,  form  a  series  of  operations, 
which  may  be  enumerated  as  follows  : — ■ 

Treatment  of  the  Beet-root. — 1,  washing;  2,  rasping;  3,  squeezing. 
This  last  operation  is  replaced  in  some  of  our  factories,  by  processes 
bearing  the  titles  of  maceration,  levigation  or  lixiviation;  that  is,  in  a 
word,  the  extraction,  strictly  speaking,  and  the  preliminary  treatment 
of  the  saccharine  juice. 

Treatment  of  the  juice. — 1,  defecation;  2,  first  filtration;  3,  first 
evaporation;  4,  second  filtration;  5,  boiling;  6,  crystallization  ;  7,  the 
filling,  and  minor  completing  details. 

We  shall  describe  each  of  these  processes  in  detail,  in  analysing  the 
the  plans  of  a  complete  sugar  works,  shown  in  plates  11  and  12. 

(To  be  continued). 


NOTES  BY  A  PRACTICAL   CHEMIST. 


New  Test  for  Ultramarine. — Dilute  1  part  sulphuric  acid  with 
20  parts  of  water.  Weigh  off  equal  quantities  (from  50  to  100  grains) 
of  the  samples  to  be  compared,  and  place  each  in  a  separate  glass. 
Add  acid  until  the  blue  colour  becomes  red,  and  no  blue  particles  are 
visible.  The  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  consumed  shows  the  degree  of 
colouring  power,  and  may  be  ascertained  either  by  weighing  or  by 
means  of  a  graduated  pourette.  If  smalt  be  present,  the  blue  colour  is 
not  completely  destroyed.  If  the  effervescence  is  violent,  the  presence 
of  carbonates  may  be  suspected,  and  the  gases  given  off  tested  for  car- 
bonic acid. 

New  Test  for  Indigo. — The  process  requires — 1.  A  solution  of 
sulphite  of  soda.  100  parts  crystallized  carbonate  of  soda  are  dissolved 
in  500  parts  water,  and  saturated  with  the  sulphurous  acid  prepared 
from  100  parts  copper  and  400  parts  of  sulphuric  acid. 

2.  A  solution  of  chlorate  of  potassa. — 4  grms.  dry  chlorate  potassa 
are  dissolved  in  as  much  water  as  will  make  up  400  cubic  centimetres 
(6,177  grs.  Troy). 


3.  The  solution  of  indigo. — 1  grm.  finely  ground  indigo  is  dissolved 
in  10  grms.  fuming  sulphuric  acid,  and  diluted  to  fill  200  cubic  centim. 
In  applying  the  test,  50  cubic  centimetres  of  the  indigo  solution  are 
measured  off  with  a  pipette,  poured  into  a  porcelain  dish,  diluted  with 
200  cubic  centim.  water,  and  heated  to  about  122°  Fah.,  then  mixed  with 
50  cubic  centim.  of  the  solution  of  the  sulphite,  and  finally  the  solution 
of  chlorate,  dropped  in  by  means  of  a  pourette,  until  all  the  colour  is  de- 
stroyed. In  order  to  judge  how  the  process  is  going  on,  the  mixture  is 
tested  from  time  to  time  by  a  strip  of  paper,  whose  colour  may  be  ob- 
served, when  held  to  the  light.  The  last  drops  must  be  added  very 
cautiously,  allowing  them  to  run  down  the  sides  of  the  dish.  A  second 
experiment  should  be  made  with  another  50  centimetres,  to  check  the 
result. 

Prevention  of  Incrustations  in  Steam-boilers. — M.  De- 
landre  states  that  he  has  succeeded  in  preserving  tubular  boilers  free 
from  incrustation,  by  placing  2 lbs.  protochloride  of  tin  in  a  boiler 
which  works  12  hours  daily  with  a  pressure  of  3  atmospheres,  consum- 
ing in  this  time  1,500  to  1,600  quarts  of  water,  and  is  only  emptied 
and  refilled  once  in  eight  days.  For  steam-boilers  which  are  emptied 
daily,  and  are  of  great  power,  the  consumption  of  protochloride  should 
be  calculated  at  half  a  pound  for  every  cubic  metre  of  water  evaporated. 
The  protochloride  of  tin  is  changed  by  the  water  into  an  insoluble  basic 
and  a  soluble  acid  salt ;  the  latter  dissolves  the  earthy  and  calcareous 
salts. 

Manufacture  of  Gas  from  Wood. — Two  years  ago  Dr.  Petten- 
kofer  showed  by  experiment  that  a  considerable  amount  of  illuminating 
gas  could  be  obtained  from  2  ounces  of  wood.  The  practicability  of  the 
process  on  a  large  scale  was  then  much  doubted.  It  is  now,  however, 
in  operation  at  Basel,  and  is  about  to  be  introduced  at  Zm-ieb,  Stock- 
holm, and  Drontheim.  The  process  is  said  to  be  far  less  expensive 
than  the  manufacture  from  coal,  and  furnishes  a  gas  free  from  sulphu- 
retted hydrogen,  besides  several  useful  by-products,  such  as  charcoal, 
wood-tar,  and  vinegar. 

Notes  on  Caoutchouc  and  Gutta  Percha. — M.  Payen  has 
made  an  examination  of  the  various  kinds  of  caoutchouc  and  gutta 
percha  occurring  in  commerce.  The  following  are  some  of  his  re- 
sults : — ■ 

The  kinds  distinguished  in  commerce  are  : — 1.  White,  opaque  caout- 
chouc, in  masses  more  or  less  bulky.  2.  In  irregular  sheets  or  lamina?, 
at  times  transparent  and  yellowish.  3.  Another  sort  in  thick  plates,  or 
round  (hollow  or  solid)  brownish-grey  opaque  masses.  4.  Brown 
caoutchouc,  of  the  same  shape,  semi-transparent  and  yellow,  when  in 
thin  plates. 

Internal  Texture. — In  thin  laminae,  numerous  pores  are  observed 
under  the  microscope,  which  by  capillary  attraction  absorb  liquids  in 
which  the  mass  is  insoluble. 

Action  of  Water.  —  Thin  slices  of  dry  caoutchouc  of  the  best 
quality,  absorbed  in  a  month  from  18-7  to  26-4  per  cent,  of  water. 
The  former  increased  in  volume  5,  the  latter  15*75  per  cent.  In  a  very 
long  time,  thick  caoutchouc  also  imbibes  water,  and  dries  again  very 
slowly.  The  quantity  of  water  thus  present  should  be  noticed  in  com- 
merce, since  the  actual  value  of  the  article  may  thus  be  decreased  as 
much  as  26  per  cent.  A  white  colour,  as  mark  of  superior  quality,  is 
totally  fallacious.  Besides,  the  absorbed  water  diminishes  the  tenacity 
and  ductility  of  the  caoutchouc.  Threads  and  straps  of  caoutchouc, 
heated  to  60° — 70°  Fah.,  and  cooled  to  32°,  remain  stiff  and  ex- 
tended, even  at  common  temperatures,  but  contract  at  once  and  become 
elastic,  when  heated  to  95° — 104°  Fah.  The  whiteness  and  opacity  of 
caoutchouc  are  caused  almost  entirely  by  absorbed  water,  for,  on  dry- 
ing, it  becomes  brown  and  transparent. 

Absolute  alcohol  penetrates  caoutchouc,  especially  when  heated  to  1 7*2' 
Fah.    Thin,  transparent  slices,  repeatedly  digested  in  alcohol,  became 


1852.] 


Moons  Hollow  Bricks. 


127 


opaque  within  eight  days.  They  grew  adhesive,  and  increased  in  bulk 
and  weight,  although  the  spirit  had  extracted  21-thousandth  of  a  yellow, 
fusible,  fatty  matter.  After  removal  of  the  alcohol,  the  portions  of  caout- 
chouc were  more  transparent  and  adhesive  than  before. 

Action  of  Solvents. — Ether,  benzine,  oil  of  turpentine,  and  sulphuret 
of  carbon  are  rapidly  absorbed  by  the  caoutchouc,  which  they  swell  out 
and  apparently  dissolve.  But  this  seeming  solution  is  simply  the  con- 
sequence of  a  dissolved  portion  being  deposited  in  the  pores  of  the 
remainder,  which  is  thus  distended  and  rendered  friable.  If  the  solvent 
be  added  in  excess,  these  two  portions  may  be  almost  entirely  separated. 
The  properties  of  both  portions  are  found  altered,  upon  evaporation  of 
the  solvent.  Pure  ether  extracts  from  caoutchouc  66  per  cent,  of  an 
amber  colour,  leaving  34  per  cent,  of  a  brown.  Rectified  oil  of  turpentine 
extracts  from  brown  caoutchouc  49  per  cent  of  an  amber  colour,  leaving 
a  brown  insoluble  matter  to  the  extent  of  51  per  cent.  .  In  pure  oil  of 
petroleum,  although  a  portion  dissolves,  the  remainder  swells  out  to  30 
times  its  former  bulk. 

The  best  solvent  is  a  mixture  of  100  parts  of  sulphuret  of  carbon  with 
6-8  parts  of  alcohol,  free  from  water.  The  caoutchouc  liquifies  rapidly, 
producing  a  clear  solution,  from  which  it  may  be  again  precipitated  by 
the  addition  of  twice  its  bulk  of  absolute  alcohol,  whilst  the  fatty  and 
colouring  matters  remain  in  solution.  The  precipitate,  treated  with  a 
fresh  quantity  of  sulphuret  of  carbon,  re-dissolves,  yielding  a  more  per- 
fect solution.  In  the  admirable  process  of  Gerard,  for  spinning  caout- 
chouc, a  paste  is  obtained,  by  treating  the  caoutchouc  with  a  mixture 
of .%  parts  of  sulphuret  of  carbon  with  5  of  ordinary  alcohol  containing  15 
per  cent,  of  water.  He  has  further  observed,  that  threads  of  caoutchouc, 
which  may  be  stretched  to  six  times  their  length,  may  be  elongated  six 
times  more,  after  exposure  to  a  temperature  of  212°.  The  caoutchouc 
of  commerce  contains  the  following  substances,  in  various  proportions : 
1,  readily  soluble,  ductile,  adhesive  matter;  2,  sparingly  soluble,  highly 
tenacious,  elastic,  extensile  matter;  3,  fatty  matter;  4,  volatile  oil;  5, 
colouring  matter;  6,  nitrogenized  matters;  and,  lastly,  water  up  to  26 
per  cent.  No  one  of  these  ingredients  singly  possess  the  elasticity  and 
extensibility  of  the  entire  mass. 

Gutta  percha  is  separated  by  the  same  solvents  into  2  parts ;  the  one 
soluble  and  colourless,  the  other  insoluble  and  coloured.  Sulphuret  of 
carbon,  with  the  addition  of  6-8  per  cent,  absolute  alcohol,  is  the  best 
solvent. 

Direct  Production  of  the  Hydracids  by  means  of 
Porous  Bodies. — H.  Correnwinder,  by  means  of  porous  bodies, 
(spongy  platinum  and  pumice  stone)  has  succeeded  in  generating  the 
hydracids  from  the  direct  contact  of  their  components.  Thus  he  has 
obtained  very  pure  hydriodic  acid,  by  passing,  at  a  moderate  heat,  dry- 
hydrogen  gas  over  platinum  sponge,  which  has  absorbed  the  vapour  of 
iodine.  Hydrobromic  acid  is  thus  formed  with  still  greater  readiness, 
and  hydro-sulphuric  and  hydro-selenic  acids  by  substituting  pumice 
stone  for  platinum.  In  these  bodies  there  exists  a  cheap  and  powerful 
source  of  force  which  will  doubtless  ere  long  find  extensive  application 
in  manufactures. 

Estimation  of  Iron  by  means  of  a  Colorimeter. — Mr.  T. 
J.  Herapath  proposes  the  following  method,  applicable  especially  to  the 
examination  of  mineral  waters  : — A  standard  solution  of  perchloride  of 
iron,  containing  a  little  less  than  tto  grain  metallic  iron,  per  cent.,  is 
prepared  by  dissolving  1  grain  iron  in  hydrochloric  acid  with  the  addi- 
tion of  a  little  nitric  acid,  evaporating  nearly  to  dryness,  and  diluting 
to  10,000  grain  measures  with  distilled  water  at  60°;  and  from  this,  other 
standard  solutions  of  different  strengths  were  formed.  A  suitable 
quantity  of  the  water  in  question,  generally  half  a  gallon,  was  evapo- 
rated to  dryness,  and  the  residue  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid.  The 
iron  contained  in  the  solution  having  been  peroxidized  by  boiling  with 
a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid,  the  silica  and  other  insoluble  matter  were 


separated  by  filtration,  and  the  peroxide  of  iron  precipitated  with  am- 
monia. The  latter  precipitate  was  collected  on  a  filter,  and  well  washed 
with  water;  then  re-dissolved  in  the  smallest  possible  quantity  of  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  the  liquid  being  placed  in  a  tube  or  phial  of  known 
capacity,  was  diluted  with  pure  water  until  it  reached  a  mark  on  the 
side  indicating  1000  water  grain  measures,  a  few  drops  of  sulphocyanide 
of  potassium  having  been  previously  added.  The  depth  of  tint  was 
compared  with  that  of  the  standard  solutions  above  mentioned  con- 
tained in  tubes  of  similar  diameter,  in  which  known  quantities  of  iron 
from  the  i$m  to  the  i  of  a  grain  were  contained  in  the  same  bulk  of 
water.  In  order  to  render  the  comparison  of  the  tints  more  perfect, 
the  tubes  were  placed  agaiust  a  sheet  of  white  paper,  and  held  between 
the  eye  and  a  diffused  light.  In  this  manner  the  author  was  able 
to  estimate  ^  grain  of  iron  per  gallon  with  readiness.  It  was  some- 
times found  preferable  to  employ  but  one  standard  solution.  The  pro- 
portion of  iron  in  the  liquid  tested  was  then  determined  by  measuring 
the  volume  of  water  that  was  required  to  lighten  the  tint,  so  as  to  render 
it  identical  with  that  of  the  normal  solution,  or  vice  versa. 
answers  to  correspondents. 

"  E.  Vivian."  We  cannot  again  enter  into  the  washing  powder 
controversy,  more  especially  as  you  have  no  new  argument  to  bring 
forward.  We  extend  our  challenge  to  you  also  ;  forward  your  sample, 
and  if  it  fulfils  the  conditions  requisite,  we  will  gladly  own  ourselves 
mistaken. 

"  22,  Birmingham."  The  patent  to  which  you  allude  actually  pro- 
poses to  convert  uric  acid  into  oxalic,  although  the  former  is  by  far  the 
more  valuable  of  the  two.  We  should  be  very  glad  of  a  method  for 
converting  oxalic  into  uric. 

"  A  Calico  Printer."  The  colouring  principles  of  insects,  though 
they  infinitely  surpass  all  others  in  beauty,  have,  with  the  exception  of 
cochineal,  not  been  as  yet  found  available.  From  our  own  experiments, 
we  have  been  led  to  doubt  the  probability  of  their  being  soon  rendered 
of  any  practical  value.  The  pigments  are  exceedingly  small  in  quan- 
tity, and  difficult,  for  the  most  part,  to  extract  unchanged.  Many  of 
the  most  exquisite  colours,  moreover,  seem  to  depend  rather  upon  the 
mechanical  structure  of  the  surface  than  upon  any  peculiar  tinctorial 
principle.  If  our  correspondent  has  time  and  inclination,  we  would 
suggest  to  him  to  experiment  upon  the  family  of  beetles  known  to 
naturalists  under  the  name  Chrysomelidae,  and  especially  the  genus 
Timaicha. 

S. 

MOON'S   PATENT  HOLLOW   CHIMNEY  BRICKS. 

(Illustrated  by  Plate  9.) 

Since  the  removal  of  the  blighting  influence  of  the  Excise  laws,  brick- 
making  seems  likely  to  be  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  science,  if  we  may 
judge  from  the  amount  of  ingenuity  expended  in  devising  new  modifica- 
tions of  not  merely  bricks,  but  every  description  of  fictile  manufacture. 
We  have  a  stock  of  articles  to  notice,  as  soon  as  we  can  find  room  for 
them,  amongst  which  we  select,  on  the  present  occasion,  Moon's  hollow 
chimney-bricks.  The  barbarous  method  of  building  chimney-shafts, 
as  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation,  is  well  known.  The 
rectangular  form,  to  begin  with,  is  wrong  in  principle,  and  the  system 
of  lining  them  with  plaster  is  one  of  the  most  dangerous  and  insidious 
sources  of  fire  that  we  are  acquainted  with.  The  pargetting  is  raked 
out,  in  cleaning  the  chimney,  the  mortar  falls  out  of  the  joints,  and  the 
smoke  insinuates  itself,  as  it  has  a  most  extraordinary  tendency  to  do, 
into  all  the  crevices  behind  the  woodwork  of  the  rooms,  lying  drying, 
until  it  becomes  as  susceptible  of  ignition  as  gunpowder.  In  the 
house  which  the  writer  of  these  lines  has  the  misfortune  to  tenant,  the 
smoke  issues  from  the  crevices  round  the  skirting,  in  both  dining  and 
drawing  rooms, to  the  manifest  injury  of  the  furniture,  and  the  destruction 
of  the  peace  of  mind  of  the  occupier.  For  these  evils,  Mr.  Moon's  ar- 
rangement offers  a  satisfactory  remedy.  All  cutting  of  the  bricks,  and 
pargetting,  is  saved,  and  a  perfectly  smooth  and  cylindrical  interior  to 
the  chimney  is  obtained.  From  their  hollow  form,  500  of  these  bricks 
will  do  as  much  work  as  1,000  of  the  ordinary  form.  The  plate  shows 
all  the  arrangements  so  clearly,  that  further  description  is  almost 
needless.  The  inventor  suggests  that  the  bricks  for  the  external  shafts 
may  be  also  used  for  building  piers  or  pillars,  and,  set  upright,  as  blocks 
for  cornices.  The  dies  are  manufactured  by  Mr.  Clayton,  of  the  Atlas 
Works. 


128 


Statistics  of  Lowell  Manufactures. 


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Reviews. 


129 


REVIEWS, 

The  Practice  of  Embanking  Lands  from  (he  Sea.     By  John  Wiggins, 

E.G.S.  London:  Weale.  Rudimentary  Series. 
There  is  probably  no  branch  of  civil  engineering,  if  we  except  hy- 
draulics, of  which  so  little  is  known  by  the  profession  generally  and 
the  public,  as  the  reclamation  of  land  from  the  sea.  It  is  in  the 
eastern  counties,  north  of  the  Thames,  that  the  art  has  been  most 
needed  and  practised,  and  it  is  precisely  in  those  counties  that  the 
least  commercial  enterprize  and  activity  have  prevailed.  The  opera- 
tions have  been  mostly  conducted  on  the  small  scale,  and  have  ex- 
cited but  little  attention  beyond  the  districts  in  which  they  took  place. 
Indeed,  so  low  an  opinion  have  the  midland  counties  formed  of  the 
East  Anglians,  that,  at  a  recent  lecture  at  the  Society  of  Arts,  Mr. 
Forbes  attributed  the  removal  of  the  woollen  manufacture  from  Nor- 
wich to  Bradford,  to  the  want  of  energy  on  the  part  of  the  losers,  in  not 
adopting  new  machinery,  instead  of  attributing  it,  as  he  ought  to  have 
done,  we  conceive,  to  a  combination  of  causes,  amongst  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  difference  in  the  price  of  fuel.  However  this  may  be, 
we  are  much  obliged  to  Mr.  Wiggins  for  his  very  sound  and  practical 
work,  with  the  merits  of  which  we  must  endeavour  to  make  our 
readers  acquainted. 

In  calculating  the  strength  required  for  an  embankment,  it  is  ob- 
viously all  but  impossible  to  lay  down  any  theoretical  rules.  Our 
author  does  so,  but  recommends  (as  has  been  done  with  some  en- 
gineers' estimates)  to  double  the  result  "  in  practice."' 

A  sea  bank*  must,  it  is  obvious,  possess  the  following  qualifications. 
It  must  be.  heavy  enough  to  counterbalance  the  weight  of  the  water 
it  has  to  sustain ;  the  materials  must  be  sufficiently  cohesive  to  with- 
stand the  erosive  action  of  the  waves ;  and  to  prevent  leakage,  the 
foundation  must  be  stable  and  water-tight ;  and  the  height  must  be 
such,  that  the  most  extraordinary  high  tides,  which  may  occur  in 
connexion  with  particular  winds,  shall  not  be  liable  to  overtop  the 
bank. 

Sand,  as  being  the  only  material  at  hand,  is  often  used  for  sea- 
banks,  although  it  is  never  to  be  recommended,  from  its  want  of 
cohesion.  At  any  rate,  the  bank  must  be  of  increased  dimensions  to 
compensate  for  its  deficiency,  and  must  be  protected  with  stone,  or 
clay  and  turf.  After  all,  so  insidious  is  the  attack  of  the  sea,  in  suck- 
ing out  the  loose  sand  and  undermining  the  bank,  that  it  is  acknow- 
ledged that  "  no  art  nor  expense  whatever  can  always  ensure  a  sea- 
bank  on  a  sandy  shore,  and  in  an  open  exposed  situation,,  from  con- 
siderable damage." 

Clay  forms  a  good  material,  and  the  bank  may  be  of  diminished  size, 
but  the  materials  must  be  well  combined.  "  Some  banks  have  failed 
in  consequence  of  the  sods,  even  of  clay,  being  loosely  thrown  together 
by  m,eans  of  planks  and  harrows,  and  mixed  with,  loose  earth,  the 
water  thus  being  enabled  to  percolate  the  earth,  surrounded  the  sods, 
and  rendered  them  almost  buoyant,  so  that  the  whole  mass  separated 
and  dispersed;  whereas  the  loose  earth  ought  to  have  been  either 
collected  under  the  pressure  of  carts  and,  horses,  or  rammed  down  hard 
with  iron  shod  rammers,  and  the  sods  placed  carefully  outside,  to  de- 
fend the  most  exposed  part." 

We  believe  that  in  these  words  in  italics  the  whole  art  consists. 
Every  one  who  has  had  any  experience  in  foundation  work,  knows 
the  value  of  ramming  or  "  punning  ;"  for  example,  no  person,  without 
previons  experience,  would  believe  what  can  be  done  by  merely,  ram- 
ming loose  material  together  in  a  wooden  frame,  as  in  pise  work. 
Practical  hints  on  the  subject  of  foundations  will  be  found  in  1848 
vol.,  p.p.  198-222. 

Stiff  clay  is  commonly  used  in  Essex  for  sea-banks,  "taken  from 

*  It  appears  correct  to  call  a  long  slope  a  "  sea-bank,"  as  a  nearly  vertical  erection  of 
stone  is  called  a  "  sea-.-^all." 


the  saltings  or  oozy  forelands,  and  is  therefore  in  a  wet  state,  and 
very  ponderous.  It  is  dug  in  spits,  and  packed  into  a  sea-wall  by  a 
process  called  '  flood  flanking  ;'  the  barrow-men  delivering  the  spits  to 
the  packers,  who  take  each  spit  on  a  pitchfork,  and  striking  it  hard 
into  its  place,  it  adheres  closely ;  but  as  these  spits  contract  in  drying, 
the  crevices  outside  are  therefore  filled  with  mud,  which  is  called 
'  sludging.' "  This  leaves  the  centre  open,  which  often  causes  leaks,  &c. 

At  the  first  blush,  the  reader  will  probably  be  surprised  to  hear 
that  "  Peat  is  a  good  material,  not  only  by  reason  of  its  stanching,  but 
also  its  adhesive  qualities  when  packed  in  a  moist  state,  so  as  to  form 
a  tolerably  homogeneous  mass.  Its  defects  are,  lightness  (requiring  to 
be  heavily  weighted  with  stone),  and  aptitude  to  split  in  drying, 
forming  crevices."  "  Peat  is  supposed  to  be  liable  to  decay,  and  run 
into  a  black  mould ;  but  for  this  it  requires  atmospheric  influence  and 
changes ;  and  in  fact,  a  peat  sea-bank,  which  was  opened  after  being 
built  17  yearSj  exhibited  the  material  as  fibrous  and  undecayed  as 
when  first  deposited.  It  had  been  covered  and  compressed  with  from 
1  to  3  feet  of  stone  and  gravel.  This  peat  bank  was  built  across  a 
sandy  estuary,  where  it  was  deemed  too  hazardous  to  make  use  of  any 
portion  of  the  sand,  in  the  construction  of  the  bank,  the  points  aimed 
at  being  its  fixation  and  compressure." 

Stone  has  failed,  as,  although  well  cemented,  it  will  never  remain 
water-tight.  A  case  of  this  kind  occurred,  on  the  large  scale,  at  Tre 
Madoc,  in  Carnarvonshire. 

Gravel,  when  on  the  spot,  may  be  extensively  used  with  advantage 
as  a  footing  to  the  slope^  forming  an  artificial  beach,  and  a  good  road- 
way. It  does  not  possess  sufficient  cohesion  (in  the  author's  opinion) 
to  form  the  heart  of  the  bank,  but  a  coating  may  be  applied  before  the 
stone  facing  is  laid  down.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  this  is  simply  a 
question  of  a  supply  of  material,  because  it  is  remarked,  "  A  wall  of 
pise,  or  rammed  gravel  in  a  frame,  might  very  judiciously  be  adopted 
for  2  or  3  feet  of  the  centre  of  the  bank;"  and  again,  "  Gravel  might 
be  substituted  for  stone  or  any  other  facing  of  the  whole  bank,  and  to 
qualify  it  for  this  valuable  application,  it  is  only  requisite  to  give  the 
bank  sufficient  slope,  so  as  to  resemble  a  natural  sea  beach ;  and  if 
the  original  shore  is  muddy,  a  coating  of  6  inches  of  gravel,  over  18 
inches  of  mud,  would  probably  form  a  facing  not  to  be  surpassed."  If 
gravel,  therefore,  will  serve  both  for  the  heart  and  the  faeing  of  the 
bank,  it  leaves  little  else  to  be  desired.  Its  use  resolves  itself  into  a 
question  of  labour  versus  materials ;  as  Mr.  Wiggins  himself  puts  it, 
"  Even  soft  wet  mud,  costing  3c?..  per  cubic  yard  to  throw  up,  may  be 
fixed  and  consolidated  into  cement  by  the  addition  of  one-third  gravel 
brought  to  mix  with  it,  costing  1*.  per  cubic  yard,  making  the  whole 
to  average  6d.  per  cubic  yard."  In  this  way,,  materials  on  the  spot, 
which  might  be  rejected  on  account  of  their  unpromising  appearance, 
when  wet,  may  be  worked  up  to  advantage.  "  On  the  other  hand,  some 
soils  are  extremely  firm  and  even  difficult  to  pick  up  in  their  present 
site,  but  when  raised  and  exposed  to  atmospheric  influence,  resume 
the  state  in  which  they  were  first  geologically  deposited.  Examples 
of  this  kind  were  frequent  upon  the  construction  of  the  Eastern  Coun- 
ties Railway,  about  Chelmsford,  wher.e  the  diluvial  clays,  upon  ex- 
posure, again  became  mud." 

The  conclusion,  then,  that  we  wish  to  be  drawn  from  our  remarks, 
and  the  author's  argument,  is,  that  due  attention,  should  be  paid  to  the 
perfect  combination  of  the  materials,  as  well  as  ta  the  magnitude  of 
the  bank.  A  bank  of  moderate  thickness,  well  laid,  will  be  more  to  be 
relied  on,  and  cost' less  in  repairs^  than  any  erection  in  which  bulk 
is  its  only  protection ;  nor  must  it  be  forgotten,  in  calculating  the 
relative  pecuniary  advantages,  that  a  saving  in  material,  which  has  to 
be  raised,  even  if  not  brought  to  the  spot,  will  assist  in  paying  for  the 
labour  requisite  to  ensure  its  cohesion. 

(To  be  continued.) 


130 


The  Great  Central  Gas  Company. 


[June, 


Tables  for  Calculating  Cuttings  and  'Embankments,  with  Explanations 
and  Examples.  By  James  Henderson,  C.E.  8vo.,  pp.  29.  Lon- 
don: Simpkin  and  Co. 
Tables  generally  do  not  admit  of  much  criticism ;  their  value  is  best 
tested  by  their  lying  on  the  office  table.  Mr.  Henderson,  however, 
has  stated  his  "case"  so  pithily,  that  we  cannot  do  better  than  allow 
him  to  state  it  in  his  own  words. 

"  The  principal  feature  in  the  construction  of  tables  1  and  2  con- 
sists in  the  application  of  a  new  formula  for  calculating  the  sides  or 
pyramidal  parts  of  cuttings  and  embankments.  The  formula  at  pre- 
sent generally  in  use  is  J  (a2  +  a  b  -f  b2)  L,  a  and  b  being  the  height 
or  depth  of  cutting  or  embankment  at  each  end,  and  L  the  length. 
The  formula  adopted  for  these  tables  is  (H2  +  -h  ^2)  L,  H  being 
the  mean  height  or  depth,  and  D  being  the  difference  of  heights  or 
depths.  In  tables  computed  from  the  former  formula,  separate  quan- 
tities  require  to  be  given  for  every  variation  of  a  and  b;  but  with  the 
latter,  by  the  arrangements  followed  out,  one  quantity  only  is  neces- 
sary for  all  heights  or  depths  having  the  same  mean,  and  one  for  all 
heights  or  depths  having  the  same  difference.  These  tables  thus 
possess  the  advantage  of  being  rendered  very  comprehensive  within  a 
very  limited  space,  while  they  are  at  the  same  time  extremely  simple 
and  easily  applied  to  practice.  To  carry  out  a  table  for  the  pyramidal 
or  side  parts  of  cuttings  and  embankments,  based  on  the  old  for- 
mula, for  every  tenth  of  a  foot  of  height  or  depth,  from  one-tenth  up 
to  fifty  feet,  upwards  of  125,000  different  quantities  are  required, 
but,  by  means  of  the  new  formula,  the  whole  can  be  comprised  within 
1,000." 

It  is  only  justice  to  Mr.  Henderson  to  say,  that  the  setting  up  of 
the  tables,  as  to  order  and  type,  is  such  as  to  do  him  great  credit. 

Whilst  on  this  subject,  we  will  take  the  opportunity  of  unburden- 
ing our  minds  of  a  grievance.  During  the  last  few  years,  the  stock 
of  tables  in  our  library  has  swollen  to  such  dimensions,  that  it  is  often 
more  trouble  to  find  a  particular  column  in  a  particular  book,  than  it 
is  to  run  out  the  result  for  one's  self.  If  they  were  only  all  of  one  size, 
say  octavo,  they  could  be  bound  up  with  a  MS.  index,  and  their  use- 
fulness immensely  increased.  Could  not  the  various  authors  of  tables 
combine,  and  do  something  of  this  kind  ? 

THE  GREAT  CENTRAL  GAS  COMPANY. 

REPORT  TO  THE  COMMON  COUNCIL,  BY  DR.  LETHEBY. 

As  our  readers  well  know,  we  have  taken  great  interest  in  the  pro- 
gress of  the  cheap  gas  movement ;  and  it  is,  therefore,  with  much 
pleasure  that  we  publish  the  report  of  so  eminent  a  man  as  Dr.  Letheby, 
which  settles  the  question  as  to  quality  of  the  gas  supplied  to  the  City. 
We  know  the  price. 

Gentlemen, — -Nearly  three  months  have  elapsed  since  I  had  the  honour 
of  being  elected  to  the  office  of  chemical  referee  under  the  act  of  the  Great 
Central  Gas  Consumers' Company;  and  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of 
this  act,  and  instructions  which  I  have  received  from  the  Court  of  Common 
Council,  I  beg  leave  to  present  you  with  my  first  report  of  the  illuminating 
power  and  chemical  quality  of  the  gas  supplied  to  the  city  of  London  by  the 
aforesaid  Company. 

This  Court  will,  perhaps,  remember  that,  in  the  23rd  section  of  the  Com- 
pany's act  (14th  and  15th  Vict.),  it  is  decreed,  "That  all  the  gas  supplied  by 
the  Company  shall  be  of  such  quality  as  to  produce  from  an  Argand  burner, 
having  15  holes  and  a  seven-inch  chimney,  and  consuming  5  cubic  feet  of  gas 
per  hour,  a  light  equal  in  intensity  to  the  light  produced  by  12  wax  candles 
of  six  in  the  pound,  burning  120  grains  per  hour;  and  such  gas  shall  be  su- 
perior in  purity  to  the  gas  in  common  use  at  or  about  the  7th  day  of  Decem- 
ber, 1849,  by  any  of  the  Companies  who  then  lighted  the  city  of  London  or 
any  part  thereof  with  gas." 

Prom  this,  it  is  clear  that  the  duties  which  I  am  called  to  perform  are  of 
a  twofold  nature — namely,  first,  to  ascertain  whether  the  illuminating  power 


of  the  gas  supplied  by  the  Company  is  equal  to  the  standard  laid  down  in 
the  act;  and  secondly,  to  determine  whether  the  purity  or  chemical  quality  of 
the  gas  is  or  is  not  superior  to  that  which  was  in  common  use  in  the  city  of 
London  at  or  about  the  7th  day  of  December,  1849. 

In  order  to  determine  the  first  of  these  points,  I  have,  within  the  last  three 
months,  performed  as  many  as  30  experiments  on  the  illuminating  power  of 
the  gas.     These  experiments  have  been  conducted  at  various  times  during 
the  day  and  night,  and   have  also  been  made  without  the  previous  know- 
ledge of  the  Company,  or  of  any  of  its  officers.     I  ought  also  to  state  that, 
for  the  purpose  of  guarding  against  every  source  of  fallacy  and  error,  I  have 
taken  the  precaution  to  trace  the  pipe  which  supplies  the  gas  to  my  labora- 
tory to  its  origin  in  the  Company's  main;  I  have  had  my  experimental 
meters  subjected  to  the  most  rigid   examination  by  your   inspector,  Mr. 
Taunton  ;  I  have  used  the  best  means  for  procuring  wax  candles  of  known 
purity,  by  purchasing  them  at  two  of  the  most  respectable  houses  in  the  city 
of  London,   namely,  at  Mr.  Batty's,  on  Pinsbury- pavement,  and  Messrs. 
Cowan,  of  Mansion-house-street ;  I  have  employed  the  most  delicate  photo- 
meters ;  and,  finally,  I  have  taken  care  to  record  the  details  of  my  experi- 
ments in  a  volume  which  I  have  designed  expressly  for  the  purpose.    I  trust, 
therefore,  that  the  Court  will  consider  the  following  results  to  be  as  truthful 
and  as  complete  as  the  circumstances  of  the  case  will  permit: — 

Out  of  the  thirty  experiments  alluded  to,  I  find  that,  on  one  occasion,  the 
illuminating  power  of  the  Company's  gas  was  as  low  as  that  of  13  standard 
wax  candles  ;  this,  however,  is  one-twelfth  higher  than  the  intensity  required 
by  the6act  of  Parliament.      On  every  other  occasion,  it  was  considerably 
above  this  point,  and  in  one  instance  it  had  actually  reached  to  the  intensity 
of  22'2  standard  candles.     To  take  the  mean  of  all  my  experiments,  it  may- 
be said  that  the  average  illuminating  power  of  the  gas,  when  burnt  accord- 
ing to  the  act  of  Parliament  directions,  is  equal  to  that  of  17  wax  candles, 
each  burning  at  the  rate  of  120  grains  per  hour.    From  this  it  will  be  evident 
that  the  Company  have,  during  the  last  three  months,  supplied  to  the  city 
of  London  a  gas  of  nearly  one-half  greater  illuminating  power  than  that 
specified  in  their  act  of  Parliament. 

Not  content,  however,  with  this  mode  of  investigating  the  facts  of  the 
case,  1  have  instituted  another  set  of  experiments,  the  results  of  which  will 
enable  the  Court  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  relative  value  of  this  gas  as  com- 
pared with  other  common  illuminating  agents.     When  the  gas  is  burnt  ac- 
cording to  the  act  of  Parliament  directions,  it  gives  a  light  equal  to  that  of 
of  23  mould  candles  of  six  to  the  pound,  each  burning  at  the  rate  of  145 
grains  per  hour;  or  that  of  18  common  oil  lamps,  each  burning  the  best  sperm 
oil  at  the  rate  of  133  grains  per  hour;  or  to  that  of  2 -5  Argand  lamps  burn- 
ing the  same  oil  each  at  the  rate  of  450  grains  per  hour;  or  to  that  of  13 
sperm  candles  of  six  to  the  pound,  each  burning  at  the  rate  of  133  grains 
per  hour;  or  to  that  of  15  composition  candles  of  six  to  the  pound,  each 
burning  at  the  rate  of  136  grains  per  hour. 

Now,  if  we  make  an  inquiry  into  the  relative  cost  of  these  illuminating 
agents,  we  shall  find  that  the  facts  thereof  may  be  expressed  as  follows: — 
The  Company's  gas,  equal  to     . .  . .  . .  . .  . .        1 

Sperm  oil,  burnt  in  an  Argand  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .        8 

Mould  tallow  candles,  of  six  to  the  pound       . .  . .  . .      12 

Sperm  oil,  burnt  in  an  open  lamp  ..  ..  ..         ..17 

Sperm  candles,  of  six  to  the  pound       ..  ..  ..  ..24 

Composition  candles,  of  six  to  the  pound         . .         . .  29 

Wax  candles,  of  six  to  the  pound        . .  . .  . .  30 

In  other  words,  by  estimating  the  cost  of  the  Company's  gas  at  4s.  per  1,000 
cubic  feet,  the  price  of  mould  candles  at  6rf.  per  lb.,  the  value  of  sperm  oil 
at  8s.  per  gallon,  and  the  price  of  wax,  sperm,  and  composition  candles  at 
2s.  per  lb.,  it  may  be  said  a  shilling's  worth  of  the  Company's  gas  will  go  as 
far  in  the  production  of  light  as  8s.  worth  of  sperm  oil  burnt  in  an  Argand 
lamp,  or  12s.  worth  of  ordinary  mould  candles,  or  17s.  worth  of  sperm  oil 
burnt  in  an  open  lamp,  or  24s.  worth  of  sperm  candles,  or  29s.  worth  of 
composition  candles,  or  30s.  worth  of  wax  candles. 

In  concluding  this  part  of  my  report,  I  take  the  opportunity  of  suggest- 
ing, that  in  my  opinion  it  is  advisable  to  make  an  alteration  in  the  present 
mode  of  estimating  the  luminosityof  the  gas;  and  that,  instead  of  employing 
a  wax  candle  as  the  standard  of  comparison,  it  would  be  better  to  make  use 
of  a  sperm  candle  which  burns  at  the  rate  of  130  grains  per  hour,  for  I  find 


1852.] 


The  Screw  Propeller,  "  San  Jacinto? 


131 


that  the  illuminating  power  and  consumption  of  wax  are  much  affected  by 
accidental  and  uncontrollable  circumstances.  The  consequence  is,  that  the 
value  of  the  light  so  produced  is  far  from  being  a  fixed  and  certain  product, 
besides  which,  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  obtain  a  commercial  candle 
of  the  act  of  Parliament  standard ;  for  it  will  be  found  that,  instead  of  burning 
at  the  rate  of  120  grains  per  hour,  their  combustion  is  usually  at  the  rate  of 
from  170  to  180  grains.  This  difference  complicates  the  results,  and  ex- 
poses them  to  the  errors  of  false  calculation. 

With  regard  to  the  second  part  of  my  duty,  I  beg  leave  to  say  that  I 
have  submitted  the  gas  to  very  careful  examination,  with  the  view  of  de- 
tecting two  of  the  common  impurities  of  coal  gas,  namely,  ammonia  and 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  but  I  find  that  it  is  particularly  free  from  these  de- 
leterious compounds.  In  this  respect  the  gas  is  purer  than  that  which  was 
formerly  supplied  by  the  metropolitan  companies.  I  speak  from  my  own 
experience  in  the  matter,  for  it  happened  that  I  was  officially  engaged,  in  the 
month  of  October,  1849,  in  testing  the  quality  of  the  gas  supplied  by  two  of 
the  companies  to  the  city  of  London;  and  I  have  no  hesitation  whatever  in 
saying  that  the  gas  furnished  at  the  present  time  by  the  Great  Central  Gas 
Consumers'  Company  is  superior,  both  in  purify  and  in  illuminating  power, 
to  that  which  I  had  the  opportunity  of  examining  three  years  ago. 

A  report  has  obtained  currency  that  the  gas  which  is  supplied  by  the 
present  Company  is  largely  diluted  with  atmospheric  air.  Upon  this  point  I 
would  remark  that,  if  such  a  condition  of  things  actually  existed,  one  of  two 
consequences  would  infallibly  result — either  the  gas  would  be  reduced  in 
illuminating  power,  or  it  would  become  explosive,  and  would  not  burn  from 
the  jets  at  all.  That  the  former  is  not  the  case  is  evidenced  by  the  results 
which  I  have  just  detailed,  and  that  the  latter  is  equally  untrue  is  proved  by 
the  experience  of  every  consumer. 

In  conclusion,  I  have  the  satisfaction  of  saying  that  the  Company  have 
afforded  me  every  facility  in  the  performance  of  my  duties,  and  have  given 
me  unqualified  power  to  purchase,  at  their  expense,  everything  which  I  may 
require  for  experimental  purposes.  They  have  likewise  placed  at  my  dis- 
posal two  rooms  in  their  house  in  Coleman-street,  one  of  which  is  fitted  up 
in  a  very  complete  manner  for  pbotometrical  experiments ;  and  the  other 
is  to  be  fully  stocked  by  Mr.  Knight,  of  Foster-lane,  with  all  the  apparatus 
necessary  for  performing  the  most  searching  chemical  investigations. 
I  have  the  honour  to  be,  gentlemen,  your  faithful  servant, 

(Signed)  H.  LETHEBY. 

London  Hospital,  May  10th,  1852. 


THE  IT.  S.  SCKEW  PROPELLER  STEAMSHIP  OF  WAR, 

SAN  JACINTO. 

By  Chief  Engineer  B.  F.  Isherwood,  IT.  S.  Navy. 

(Concluded  from  page  64.) 

In  using  any  propelling  instrument  for  the  transmission  of  power,  a  por- 
tion of  that  power  is  unavoidably  lost  in  misapplication.  In  the  common 
paddle  wheel,  this  misapplication  consists  in  giving  a  retrograde  motion,  in  a 
direction  parallel  to  the  vessel,  to  the  water  acted  on  by  the  paddles,  termed 
dip,  and  to  a  vertical  depression  and  lifting  of  the  water,  termed  oblique 
action — the  total  losses  by  the  paddle  wheel  being  the  sum  of  the  losses  by 
slip  and  oblique  action.  In  the  screw  there  is  the  same  loss  by  slip,  but  the 
loss  by  oblique  action,  which  does  not  exist  with  the  screw,  is  replaced  by 
another,  viz  ,  that  of  the  friction  of  the  screw  surface  on  the  water.  The  total 
losses  by  the  screw  would  then  be  the  sum  of  the  losses  by  slip  and  friction. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  experiment,  that  the  friction  of  solid  surfaces  on 
water,  is  directly  as  the  surface  and  as  the  square  of  its  velocity.  In  the 
same  screw  then,  with  equal  velocities,  the  friction  is  as  the  surface;  but  the 
slip  is  by  no  means  as  the  surface,  but  in  a  far  less  proportion,  to  be  ascer- 
tained only  by  experiment. 

The  only  reliable  experiments  made  with  this  view,  that  I  am  in  possession 
of,  are  those  by  Bourgeois,  made  by  order  of  the  French  government;  and 
one  of  them  is  nearly  a  parallel  case  to  the  originally  proposed  and  actually 
executed  screws  of  the  San  Jacinto. 

Bourgeois  tried  a  screw  of  six  blades  having  a  surface  of  fths  of  the  area 
of  the  diameter  of  the  screw,,  viewed  as  a  disk.  The  slip  obtained  was  37  per 
cent.  Two  of  the  blades  were  now  omitted,  and  the  remaining  four  placed 
equi-distant.  The  screw  in  this  state  was  composed  of  4  blades,  having  a 
surface  of  ^ths  of  the  area  of  the  diameter,  viewed  as  a  disk;  the  slip  was  now 
found  to  be  38-^  per  cent.,  or  only  1T'B  per  cent  more  than  before.  This  ex- 
periment was  pushed  still  further  by  the  reduction  of  another  blade,  leaving 
the  screw  composed  of  3  blades,  with  a  surface  of  fths  of  the  disk;  the  slip 


now  obtained  was  41,85  per  cent.,  or  only  4£j  per  cent,  more  than  the  first  slip; 
showing  that  a  reduction  in  the  surface  of  one- half,  only  increased  the  slip 
from  37  to  41-^  per  cent.,  or  1 1|-  per  cent,  of  the  last  slip. 

Supposing,  now,  the  screw  as  originally  proposed  for  the  San  Jacinto  had 
been  used,  having  about  lfths  the  projected  and  3^  times  the  helicoitlal 
surface  of  the  one  actually  used;  and  supposing  the  increased  projected  sur- 
face had  decreased  the  slip  in  the  above  proportion  of  11|  per  cent.,  or  3-^ 
per  cent,  of  the  actual  slip  of  the  San  Jacinto's  screw :  there  would  then  have 
been  obtained  a  slip  of  (26-^, — 3-^)  23j  per  cent.  But  the  helicoidal  surface 
having  been  increased  33  times,  the  friction  would  also  have  been  increased 
in  nearly  that  proportion;  and  as  we  see  the  friction  with  the  present  surface 
amounts  to  6-^  per  cent.,  it  would  have  amounted  with  the  3£  times  surface 
to  23-f5j  per  cent.  Supposing  the  total  power  developed  by  the  engine  to  have 
remained  the  same,  in  which  case  the  available  power  for  the  propulsion  of 
the  vessel  would  have  been  diminished  by  (23^ — 6$^)  17t^  per  cent.,  and 
increased  3-jjjj  per  cent,  by  the  lessened  slip,  leaving  a  balance  of  diminution 
of  (14-^ — 3T§n)  17  -r§j  per  cent,  of  the  available  power  for  propulsion;  and  as 
the  speed  of  the  vessel  is  in  proportion  to  the  cube  roots  of  the  powers  applied. 


the  speed  would  have  been  to  the  present  speed  in  the  proportion  of}/  1-000 

to  s/  0*855 ;  or,  instead  of  being  11  statute  miles  per  hour,  would  have  been 
10-44  statute  miles  per  hour;  always  supposing  the  engines  to  develope  the 
same  power.  The  sum  of  the  losses  then  of  the  proposed  screw  would  have 
been  (23-£|-t-23f0)  47^  per  cent.,  instead  of  33-J5  per  cent.,  the  sum  of  the 
losses  by  the  present  screw.  The  present  screw  is  therefore  more  economical 
by  14-fgg  per  cent,  of  the  power,  without  reckoning  the  practical  advantages 
of  decreased  weight  and  cost  of  manufacture. 

The  screw  proposed  by  the  Board,  and  used  on  the  San  Jacinto,  has  not 
the  proportions  they  would  have  adopted,  had  they  been  designing  the  entire 
machinery  of  the  vessel;  but  the  engines,  boilers,  and  stern  of  the  ship  having 
been  completed  before  their  labours  began,  they  had  only  to  adopt  the  best 
screw  that  existing  conditions  permitted.  A  longer  screw  was  impracticable, 
with  the  stern  of  the  vessel  as  built,  and  the  surface  was  limited  in  that  di- 
rection; more  than  four  blades  of  the  same  length  would  have  given  more 
surface,  but  that  surface  would  have  been  nearly  useless,  as  the  blades  would 
have  been  so  close  together  as  to  prevent  the  access  of  water  of  sufficient 
solidity,  besides  having  the  additional  resistance  of  the  additional  edges  of 
the  blades.  Nor  could  increased  surface  be  obtained  by  lessening  the  pitch; 
for  such  was  the  complex  design  of  the  engines,  the  multitude  of  its  connec- 
tions and  moving  parts,  that  it  was  unsafe  to  work  them  up  to  a  speed  that 
would  be  necessary,  with  a  reduced  pitch,  to  give  the  vessel  the  proper  speed ; 
in  addition  to  which,  the  boilers  would  not  have  supplied  steam  enough  for 
the  increased  number  of  revolutions. 

Hull. — The  San  Jacinto  is  203  feet  long  on  keel,  210  feet  long  at  load 
line,  215  feet  long  between  perpendiculars,  and  237  feet  extreme  length. 
The  beam  moulded  is  37  feet,  extreme  38  feet.  Depth  of  hold  23|  feet.  Deep 
load  draft  16|  feet.     Depth  of  keel  and  false  keel  15  inches. 
Displacement  in  tons  of  2,240  lbs.,  at  launching  draft  of  lOjft.,  1080. 

Tons.     lbs. 

1156  and  1764 
1489  „  1242 
1838  „  1658 

;;         ;;         „       ni     „  2202  „  2055 

„  „  „  16|        „  (load  draft)       2150 

„,  „  „  per  in.  of  draft  at  load  line      17g- 

Area  of  immersed  amidship  section  at  1 1£  feet  draft       . ,         273-81  square  ft. 

13i        „  ••         346-55       „ 

15i         „  ..  420-05       „ 

17|         „  ..  496-05       „ 

16f         „  ..  477-05       „ 

„  „  15§         „  ..  438-56 

The  San  Jacinto  is  barque  rigged,  and  spreads   16,500   square  feet  of 
canvass. 

Cost  of  materials  for  the  hull '         ..      85,455  dols. 

labour  „  70,566 

„       materials  for  masts  and  spars. .  ..  ..        1,069 

„       labour  „  3,851 

„       materials  for  boats       . .  . .  . .  -  •  574 

„       labour  „  1,546 

.,       materials  for  rigging  and  blocks       ..  .•        1,018 

„       labour  „  4,512 

Other  items       ..  ..  25,000 


m 

15* 


193,591  dols. 


The  data  furnished  by  the  trial  trip  of  the  San  Jacinto,  may  be  made, 
available  in  determining,  a  priori,  the  friction  of  any  other  screw  of  known 
dimensions  and  revolutions  per  minute.  We  have  seen  that  the  friction  of 
the  screw  of  the  San  Jacinto  amounted  to  53-44  horse  power;  supposing  the 
balance  of  the  total  power  developed  by  the  engines,  after  deducting  for  the 
"slip  of  the  screw,"  for  "propelling  the  vessel,"  for  "  working  the  engines," 
and  for  the  "friction  of  the  load,"  to  be  absorbed  in  the  friction  of  the  heli- 
coidal surface  on  the  water;  the  direct  resistance  of  the  edges  of  the  blades 


132 


The  Screw  Propeller,  "  San  Jacinto.''1 


[June, 


being  probably  but  small,  as  they  were  sharply  champfered.  The  screw  sur- 
faces were  rubbed  smooth. 

In  order  to  make  this  data  applicable  to  other  screws,  the  expression  for 
friction  must  be  reduced  to  some  unit  of  weight,  acting  with  a  given  speed 
on  some  unit  of  surface.  The  pound  avoirdupois,  10  feet  per  second,  and 
the  square  foot,  are  the  most  convenient  for  our  purpose. 

From  many  experiments,  it  appears  that  the  law  regulating  quantity  of 
friction  of  solids  on  fluids,  is  different  from  that  regulating  .the  quantity  of 
friction  of  solids  on  solids,  and  instead  of  being  proportional  to  pressure  and 
velocity,  is  proportional  to  pressure,  surface,  and  the  square  of  the  velocity. 
Assuming  these  hypotheses, to  be.correct,  we  will  determine  the  vajue  of , the 
friction  of  one  square, foot  of  helicoidal  surfa.ce,  moving  with  the  velocity  of 
10  feet  per  second)  from  the  data  of  the  San  Jacinto,  premising — 

As  every  helix  of  a  helicoidal  surface,  from  axis  to  periphery,  is  of  a,dif- 
ferent  length,  increasing  as  the  periphery  is  approached,  and  as  each  helix 
moves  through  its  length  per  revolution  of  the  screw,  and  as  all  the  helices 
perform  the  same  number  of  revolutions  in  the  same  time,  it  follows  that 
each  helix  will  have  a  different  velpcity ;  and  taking  a  helix  to  represent  an 
infinitely  narrow  surface  of  the  helicoid,  it  also  follows  that  these  different 
surfaces,  normal , to  .the  helices,  will  have  different  frictions,  in  the  proportion 
of  the  squares  of  velocities  and  the  areas  of  the  surfaces.  It  is  then  necessary 
to  ascertain  the  velocities  and  areas  .of  these  surfaces.  The  problem  can  be 
solved  approximately,  geometrically,  with  but  little  trouble,  and  with  rnore 
than  sufficient  accuracy  for  practical  purposes. 

By  this  method,  the  surface  of  the  screw  projected  on  a  plane  at  right 
angles  to  the  axis,  that  is,  considered  as  a  disk,  js  divided  by  concentric 
circles  into  any  number  of  rings  or  elements, — the  greater  the  number  of 
elements  taken,  the  closer  the  result  approximates  the  truth.  The  centre 
line  of  each  element  is  taken  as  the  length  of  tihe  element,  and  is  determined 
as  follows: — 

The  development  of  a  helix  upon  a  plane,  is  the  hypothenuse  of  a  right 
angled  triangle,  whose  base  is  the,  circumference  normal  to  .the  distance  of 
the  helix  from  the  axis  considered  as  a  radius,  and  whose  height  is  the  pitch. 
We  have,  therefore,  the  base  and. height  of  a  right  angled  triangle, ..given  to 
find  the  hypothenuse,  and  the  hypothenuse  or  helix  multiplied  by.the  breadth 
of  the  element  gives,  its  area. 

We  have  now  all  the  quantities  for  the  calculation,  excepting. the  pounds 
avoirdupois  per  square  foot  of  surface  for  the  ..speed  of  10  feet  per  second. 
This  we  obtain  by  representing  the  unknown  weight  by  x,  and  making  the 
calculations  with  it  for  each  element;  then  summing  up  the  column  so  ob- 
tained, and  dividing  by.  33,0X10,  we  obtain, the  expression  in  horse  power 


multiplied  by  x.  Making  these  calculations  on  the  screw  of  the  San  Jacinto, 
and  returning  to  the  data  furnished  by  that  vessel,  when  the  friction  of  the 
helicoidal  surfaces  is  given  at  53*44  horse  power,  we  ascertain,  by  dividing 
the  53-44  by  the  horse  power  multiplied  by  x,  as  aboye  obtained,  the  un- 
known weight  in  pounds  avoirdupois — observing  that  the  helicoidal  surface 
must  be  taken  for  both  sides  of  the  screw. 

In  this  manner  the  friction  of  one  square  foot  of  helicoidal  surface, 
moving  in  its  helical  path  with  a  velocity  of  10  feet  per  second,  is  deter- 
mined from  the  data  of  the  San  Jacinto,  to  be  0-6195  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois. 

An  examination  of  the  subjoined  table  will  explain  the  modus  operandi 
without  further  illustration. 

It  may  be  thought  that  the  friction  from  the  propelling  face  of  the  blade 
is  greater  than  the  frictjon  from  the  opposite  face,  by  reason  of  its  pressure 
on  the  water.  .Should. this  be  the  case,  however,  ,the  aggregate  frictions  from 
both  sides  of  the  blade  would  remain  the  same  as  though  this  pressure  did 
not  operate  in  inequality;  for  it  is  evident,  that  if  this  pressure  increases  the 
friction  on  the  pressing  face,  it  must,  in  an  equal  degree,  decrease  the  friction 
on  the  face  removed  from  the  pressure. 

Indicator  Diagrams. — No.  1.  From  top  of  port  cylinder;  mean  effective 
pressure  per  square  inch,  14-9  lbs.;  revolutions  of  screw  and  double  stroke  of 
piston  per  minute,  31. 

No.  2.  From  bottom  of  port  cylinder;  mean  effective  pressure  per  square 
inch,  1.4.95  lbs..;  revolutions  of  screw  and  double  stroke  of  piston  per 
minute,  31. 

No.  j3.  From  top  of  starboard  cylinder ;  mean  effective  pressure  per 
square  inch,  20'15  lbs.;  revolutions  of  screw  and  double  stroke  of  piston  per 
minute,  31. 

No.  4.  From  bottom  of  starboard  cylinder;  mean  effective  pressure  per 
square  inch,  18-75  lbs.;  revolutions  of  screw  and  double  stroke  of  piston  per 
minute,  31. 

From  the  above,  and  a  number  of  other  diagrams  taken  during  the  trip, 
with  the  engines  working  at  31  double  strokes  of  piston  per  minute,  the 
area  of  the  mean  effective  pressures  was  ,16-29  lbs.  per  square  inch  of 
piston. 

CALCULATIONS    ON    THE    SCREW   QF    THE    U.S.    STEAMSHIP    SAN   JACINTO. 

Diameter  14j  feet;  length  on  hub,  in  the  direction  of  axis,  2j  feet;  length 
at  diameter  at  7i  feet,  in  direction  of  axis,  4  feet;  length  at  periphery, 
in  direction  of  axis,  4  feet;  diameter  of  hub,  28  inches;  pitch,  40  feet,  ex- 
panding to45  feet,, mean  42J  feet;  revolutions  per  minute,  31;  number  of 

blades,  4. 


Radii 

Circumferences 

Lengths  of  Screw 

Fractions 

Lengths  of  Elements 

Lengths  of 

Helicoidal 

Speeds  of 

Speeds  of 

Pitch. 

of 

normal  to  radii 

in  Direction  of 

ofPitch 

for  one  convolution 

elements 

Breadth  of 

surfaces  of 

elements 

elements 

Friction  both 

ele'ts. 

•  of  elements. 

axis  at  radii. 

used. 

of.thread. 

used. 

elements. 

elements. 

per  sec. 

per  min. 

sides  of  Screw. 

A 

B 

c 

D 

,E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

K 

L 

23  X  .31416 

D.X  4 

y- 

(A*  +  JS*) 

F  x  E 

GXH 

K 

F  X  31 

J2 

—  X  Kx  21 

A 

60 

10= 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Sq.   Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

X  0-6195  lbs. 

42-5 

1-27 

7-980 

2-500 

0-235 

43-243 

10-162 

O-208 

2-114 

22-341 

1340 

53 

17526-584 

11 

1-50 

9-425 

2-542 

0-239 

43-532 

10-404 

0-250 

2-601 

22-491 

1349 

49 

21998-817 

11 

175 

10-995 

2666 

0-251 

43-898 

11-018 

ii 

2-754 

22-680 

1360 

84 

23885-132 

,, 

2-00 

-12-566 

2-833 

0-267 

44-317 

11-833 

t  r 

2-958 

22-857 

1373 

83 

26397-329 

11 

2-25 

14-137 

2-958 

0-278 

44-790 

12-452 

»» 

3-113 

23-141 

1388 

49 

28678-365 

,, 

2-50 

15-708 

3-125 

0-254 

45-310 

13-321 

ii 

3  333 

23-410 

1404 

61 

31788-155 

11 

2-75 

17-278 

3-250 

0306 

45-881 

14-040 

it 

3-510 

23-705 

1422 

31 

34757-853 

11 

3-00 

18 • 849 

3-416 

0321 

46-492 

14-924 

ii 

3-731 

24-621 

1441 

25 

38443-072    i 

11 

3-25 

20-420 

3-583 

0-337 

47-150 

15-890 

ii 

3;972 

24-361 

1461 

65 

43928-101    ' 

11 

350 

21-991 

3'750 

0-352 

47-845 

16-841 

it 

4-210 

24-720 

1483 

20 

47276-820 

11 

3-75 

23-562 

3-833 

0-361 

48-594 

17-542 

it 

4-386 

25 : 107 

1506 

41 

51602-739 

11 

4-00 

-25-132 

4-000 

0-376 

49-374 

18-565 

1 1 

4-641 

25 ; 510 

1530 

59 

57274-720 

11 

4-25 

26-703 

„ 

11 

5Q-E)2 

18-872 

1 1 

4-718 

25-932 

1559 

95 

62020-623 

„ 

4-50 

28-274 

■  , 

11 

>r-*045 

'19-193 

it 

4-798 

26-373 

1582 

40 

65427-253 

M 

4-75 

29-845 

>i 

11 

'51-932 

19-526 

if 

4- 881 

26-831 

1609 

89 

70089-053 

11 

5  00 

31-416 

•> 

11 

52-850 

19-872 

4-968 

27 -SO 6 

'1638 

35 

75192-741    ' 

11 

5-25 

32-986 

i, 

11 

53-800 

20-229 

5-057 

27-797 

1667 

80 

80742-842   . 

11 

5-50 

34-557 

», 

11 

54-768 

20-593 

yj 

5-148  . 

28-297 

1697 

81 

86712-096 

11 

5-75 

36-128 

"? 

55-817 

20-987 

5:247 

28-839 

1730 

33 

93549-518    . 

11 

g-oo 

37  699 

n 

11 

56-815 

21-362 

5-341 

29-354 

1761 

26 

100427-393  , 

11 

6-25 

.39-270 

i) 

11 

57-865 

21.757 

Jt 

5-439 

29-897 

1793 

82 

108049-968 

1i 

6-50 

40-840 

,, 

„ 

58-946 

22-164 

5541 

30-455 

1827 

32 

116356-658    - 

it 

6-75 

42-411 

,, 

11 

60-040 

22-575 

tt 

5-644 

31021 

1861 

24 

125248-404   ' 

it 

7-00 

43-982 

■»» 

11 

61-160 

22-996 

5-749 

31-599 

1895 

96 

134846-379 

it 

7-25 

45-550 

>> 

11 

.62-298 

23-424 

5-856 

32-187 

1931 

24 

145167-621 

ii 

7-431 

46.690 

.»? 

11 

63-136 

Helicoidal  ^ 

23-937 
i.rea  of  Sci 

,0-125 

ew 

2-967 

32-620 

1957-22 

76559  049  ' 

112-677 

1763S47-2S5 

176394 

7-285 

.  P 

28 

47372-54 

X 



: 

=-.53-45. 

X  K  X    2  I  X 

x  =  284 

7372-54  x:  and  — 

—  =z86-S 

284  x:  and  ; 

is86-284 

x  =  h$- 

44.  x 

=  0-6195. 

33000 


1852.] 


Correspondence. 


133 


COMPARISON   OP   THE   RESULTS   OBTAINED   FROM   THE    SCREW   OF   THE    'SAN 
JACINTO,'  AND   THE   PADDLE   WHEEL   OF   THE  '  SARANAC.' 

Since  writing  the  foregoing,  I  have  obtained  the  log  of  the  sister  steamer 
Saranac,  which  enables  me  to  make  a  comparison  between  the  results  ob- 
tained from  the  paddle  wheel  of  that  vessel,  and  the  screw  of  the  San 
Jacinto. 

During  the  passage  of  the  Saranac  from  Norfolk,  Va.,  to  New  York, 
Oct.  15th,  16th,  and  17th,  1850,  the  mean  speed  for  31  hours  was  9-13  knots 
by  log;  revolutions  of  the  wheels,  14-6A  per  minute  ;  steam  pressure  in 
boilers  per  gauge,  13£  lbs.  per  square  inch  ;  vacuum  in  condenser  per  gauge, 
27  inches;  throttle  one-fourth  open;  cut  off  at  3|  feet  from  commencement 
of  stroke;  smooth  sea  and  very  light  breeze  ahead.  Mean  draft  of  vessel,  15 
feet  9  inches.  Two  inclined  engines,  cylinders  60  inches  diameter,  by  9  feet 
stroke. 

Common  paddle  wheel,  29  feet  diameter,  22  paddles  in  each  wheel;  each 
paddle  9  feet  by  30  inches  ;  immersion,  lower  edge  of  paddle  4^  feet. 

The  mean  effective  pressure  in  the  cylinder  computed  from  the  indica- 
tor diagram,  taken  under  the  above  conditions,  was  15*5  lbs.  per  square 
inch.     The  horse  power  developed  by  the  engines  would  therefore  be 
(2827-44  X  15-5  X  (9  X  2)  X  14-64)  2 

=s  699-92 

33000 
Taking  the  knot  at  6082?  feet,  as  used  in  the  British  Navy,  9-13,  knots 
would  be  10-518  statute  miles.      Taking  the  cubes  of  the  speeds  as  the 
measure  of  the  effects  produced,  and  the  indicated  horse  power  as  the  cost 
of  propulsion,  and  reducing  them  to  proportionals,  we  shall  have 

Powers.  Effects. 

San  Jacinto  1.1291  1-1438 

Saranac 1-0000  1-0000 

1-1438 

and =  1.0130, 

1-1291 
that  is  to  say,  the  application  of  the  power  with  the  screw  in  the  San  Jacinto 
was  more  efficient  than  with  the  paddle  wheel  in  the  Saranac,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1-0130  to  1-0000;  or  the  two   systems  in  these  particular  cases 
may  be  considered  as  equally  good. 

The  slip  in  the  centre  of  reaction  of  the  Saranac's  paddle  wheel  was  23-7 
per  cent.,  which  is  about  the  usual  average  given.  The  loss  by  oblique  ac- 
tion calculated  as  the  squares  of  the  sine  of  the  angles  of  incidence  of  the 
paddles  on  the  water  was  13-3  per  cent.  The  sum  of  the  losses  by  the 
paddle  wheel  being  37  per  cent.  The  Saranac's  paddle  wheel  thus  gave  as 
favourable  results  as  are  found  in  sea-going  steamers,  and  the  equal  effect 
obtained  from  the  screw  of  the  San  Jacinto,  show  it  to  have  very  perfect 
proportions. 

The  Saranac,  when  she  commenced  the  above-noted  31  hours'  steaming, 
had  only  231,827  pounds  of  coal  on  board. 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


SHIP-BUILDING  IMPROVEMENTS. 
To  the  Editor  of  the  Artizan. 

Sir, — When  we  see  old-established  wood  and  iron  ship-builders  taking 
out  patents  for  the  mechanical  improvement  of  ships,  we  have  a  right  to 
conclude  that  experience  has  taught  them  the  necessity  ;  at  the  same  time, 
it  is  quite  necessary  that  persons  so  engaged  should  see  how  far  such  im- 
provements have  been  placed  in  their  way,  in  the  shape  of  patents  allowed 
to  remain  in  a  hopeless  state  of  abeyance,  from  their  not  being  properly 
understood,  or  from  interested  motives,  which  too  frequently  operate  to  the 
disadvantage  of  inventors.  This  will  save  a  useless  waste  of  time  and  ex- 
pense, and  I  will  venture  to  say,  practical  men  who  have  not  had  much  time 
to  study  the  scientific  part  of  the  question,  will  find  it  to  their  advantage  to 
see  to  what  extent  they  have  been  anticipated,  before  they  venture  to  expend 
their  money  in  patenting  that  which  has  already  been  patented. 

I  am  induced  to  make  these  remarks,  from  having  seen  in  the  Artizan,  and 
other  mechanical  works,  plans  for  which  I  obtained  patents,  in  conjunction 
with  others,  many  years  since,  and  with  the  humble  hope  of  its  being  of  some 
Service  to  those  engaged  in  ship-building  who  may  not  have  had  the  oppor- 
tunity of  tracing  the  progress  of  those  improvements  which  have  been  made 
within  the  last  lift)'  years  ;  and,  as  I  have  devoted  so  much  time  to  the 
subject,  my  personal  experience  may  help  in  some  measure  to  explain  what 
has  been,  and  what  remains  to  be,  done  in  this  important  branch  of  practical 
science.  My  individual  efforts  to  improve  the  construction  of  vessels  date  so 
far  back  as  1809  ;  and  in  1812,  personal  observation  led  me  to  make  those 
improvements  which  Mr.  White,  of  Cowes,  calls  the  "  long  bow,"  and  Mr. 
Scott  Russell  the  "wave  line,"  but  which,  even  at  this  period  and  before,  had 
been  so  largely  practised  by  the  Americans  in  the  beautiful  vessels  which  I 


have  since  seen  on  the  various  coasts  of  that  countr}'.  Pursuing  this  im- 
provement further,  I  completed  in  1829  what  is  now  termed  the  "  clipper  bow,' 
so  successfully  adopted  in  our  mercantile  marine  ;  and  having  previously 
traced  the  mechanical  defects  of  ship-building  to  the  changeable  principle 
of  the  parallelogram,  which  subjects  them  to  continual  alteration  in  form, 
with  all  its  consequent  evils,  the  unalterable  principle  of  the  triangle,  which 
at  that  period  formed  no .  part  of  the  naval  architectural  study,  suggested 
itself  to  me  as  the  most  effective  as  it  regards  strength ;  and  I  felt  convinced 
that,  by  the  appropriate  arrangement  of  material  on  this  basis,  a  less  ex- 
pensive, stronger,  and  more  buoyant  ship  might  be  built,  than  was  at  that 
time  in  general  use. 

Having  made  numerous  plans,  based  on  this  principle,  I  submitted  them 
to  the  Admiralty,  by  special  instruction,  for  the  improvement  of  the  Royal 
Navy ;  but,  agreeably  to  practice,  under  Admiralty  sanction,  they  were  taken 
advantage  of  by  the  Navy  Office,  and  I  was  told  that  I  "  might  seek  redress 
in  a  court  of  law,  if  I  thought  fit,"  when  I  complained  of  the  breach  of  con- 
fidence with  which  they  had  thought  proper  to  visit  me. 

In  1819,  I  had  an  opportunity  of  witnessing  the  Indian  canoes  on  the 
lakes  and  rivers  of  America,  and  was  struck  with  the  buoyancy  and  strength 
which  I  found  they  possessed  ;  and  from  them  I  first  conceived  the  idea  of 
building  vessels  without  compass  or  thick  timber. 

In  1823,. I  became  acquainted  with  Mr.  William  An nesley,  who  had  obtained 
patents  in  Europe  and  America  for  building  vessels  of  board  of  three  or 
more  thicknesses  ;  and  at  Montreal  he  built  a  steamboat,  called  the  Annesley, 
to  compete  with  one  on  the  old  principle  of  building  called  the  William 
Henry  ;  and  I  witnessed  the  superiority  of  the  former,  as  it  regards  strength 
and  speed,  in  a  race  which  took  place  to  try  their  relative  merits.  The 
waters  of  the  St .  Lawrence  being  low,  the  shoals  impeded  navigation;  the 
Annesley,  taking  the  lead,  came  in  contact  with  one  of  them,  and  passed  over 
uninjured;  and  the  William  Henry,  following  close  in  her  wake,  struck,  and 
filled  with  water  in  a  few  minutes  after  having  cleared  the  shoal. 

This,  with  other  proofs  brought  under  my  notice,  convinced  me  that  the 
double-boarded  system  had  great  advantages ;  but  as  Annesley's  vessels 
were  built  with  the  material  at  right  angles,  perpendicularly  and  longitu- 
dinally, I  felt  assured  that,  by  a  different  arrangement,  the  system  might  be 
improved,  and  that  no  more  than  two  close  thicknesses  should  be  employed, 
with  such  appendages  as  the  form  and  size  of  the  vessel  might  make 
necessary,  to  obtain  the  required  strength.  On  my  return  to  England  in 
1827, 1  renewed  my  claims  on  the  Admiralty,  and  found  that  the  master 
boat-builder  at  Plymouth  had  been  permitted  to  build  ships'  launches  with 
two  close  thicknesses  diagonally  ;  but  he  did  not  attempt  to  apply  the  prin- 
ciple further. 

Subsequently  to  this,  I  found  that  Mr.  Brindly  bad  taken  out  a  patent  for 
building  ships  and  vessels  of  planks  placed  longitudinally,  of  three  or  more 
thicknesses,  with  perpendicular  iron  ties  between  each  planking,  and  the 
instance  of  the  City  of  Rochester,  built  by  him,  as  recorded  in  the  Parlia- 
mentary Report  on  Shipwrecks  in  1836,  is  quite  conclusive  that  no  iron  or 
wooden  ship,  on  the  common  mode  of  building,  would  have  stood  such 
beating  on  the  rocks  as  she  did,  in  the  memorable  gale  of  1825,  as  stated 
before  the  committae. 

The  next  patent  taken  out  on  the  double-boarded  system  was  in  Prance, 
by  M.  Pouache,  of  three  close  thicknesses,  two  diagonally,  and  one  on 
the  inside  longitudinally;  but  as  he  had  not  secured  his  right  in  England, 
it  became  open  to  the  builders  on  the  Thames,  and  Mr.  Samuel  King,  of 
Limehouse,  was  the  first  to  build  upon  it.  In  1836,  Mr.  Lang,  then  a 
draughtsman  in  Woolwich  Dockyard,  and  now  master  shipwright  of 
Chatham,  constructed  the  Ruby,  for  the  Diamond  Company,  on  Pouache's 
system,  and  which  he  represented  to  the  Admiralty  as  the  invention  of  his 
uncle,  the  master  boat-builder  alluded  to;  and  the  Admiralty  have  built  more 
than  one  vessel,  at  Mr.  Lang's  recommendation,  with  the  belief  that  it  was 
invented  in  the  service. 

At  this  period,  finding  that  I  was  not  safe,  without  protecting  myself  by 
patent,  I  built  several  barges  on  the  Thames,  and  canal-boats  on  the  Con- 
tinent, of  two  close  thicknesses  diagonally ;  and  they  have  been  from  that 
time  to  this  in  constant  employ,  without  repairs  worth  naming,  and  without 
having  been  caulked  at  any  time. 

Prompted  by  such  proofs  of  efficiency,  I  have  since  obtained  patents  which 

18 


134 


Steamboat  Explosions  in  the  United  States. 


[June, 


embrace  the  building  of  every  class  of  ship  and  vessel;  but  I  have  taken 
care  not  to  have  more  than  two  thicknesses  in  close  contact,  as  experience 
gave  me  proof  that,  when  the  material  was  confined,  as  in  the  instance  of 
previous  patents  with  three  and  more  thicknesses  of  planking,  decay  was 
greatly  facilitated;  and  I  have  also  arranged  the  various  details,  so  as  to 
meet  the  wants  and  wishes  of  ship-builders  disposed  to  embrace  the  advan- 
tages which  my  patents  secure,  without  giving  them  the  trouble  of  altering 
any  part  by  modifications,  which  they  will  find  amply  provided  ;  and  I  can- 
not but  think,  if  Messrs.  White,  of  Cowes,  had  taken  the  trouble  to  investigate 
what  has  been  done,  as  it  respects  the  building  of  ships  and  vessels  on  the 
double-boarded  system,  they  never  would  have  attempted  to  secure  by 
patent  that  which  was  open  to  them  without,  as  the  precise  mode  which  they 
describe  in  No.  2,  as  distinct  from  No.  1,  in  the  sketches  published  in  the 
May  number  of  the  Artizan,  has  been  acted  upon,  to  my  certain  knowledge, 
by  builders  on  the  Thames;  besides  which,  my  individual  patents  both  clearly 
define  the  process  of  jointing  the  material  at  the  keel,  without  crossing  it,  in 
several  ways,  much  more  effectively;  but  they  are  not  too  late  to  retrace 
their  steps  in  part,  as  they  have  not  enrolled  the  specification  of  their  patent; 
and  I  should  have  been  happy  to  have  given  them  earlier  information  on  the 
subject,  had  I  known  that  they  contemplated  taking  the  course  which  in- 
duces me  thus  to  allude  to  it. 

I  remain,  Sir, 
Your  obedient  humble  servant, 

JOHN  POAD  DRAKE, 
St.  Austell,  Cornwall,  Naval  Architect. 

May  \2th,  1852. 

STEAMBOAT  EXPLOSIONS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
The  fearful  number  of  explosions  on  board  steam  vessels  in  the 
United  States,  seems,  at  last,  to  have  struck  terror  into  the  most  rash. 
An  appeal  to  government  for  a  stringent  act  is  talked  of.  The  following 
article,  from  the  Scientific  American,  will  show  what  a  passenger's  life 
is  worth,  across  the  Atlantic. 

The  steamboat  Bedstone  lately  commenced  running  between  Cincinnati 
and  Madison,  *>nd  on  Saturday,  at  12  m.,  left  the  latter  place  for  Cincinnati 
on  a  trial  of  speed,  with  about  twenty  cabin  passengers.  The  number  on 
deck  is  not  known.  The  Redstone  shoved  out,  and  backed  down  from  the 
landing  about  100  yards.  A  strong  wind  was  blowing  in  the  shore,  and  it 
was  with  difficulty  that  she  could  back  her  way  out.  At  the  second  revolu- 
tion she  made  to  start  forward,  her  three  boilers  exploded  at  the  same  time, 
with  a  tremendous  noise,  shattering  and  tearing  the  boat  literally  to  atoms. 
She  sunk  in  less  than  three  minutes,  in  twenty  feet  of  water.  The  ladies' 
cabin  and  aft  part  of  the  boat,  from  the  main  deck  up,  in  its  shattered  con- 
dition, took  fire,  and  burned  down  to  the  water's  edge.  In  the  explosion, 
her  chimneys  were  blown  nearly  across  the  river. 

The  awful  force  of  the  explosion  can  be  conceived,  from  the  fact  that  a 
large  piece  of  one  of  the  toilers  was  blown  half-a-mile,  lacking  five  or  six 
yards,  from  the  wreck.  Eleven  bodies  were  blown  into  a  corn  field  at  some 
distance  from  the  water.   Among  them  those  of  the  first  and  third  engineers. 

The  people  of  Carrolton  and  the  vicinity  hurried  to  the  scene,  and  twenty- 
five  dead  and  wounded  bodies  were  immediately  borne  to  a  small  farm  house 
on  top  of  the  hill  which  rises  back  of  the  river,  and  which  was  converted 
into  a  hospital.  The  inmates  of  this  house  gave  up  their  rooms,  bedding, 
and  everything  in  their  possession,  to  the  suffering.  The  scene  here  beggars 
all  description.  The  mangled  and  ghastly  corpses  by  the  side  of  the  wounded 
and  dying,  with  inadequate  medical  aid  and  means  for  the  care  of  the  latter; 
the  floor  of  the  rooms  covered  deep  with  blood ;  this,  and  the  view  of  the 
scattered  wreck,  and  the  awe-stricken  multitude  on  the  shore  below,  made  up 
a  scene  of  horror  before  which  the  iutensest  paintings  of  Sue  and  Dickens 
pale  and  grow  dim. 

The  river,  for  some  distance  below  Carrolton,  was  strown  with  the  frag- 
ments of  the  boat,  machinery,  furniture  and  clothing. 

Small  pieces  of  bedding  and  clothing  were  found  at  the  distanee  of  very 
nearly  half-a-mile  back  from  the  river,  while  the  trees  along  the  shore  were 
littered  with  the  fragments  of  the  same  and  of  the  wreck. 

The  cause  of  this  explosion  is  very  evident :  it  was  recklessness — that 


culpable  public,  and  let  us  say,  legalised  murderer.  Almost  every  week  we 
have  to  record  some  such  calamity.  Within  three  weeks  no  less  than  one 
hundred  persons  have  lost  their  lives  by  steamboat  explosions  on  the  river 
between  Cincinnati  and  New  Orleans.  All  the  laws  which  have  been  en- 
acted, and  all  the  safety  valves  which  have  been  invented,  have  failed  to  reduce 
the  number  of  explosions  ;  there  are  just  as  many  now  as  ever.  Our 
government,  in  their  zeal  for  the  lives  of  some  of  our  American  sailors, 
cruelly  treated  in  Japan,  are  said  to  be  fitting  out  an  expedition  to  punish 
those  Asiatics;  this  shows  a  zeal  for  something  more  than  a  humane  prin- 
ciple, or  why  are  our  citizens  at  home  allowed  to  be  killed  so  recklessly  by 
such  terrible  explosions  as  that  of  the  Redstone? 

THE  PACIFIC  ROYAL  MAIL  STEAM  NAVIGATION  COMPANY'S 
NEW  IRON  STEAM- VESSEL,  "  SANTIAGO." 

Built  and  fitted  by  Mr.  Robert  Napier,  Glasgow,  1851. 

Dimensions. 
Length  on  deck 
Breadth  on  do.,  amidships 
Depth  of  hold,  do.    . . 
Length  of  poop 
Breadth  of  do. 
Depth  of  do. 
Length  of  engine-space 
Tonnage. 

Hull 

Poop 


Total.. 

Contents  of  engine-space 
Register 


Feet.  10-ths 

. .      246 

3 

28 

2 

15 

8 

69 

3 

26 

3 

7 

8 

85 

3 

Tons 

807 

s 

Too 

1 53-^ 

960 

80 

luo 

549« 


A  pair  of  side-lever  engines,  of  406  horses  nominal  power.  Diameter  of 
cylinders,  73  inches  X  5  feet  6  inches  stroke  ;  diameter  of  air-pumps,  41 
inches  X  3  feet  stroke;  diameter  of  paddle-wheels,  extreme,  27  feet,  and  26 
feet  4  inches,  effective;  20  floats,  8  feet  9  inches  X  2  feet  4  inches.  Has  4 
tubular  boilers,  2  forward  and  2  aft,  with  2  funnels.  There  are  12  furnaces, 
3  in  each  boiler  ;  diameter  of  tubes,  3-£  inches.  The  boilers  are  not  fired  from 
the  engine-room,  there  being  two  coal  bunkers,  one  forward  and  the  other 
aft,  each  capable  of  holding  250  tons  of  coals.  On  the  trial-trip  in  September 
last,  this  vessel  made  the  run  from  Greenock  to  Rock  Lighthouse,  Liver- 
pool, a  distance  of  215  miles,  in  14  hours  and  52  minutes,  the  draft  of 
water  being  13  feet  6  inches,  forward,  and  14  feet,  aft.  The  steam-pressure 
was  (mean)  24  lbs.  per  square  inch,  the  engines  making  23^  revolutions 
per  minute,  with  a  consumption  of  30  ewt.  of  coals  per  hour  (the  steam-pres- 
sure on  station  to  be  16  lbs.).  Will  carry  600  tons  of  cargo,  and  has  ac- 
commodation for  150  passengers  ;  the  saloon  is  69  feet  long,  25  feet  6 
inches  broad,  and  7  feet  6  inches  in  height,  and  fitted  up  in  splendid  and 
tasteful  manner.  Between  the  paddle-cases,  there  is  a  hurricane-deck,  on 
the  top  of  which  is  a  steering-wheel  and  compass,  and  the  same  aft,  so  that 
they  can  steer  the  vessel  by  either  of  these,  as  it  may  suit.  She  is  in- 
tended to  ply  on  the  station  from  Valparaiso  to  Panama  (calling  at  34  ports 
on  the  voyage,  going  and  returning),  a  distance  of  about  3,000  miles. 
Carries  6  boats. 

DESCRIPTION. 

A  full-male  figure-head;  sham  quarter  galleries;  square-sterned  and 
clinch-built  vessel;  clipper  bow;  two  decks  and  a  poop  ;  standing  bowsprit; 
three  masts;  barque-rigged.  Port  of  Liverpool;  commander,  Mi".  John 
Hind. 

LOG  OF  THE  GLASGOW. 

This  fine  steam-ship  arrived  at  Greenock  on  the  14th,  at  five  o'clock, 
afternoon,  after  a  run  from  New  York  of  12  days  and  19  hours,  mean 
time.  The  regularity  with  which  her  speed  was  maintained  will  be  seen 
from  the  log,  which  we  subjoin.  She  brings  43  passengers  and  a  full 
cargo. 


1  852.] 


Institution  of  Civil  Engineers. 


135 


ABSTRACT    OF    THE    LOG. 

May  1.— N.E.— Noon,  abreast  the  wharf— set  on  full  speed;  12J  p.m.,  slowed 
the  engines  in  a  fog;  2  p.m.,  came  to  anchor  in  the  lower  bay 
on  account  of  a  dense  fog  ;  4  p.m.,  weighed  anchor  ;  5  p.m.' 
abreast  of  Sandy  Hook;  6  p.m.,  landed  pilot  of  light-ship — dense 
fog — set  on  full  speed — light  breezes. 

—  2.-N.E.  to  N.N.W.  ;  180  miles;  40  N.  lat.,  70-30  W.  long.— Light 

breezes,  and  hazy — latter  part  square-sails  set. 

—  3.— Calm  ;  207  miles;  41-7  N.  lat.,  66-2  W.  long.— Steaming  only. 

—  4.— E.N.E.;  200  miles;  41-38  N.  lat.,  62-02  W.  long.— Strong  breezes 

and  easterly  sea;  11  a.m.,  exchanged  numbers  with  the  British 
barque  Creole,  bound  west — steaming  only. 

—  5.— E.N.E.  to  N.W.;  230  miles;  43"5   N.  lat.,   56-54  W.  long.—  First 

part,  strong  easterly  winds — steaming  only;  latter  part,  square- 
sails  set. 
_    6— N.W.  to  N.S.W.;  220  miles  ;  44-46  N.  lat.,  52-35  W.  long.— Light 
breezes  and  fine  weather — carrying  all  sails  and  studding-sails. 

—  7.— W.S.W.  to  N.W.;  250  miles;  46-38  N.  lat.,  47-20  W.  long.— Light 

breezes  and  fine  weather — carrying  all  square-sails  and  studding- 
sails  ;  2  p.m.,  exchanged  numbers  with  the  barque  Countess  of 
Musgrave;  4  p.m.,  exchanged  numbers  with  the  ship  Southamp- 
ton— both  bound  westward. 

_  8— N.W.;  260  miles;  49-4  N.  lat.,  42-0  W.  long.— First  part,  light 
breezes — all  sails  set  ;  latter  part,  fresh  winds. 

_  9.— N.N.W. ;  270  miles;  50-42  N.  lat.,  35'31  W.  long.— Strong  breezes 
and  cloudy  weather,  all  sails  set,  and  part  studding-sails. 

_  io.— N.W.  ;  276  miles;  52-9  N.  lat.,  28-22  W.  long.— Strong  breezes 
and  dark  cloudy  weather — carrying  all  sails. 

—  11.— N.W.N. -East ;  226  miles;  53-14  N.  lat.,  23'90  W.  long.— Light 

airs,  and  variable,  with  rain — all  sails  set. 

—  12.— W.N. W.  ;  220  miles;  53-56  N.  lat.,  16'9  W.  long.— Light  airs  and 

rainy  weather — all  sails  set. 
— 13.— W.  to  N.E.;  208  miles;  54-36  N.  lat.,  10-11  W.  long.— First  part, 
light  airs;  latter  part,  strong  winds  and  heavy  easterly  sea- 
steaming  only. 

—  15. — E.N.E.  to  N-W. ;  240  miles. — First  part,  strong  easterly  winds  and 

heavy  rain;  latter  part,  fresh  westerly  winds  and  cloudy  wea- 
ther; noon,  abreast  ofTSunda;  2-30,  abreast  oft'  Pladda;  4,  abreast 
off  Cumbraes  ;  5  p.m.,  came  to  anchor  at  the  Tail  of  the  Bank. 
Passage — 12  days  19  hours,  mean  time. 


SOCIETIES. 

INSTITUTION  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS. 
April  13th,  1852. 

The  first  Paper  read  was  "Account  of  a  Swing  Bridge  over  the  River 
Bother,  at  Rye,  on  the  line  of  the  Ashford  and  Hastings  branch  of  the  South- 
Eastern  Railway,"  by  Mr.  C.  May,  M,  Inst.  C.E. 

This  bridge,  which  was  constructed  from  the  designs  of  Mr.  P.  W.  Bar- 
low, by  Messrs.  Ransomes  and  May,  of  Ipswich,  although  similar  in  prin- 
ciple to  others  previously  erected,  presented  some  difference  in  the  construc- 
tion,— in  the  arrangement  of  the  tie-bars,  in  the  rollers,  and  in  other  details. 
The  girders  were  112  feet  long,  3  feet  6  inches  deep  in  the  centre,  and  2  feet 
6  inches  at  the  ends,  made  up  in  four  lengths,  one  joint  being  in  the  centre, 
immediately  over  the  support,  and  the  others  between  the  centre  and  the 
ends.  These  girders  were  secured  together  at  their  ends,  by  means  of  cross 
girders,  the  under  sides  of  which  were  planed  and  inclined,  so  as  to  be 
slightly  lifted,  when  swung  home  to  their  places,  on  girders  secured  to  the 
land  piers.  Provision  was  made  on  the  under  side  of  the  main  girders,  at 
three  places  on  each  side  of  the  centre  of  the  bridge,  for  receiving  the  tie- 
bars,  which  all  tended  to  one  point  over  the  middle.  Each  tie-bar  was  four 
inches  by  one  inch  in  section,  and  was  adjustable  for  tension,  by  a. right  and 
left-handed  screw,  the  nut  of  one  end  of  which  was  in  the  tie-bar,  and  the 
other  between  two  plates  of  wrought-iron,  resting  on  the  side  standards,  or 
A  frames,  which  were  connected  together  by  a  wrought-iron  arch. 

The  turning  of  the  bridge  was  effected  by  means  of  spur  gearing,  worked 


from  a  platform  projecting  from  the  face  of  each  girder.  Two  men  could 
with  ease  open  the  bridge  in  two  minutes  ;  the  total  weight  of  metal,  in  the 
moving  part,  exclusive  of  the  roadway,  was  about  130  tons. 

The  next  paper  read  was,  "  A  Description  of  the  Lattice-beam  Viaduct,  to 
carry  the  Waterford  and  Kilkenny  Railway  across  the  River  Nore,  near 
Thomastown,  County  Kilkenny,"  by  Captain  W.  S.  Moorsom,  M.  Inst.  C.  E. 

The  span  of  the  bridge  was  extended  to  200  feet,  chiefly  in  order  to  avoid  the 
interference  of  the  Inspecting  Officers  of  the  Board  of  Works,  Ireland,  whose 
proceedings  had,  in  other  cases,  been  so  vexatious  as  to  cause  great  delay  in  the 
execution  of  works,  and,  in  one  instance,  of  a  small  arch  of  twelve  feet  span 
crossing  a  stream,  with  a  bottom  of  firm  limestone  rock,  they  had  insisted  on 
the  excavation  of  this  rock  to  a  depth  of  6  feet  below  the  bed  of  the  stream, 
and  caused  the  foundations  to  be  brought  up  in  masonry  from  that  depth.  The 
length  of  the  girder  enabled  the  piers  to  be  constructed  on  the  banks,  without 
the  aid  of  cofferdams.  The  foundation  was  strong  loam  and  gravel,  for  an 
average  of  about  10  feet,  at  which  depth  the  limestone  rock  was  reached 
The  river  was  subject  to  floods,  which,  rising  rapidly,  spread  across  the  valley 
for  a  breadth  of  180  yards,  and  to  a  depth  of  about  16  feet  in  mid-channel. 

The  progress  of  the  structure  was  delayed  by  the  financial  affairs  of  the 
railway  company;  and  on  the  original  contractors  resigning  the  work,  it  was 
completed  by  several  others,  among  whom  was  Mr.  R.  Mallet,  M.  Inst.  C.E., 
whose  able  assistance,  in  the  execution  of  the  work,  was  deservedly  eulogized 
by  the  author. 

Details  were  given  of  the  limestone  piers,  the  material  for  which  was  quar- 
ried contiguously  to  the  bridge ;  as  also  of  the  lime,  and  the  modes  of  working. 

The  timber  used  for  the  lattice-beams,  or  girders,  was  Memel  fir.  The 
whole  was  worked  to  templates  and  gauges,  and  the  beams  were  constructed 
with  a  curve,  or  "  camber,"  regulated  by  cleats  spiked  to  the  staging  on  which 
the  beams  were  built.  The  intersections  of  the  diagonals  were  all  very  accu- 
rately fitted,  and  double  spiked ;  the  waling  pieces  were  drawn  close  by  bolts, 
and  the  joints  made  water-tight;  the  diagonal  flooring  was  then  bolted  and 
spiked  down  ;  and  on  the  trial  of  the  beam  it  was  found  that,  on  knocking 
away  the  cleats,  the  deflection  was  about  3  inches,  which  gradually  increased 
to  3|  inches;  after  passing  several  trains  across,  at  speeds  varying  between 
twenty  miles  and  thirty  miles  an  hour,  the  ultimate  deflection  (without  a  load), 
became  5\  inches.  The  maximum  load  had  been  65  tons.  The  Government 
Inspector,  however,  tested  it  by  a  train  of  loaded  waggons,  extending  the 
entire  length  of  the  arch  (200  feet),  and  weighing  146  tons.  The  result  of 
this  was,  that  the  beam  deflected  2j  inches  under  the  heaviest  load,  and  rose 
again  \\  inch,  thus  leaving  a  permanent  deflection,  after  the  trials  were  con- 
cluded, of  about  6|  inches.  The  shrinking  of  the  timber,  and  the  regular 
traffic,  produced  a  further  sinking,  so  that  now  the  entire  amount  was  3£ 
inches  ;  but  the  engineer  had  calculated  and  allowed  for  a  subsidence  of 
9  inches. 

Details  were  given  of  the  quantities  of  materials  of  all  kinds  used  in  the 
bridge,  the  entire  cost  of  which  was  about  £8,100  :— that  of  the  timber  arch 
alone  was  about  £15  per  foot  run,  and  the  cost  of  the  whole  mass,  taken  as 
a  solid,  averaged  three  shillings  and  three- pence  halfpenny  per  cubic  yard. 

April  20,  1852. 

The  paper  read  was  "  The  Economy  of  Railways,  as  a  means  of  transit, 
comprising  the  classification  of  the  traffic,  in  relation  to  the  most  appropriate 
speeds  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers  and  merchandize,"  by  Mr.  Braith- 
waite  Poole,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E. 

After  referring  to  the  influence  which  cheap  and  rapid  communications 
had  on  the  prosperity  of  a  nation,  the  author  alluded  to  the  rise  of  the  rail- 
way system  in  this  country,  expressing  the  belief,  that  it  would  have  been 
economical  and  wise  if  the  legislature  had,  in  the  first  instance,  determined 
1he  lines  on  which  the  system  of  railways  should  have  been  constructed 
throughout  the  kingdom,  so  as  to  have  avoided  the  present  ruinous  competi- 
tion. The  passenger  traffic  now  exceeded,  annually,  four  times  the  entire 
population  of  Great  Britain,  and  was  conveyed  at  three  times  the  speed  and 
one-third  the  fares  formerly  charged  by  the  old  stage,  or  mail  coaches,  whilst 
the  cost  of  conveyance  of  merchandize,  minerals,  and  agricultural  produce, 
had  been  reduced  full  50  per  cent.,  as  compared  with  the  rates  charged  on 
canals  and  turnpike  roads  fifteen  years  ago.     The  ordinary  fares  for  passen- 


136 


Beet- Root  Beer. 


[June, 


gers  ranged  from  twopence  three-farthings  to  a  halfpenny  per  mile,  and  for 
merchandize,  from  one  penny  to  sixpence  per  ton  per  mile. 

The  author  then  proceeded  to  consider  the  economy  which  might  be  intro- 
duced into  the  working  of  railways,  and  divided  the  subject  into  sixteen  dif- 
ferent heads,  each  of  which  referred  to  some  particular  point,  where  it  was 
thought  a  reduction  of  expenses  might  be  made.  The  principal  point 
advanced  was  the  amalgamating,  or  working,  of  all  the  -railways  in  four 
great  divisions,  and  ensuring  unity  of  management  in  every  department,  in 
the  maintenance  of  the  permanent  way,  and  of  the  rolling  stock,  as  well  as 
in  their  manufacture,  several  improvements  in  the  construction  of  the  wag- 
gons being  suggested. 

If  a  general  classification  of  trains  were  arranged  throughout  the  kingdom, 
separating  each  class,  and  running  them  at  different  speeds  whenever  prac- 
ticable, it  was  thought  that  it  would  be  conducive  to  the  interest  of  all  parties, 
as  it  was  urged  to  be  a  manifest  injustice  towards  those  who  paid  the  highest 
fares,  to  find  third  class  passengers  arriving  at  the  same  time  with  them. 
Punctuality  and  regularity  required  to  be  strictly  attended  to  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  a  certain  definite  speed. 

Numerous  instances  were  adduced  to  show  the  vast  advantages  and  eco- 
nomy of  the  railway  system,  without  which  the  Penny  Postage  could  not 
have  been  achieved,  or  the  Great  Exhibition  rendered  available  to  the  mul- 
titude ;  the  produce  of  the  land  and  sea  in  vegetables,  fruit,  meat,  fish,  all 
provisions  and  fuel,  would  have  remained  as  limited  in  consumption  as 
heretofore,  and  the  poor  man's  fireside  in  the  rural  districts  would  never  have 
been  warmed  by  coal. 


May  18,  1852. 

The  paper  read  was  "  Observations  on  Artificial  Hydraulic,  or  Portland, 
Cement  ;  with  an  account  of  the  Testing  of  the  Brick  Beam  erected  at  the 
Great  Exhibition,"  by  Mr.  G.  F.  White,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.E. 

After  detailing  the  experiments  made  by  the  late  Sir  Isambard  Brunei,  the 
paper  noticed  the  peculiarities  in  the  practice  of  the  English  and  foreign 
engineers  in  the  use  of  cements  and  limes.  It  was  stated  that,  in  England, 
the  natural  cements  were  plentiful,  and  the  mode  of  construction  being 
generally  in  brickwork,  quick-setting  cements  were  preferred  ;  whereas 
abroad,  the  natural  cement  stones  were,  comparatively  speaking,  rare,  and 
the  use  of  bricks  rather  the  exception  than  the  rule.  In  some  cases  it  was 
found,  that  even  the  best  natural  hydraulic  limes  did  not  set  with  sufficient 
rapidity,  in  salt  water,  to  do  away  with  the  necessity  for  using  pozzalanos ; 
and  some  of  the  attempts  made,  at  various  periods,  to  substitute  artificial 
pozzalanos  for  the  very  expensive  natural  products  of  that  nature,  were  then 
described.  The  unfavourable  results  of  these  attempts,  and  the  manner  in 
which  M.  Vicat  explained  them,  were  detailed.  A  sketch  was  then  given 
of  the  course  of  investigation  followed  in  England  by  Mr.  Frost  and  General 
Sir  Charles  Pasley,  from  which  it  appeared,  that  until  the  introduction  of 
the  Portland  cements,  no  artificial  compound  had  been  discovered  which 
possessed  the  same  or  greater  powers  of  resistance  than  those  of  the  natural 
cements.  The  advantages  of  the  Portland  cement  were  stated  to  be,  that  it 
had  nearly  all  the  qualities  of  rapid  setting  presented  by  the  natural  materials 
of  the  same  class;  and  in  addition,  that  as  it  was  capable  of  supporting 
variable  proportions  of  sand,  it  could  be  used  as  a  mortar,  the  rate  of  setting 
of  which  might  be  modified  at  will,  and  the  powers  of  resistance  of  which 
were  stated  to  be  much  greater  than  those  of  either  the  cements  or  the  limes 
thus  replaced. 

A  general  description  of  the  manner  in  which  the  Portland  cement  was 
now  manufactured,  and  of  the  methods  of  testing  the  article,  were  then  given ; 
and  it  appeared  that,  after  seven  days,  the  cohesive  strength  of  the  neat  cement 
was  equal  to  above  lOOlbs.  on  the  square  inch,  and  that,  after  six  months, 
this  became  equal  to  not  less  than  414lbs.  per  square  inch.  M.  Vicat  had 
stated,  in  1851,  in  a  communication  to  the  Annales  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees, 
that  by  the  use  of  Portland  cement  alone,  or  what  he  termed  "  overburnt 
lime,"  it  would  be  possible  to  form  immense  artificial  blocks,  capable  of  re- 
sisting the  action  of  the  waves  and  of  the  shingle  upon  the  sea-shore,  an 
action  which,  it  was  well  known,  rapidly  destroyed  the  natural  cements  and 
the  pozzalanic  mixtures,  whether  of  natural  or  artificial  pozzalanos. 

The  several  applications  of  the  Portland  cement,  as  a  concrete,  as  a  mortar, 
and  as  a  stucco,  were  then  alluded  to,  and  reference  was  made  to  the  early 


failures  in  forming  large  artificial  blocks  ;  and  an  account  was  given  of  the 
mode  now  adopted  in  constructing  them  at  Dover  and  Alderney  harbours  of 
refuge,  and  likewise  of  those  employed  to  protect  the  extremities  of  the 
breakwater  of  Cherbourg.  At  Dover,  the  hearting  of  the  piers,  below  high- 
water  mark,  was  executed  in  blocks  of  concrete,  composed  of  cement  and 
shingle,  in  the  proportions  of  1  to  10,  and  occupying  about  three-fourths  of 
the  volume  of  the  separate  materials  measured  in  the  dry  state.  Each  block 
contained  from  30  cubic  feet  to  120 'cubic  feet,  and  weighed  from  2  tons  to 
7  tons.  At  Alderney,  a  species  of  concrete,  composed  of  cement,  sand,  and 
shingle,  was  placed  in  a  mould  with  rubble  stone,  bedded  irregularly  in  the 
mass,  the  proportions  being  about  one  part  of  cement  to  ten  parts  of  foreign 
materials.  At  Cherbourg,  the  system  adopted  was  to  build  immense  blocks 
of  rubble  masonry  of  not  less  than  712  cubic  feet,  and  weighing  about  52  tons. 
These  blocks  were  floated  out  from  the  places  where  they  were  constructed, 
and  sunk  as  " pierre perdue,"  but  this  had  not  on  all  occasions  been  able  to 
resist  the  transporting  power  of  the  waves.  The  manner  of  using  the  cement 
was  in  the  form  of  mortar,  composed  of  one  part  of  cement  to  three  parts 
of  sand. 

It  had  been  stated  by  M.  Vicat,  that  the  powers  of  resistance  to  compression 
absolutely  required,  in  substances  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sea,  must  be 
at  least  equal  to  40lbs.  per  square  inch,  and  of  that  to  tension  at  least  equal 
to  9lbs.  on  the  square  inch.  Now,  the  "resistance  of  the  artificial  stone  blocks, 
after  an  interval  of  nine  months,  was  not  less  than  l,700lbs.  per  square  inch, 
when  the  effort  was  one  of  compression,  or  than  240lbs.  per  square  inch,  when 
it  became  an  effort  of  tension,  or  little  inferior  to  that  of  Portland  stone  itself. 

Attention  was  called  to  the  fact  that  the  Portland  cement  adhered  more 
energetically  to  the  Portland  stone  than  to  any  other  material.  This  degree 
of  adhesion  did  not  seem  to  depend  so  much  upon  the  absorbent  powers  of 
the  substances  connected  together  by  the  cement,  as  upon  some  coincidence 
in  the  manner  of  their  crystallisation. 

The  applications  of  Portland  cement  to  the  purposes  of  stucco  for  external 
works  were  noticed.  Its  advantages  were  stated  to  consist  in  its  agreeable 
colour,  without  the  intervention  of  paint  or  lime-white,  its  power  of  resisting 
frost,  and  its  freedom  from  vegetation ;  all  which  were  attributed  to  the  close 
contact  of  its'  constituent  parts,  and  to  the  surface  being  perfectly  non- 
absorbent.  For  the  same  reason,  it  was  asserted  that  the  Portland  cement 
was  eminently  adapted  for  the  construction  of  cistern  and  baths,  and  for  the 
various  descriptions  of  statues  and  fountains,  &c,  now  made  of  artificial  stone. 

The  paper  concluded  by  a  description  of  the  brick  beam  experimented  on 
at  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851,  an  account  of  which  has  already  appeared 
in  the  scientific  journals  of  the  period,  and  from  which  it  was  deduced  that 
the  strength  of  Portland  cement,  as  compared  with  Roman  cement,  was  in 
the  ratio  of  2^th  to  1. 

BEET-ROOT  BEER. 

Me.  R.  Baker  has  published  a  letter  on  this  subject,  in  one  of  the  Agri- 
cultural Journals,  of  which  the  following  is  an  abstract: — 

"  As  regards  the  seed  of  the  white  Silesian  sugar  beet,  I  obtained  it  last  year 
through  a  friend  from  Belgium,  myself  and  three  others  in  this  district 
!  having  contracted  with  a  sugar  manufacturer  to  grow  eighty  acres,  but  as  that 
speculation  failed,  I  then  endeavoured  to  apply  it  beneficially  to  other  pur- 
poses. Twelve  bullocks  were  stalled,  and  fed  with  it  and  Swede  turnips 
mixed,  from  the  1st  of  November  to  the  10th  of  February,  when  they  were 
sold  at  £19  15s.  each  in  Smithficld.  They  of  course  were  fed  with  oil-cake, 
meal,  and  cut  chaff  in  addition;  but  it  was  admitted  by  all  who  inspected 
them  that  they  made  flesh  faster  than  we  had  ever  before  experienced,  fully 
establishing  the  utility  of  beet  for  fattening  purposes.  Little  attention  ap- 
pears to  have  been  paid  by  foreign  growers  in  selecting  the  roots  for  seed ; 
and  with  a  little  care  in  that  respect  for  a  few  years,  I  have  no  doubt  it  may 
be  made  to  produce  one-third  more  in  quantity,  and  that  of  very  superior 
quality,  so  as  to  allow  it  to  compete  with  the  mangold  wortzel  and  Swede 
turnip  as  to  acreable  value.  My  produce  last  year  was  from  10  to  16  tons 
per  acre,  whilst  the  mangold  wortzel  was  from  16  to  24  tons  in  the  same 
field.  The  beet  should  be  planted  closer  than  the  mangold  wortzel,  and,  * 
perhaps,  would  yield  a  greater  crop  by  leaving  double  the  number  of  plants. 
The  leaves  of  this  plant  are  much  preferred  by  cattle,  and  the  roots  left  in 


1852.] 


Recent  American  Patents. 


137 


my  garden  for  seed  have  had  all  the  crowns  picked  out  by  small  birds,  while 
they  rarely,  if  ever,  touch  the  mangold  wortzel.  The  planting  will  be  suffi- 
ciently early  if  effected  by  the  12th  of  May,though  the  last  week  of  April  would 
be  preferred.  The  after  culture  is  the  same  as  that  pursued  with  mangold 
wortzel ;  the  leaves  will  repay  the  whole  expense  of  pulling  and  collecting 
the  roots.  The  process  necessary  to  convert  it  for  brewing  should  be  effected 
early  :  the  middle  to  the  end  of  October  is  most  suitable.  After  thoroughly 
clearing  from  dirt,  the  roots  should  be  sliced  with  a  Gardner's  patent  turnip 
slicer,  and  spread  thinly  upon  a  barn  or  malting-floor,  and  thoroughly  turned 
over  for  three  or  four  days  or  more,  until  the  moisture  is  partially  evaporated; 
they  then  should  be  gradually  dried  upon  a  malt  or  chicory  kiln,  taking  care 
not  to  burn  them  in  the  process,  as  the  colour  of  the  beer,  as  with  malt,  de- 
pends entirely  upon  this  process  being  carefully  conducted  ;  when  dry  and 
crisp,  they  may  be  removed  and  kept  in  a  dry  situation  for  use.  The  process 
of  brewing  is  as  follows  : — If  combined  with  malt,  I  brew  12  bushels  of  malt, 
and  mash  it  the  first  time  in  the  ordinary  way.  I  then  add  18  bushels  of  the 
dried  root  for  the  second  wort ;  from  this  a  third  wort  is  taken,  and  the 
whole  is  put  to  fermentation  at  45°  to  50°  Fahrenheit,  and  turned  separately 
or  together  ;  l-|lb.  of  good  hops  to  each  bushel  of  malt  being  added,  and  1| 
bushels  of  the  beet  being  used.  The  wort  is  boiled  in  the  usual  way  ;  from 
this  I  obtain  seven  hogsheads  of  beer,  which  in  three  months  is  quite  clear 
and  ready  for  use.  Or,  I  brew  with  the  beet-root  alone,  putting  1^  bushels 
for  each  bushel  of  malt ;  but  I  do  not  find  it  quite  equivalent  to  a  bushel  of 
malt  when  used  alone,  although  when  combined  with  malt  it  is  so,  but  2 
bushels  would  be  more  than  equivalent.  The  beer  brewed  entirely  from  the 
beet,  if  properly  managed,  is  quite  equal  to  that  brewed  from  malt  and  beet, 
and  is  first  ready  for  use ;  is  about  the  colour  of  London  porter — quite  as 
bright,  and,  as  most  persons  state,  quite  as  good.  One  ton  of  beet  will  pro- 
duce from  16  to  18  bushels  of  dried  root,  the  cost  of  drying  about  12s.  per 
ton.  Some  did  not  cost  so  much,  but  the  maltster  objected  to  dry  more 
under  that  price,  as  it  requires  longer  time  and  a  stronger  fire  than  malt  to 
effect  the  object  well." 

RECENT  AMERICAN  PATENTS. 
For  an  improvement  in  pianofortes;   Frederick  Mathushek,  City  of  New 

York,  October  28. 

Claim. — "  What  I  claim  as  my  invention  is,  1st,  the  manner,  substantially 
as  herein  described,  of  placing  or  arranging  the  strings  of  a  pianoforte,  to 
wit,  the  shorter  strings,  or  strings  of  the  higher  octaves,  across  the  narrower 
portion  of  the  instrument,  and  the  longer  strings,  or  those  of  the  lower  oc- 
taves, crossing  them  in  the  direction  of  the  greatest  length  of  the  instrument, 
so  as  to  include  the  greatest  possible  size  of  string  within  the  instrument,  for 
the  purposes  specified." 

For  an  improvement  in  mineral  composition  resembling  jasper;  John  Paige 
Pepper,  New  Britain,  Connecticut,  December  16. 

Claim. — "What  I  claim  as  my  invention  is,  the  manufacture  of  a  mineral 
composition,  having  the  external  characters  above  described,  by  the  fusion 
of  clay  with  alkali,  soda,  lime,  and  sulphate  of  copper,  as  above  described, 
or  their  equivalents,  and  working  the  composition  into  articles  of  utility  and 
ornament,  in  the  manner  above  described." 

For  a  rotary  swaging  machine ;  Perry  G.  Gardiner,  City  of  New  York,  De- 
cember 23. 

Claim. — "What  I  claim  as  my  invention,  discovery,  and  improvement,  is, 
the  compressing,  drawing,  swaging,  or  working  into  shape,  wrought-iron  car 
wheels,  and  other  metallic  discs,  by  means  of  two  dies  or  swedges,  suitably 
shaped,  one  of  which  is  forced  towards  the  other,  while  it  at  the  same  time 
revolves  on  its  own  centre,  its  axis  of  revolution  being  the  same  as  that  of 
the  disc  which  is  acted  upon  ;  the  other  die  being  either  stationary,  or  hav- 
ing a  revolving  motion  in  an  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the  first-mentioned 
die,  and  with  the  same  axis  of  revolution  ;  the  said  two  dies  or  swedges 
operating  substantially  as  described,  and  being  moved  by  any  competent 
arrangement  of  machinery,  substantially  as  described." 

For  an  improvement  in  ventilating  windows  for  railway  cars;  Henry  M. 
Paine,  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  January  6. 

Claim. — "lam  aware  that  repeated  attempts  have  made  to  prevent  the 


sparks  from  entering  the  cars,  by  deflecting  boards  or  slats,  but  they  have 
been  outside,  or  independent  of  the  windows  ;  they  could  not  be  adjusted  by 
the  passengers  themselves  ;  they  are  an  additional  expense,  and  cannot 
effectually  shield  off  the  dust  and  sparks,  unless  they  should  cover  the  win- 
dow, so  as  to  obstruct  the  view  therefrom  ;  therefore,  I  do  not  wish  to  be 
understood  as  not  claiming  a  deflector  ;  but  what  I  do  claim  as  my  inven- 
tion is,  the  construction  and  arrangement  of  the  windows  of  a  car  or  carriage, 
in  the  manner  and  for  the  purpose  set  forth,  by  causing  the  parts  of  the 
window  to  stand  at  an  angle  outward  when  closed,  and  opening  inward  to  a 
line  with  the  inside  of  the  car,  as  described,  whereby  I  insure  ventilation, 
without  the  annoyance  of  dust,  by  means  of  the  window  alone,  without  the 
addition  of  other  deflectors." 


Ship  Building  in  New  York  for  1851. — The  following  is  the  num- 
ber of  vessels  finished  and  remaining  on  the  stocks  in  New  York,  at  the 
close  of  the  year  1851 : — 

Finished.  Unfinished.    Total. 

Clipper  ships  15  3  18 

Ships  7  1  8 

Steamships  and  propellers  ..  ..         17  5  22 

Steamboats  20  6  26 

Barks  and  brigs     ..  ..  ..  ..  3  1  4 

Pilot  boats  and  schooners  ..  ..         21  7  28 

Total,  106  vessels  of  all  classes,  whose  aggregate  tonnage  is  equal  to 
80,761  tons.  Of  the  22  vessels  under  the  head  of  steamships  and  propellers, 
17  are  side-wheel  steamers. 

The  total  number  of  side  wheel  sea-going  steamers  built  up  to  this  date 
is  53. 


PROFESSOR  EDWARD   SOLLY,  F.R.S.,   ON   THE  VEGETABLE 
SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  ARTS  AND  MANUFACTURES. 

(Extracts  from  Exhibition  Lectures  delivered  before  the  Society  of  Arts.) 
Oils.— On  turning  to  the  great  class  of  vegetable  oils,  we  find  the  same 
rich  abundance  of  nature  to  admire;  and  here,  as  in  the  preceding  case,  we 
cannot  but  wonder  at  the  comparatively  small  number  used  by  manufac- 
turers, out  of  the  hundreds  presented  to  us  by  the  fruitful  earth.  It  would 
seem  almost  as  if,  in  regard  to  the  productions  of  the  earth,  there  were 
certain  vested  rights  which  might  not  be  set  aside,  and  that  we  were  bound 
to  go  on  importing  and  using  the  same  substances  which  our  ancestors  did, 
irrespective  of  the  question,  whether  other  substances  might  not  be  advan- 
tageously substituted  for  them.  Of  late  years,  attention  has  been  paid  to 
some  of  the  many  good  vegetable  oils  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  large  quan- 
tities have  been  imported ;  yet  there  are  still  many  which  are  quite  as  good 
but  almost  unknown,  though  new  oils  are  anxiously  desired  by  candle  and 
soap  makers,  by  wool  spinners,  by  engineers  in  general  for  diminishing 
friction,  and  for  various  other  purposes.  Cocoa-nut  and  palm-oil  have  been 
extensively  imported  from  Ceylon  and  the  coast  of  Africa,  chiefly  for  the 
manufacture  of  candles ;  but  there  are,  besides  these,  at  least  two  dozen 
other  solid  vegetable  oils,  almost  unknown  to  commerce,  and  well  worthy 
the  attention  of  manufacturers,  such  as  the  vegetable  tallow  of  the  Valeria 
indica,  the  fat  of  the  various  Bassias,  the  oil  of  the  Carapa,  the  oils  of  the 
Garcinia  and  of  the  Vernonia,  the  vegetable  tallows  of  China  and  the  Archi- 
pelago Islands.  The  various  vegetable  waxes,  too,  of  which  there  are  like- 
wise many,  and  which  may  be  had  largely  in  Mexico,  South  Africa,  and 
North  America,  deserve  notice.  Some  of  these  substances  are  already 
becoming  known  to  manufacturers,  especially  certain  of  the  kinds  of  vege- 
table tallow  from  China ;  and  the  importation  of  vegetable  wax  is  in- 
creasing. Till  recently,  indeed,  the  latter  substance  could  not  be  imported 
into  England,  for  the  high  duty  imposed  upon  it  amounted  to  a  prohibi- 
tion. Whilst  bees'  wax  paid  a  duty  of  10s.  per  cwt.,  vegetable  wax  was 
charged  £5  12s.,  or  at  the  rate  of  £112  per  ton.  Recently  the  duty  has 
been  equalised,  and  the  protection  which  long  existed  in  favour  of  bees  has 
been  withdrawn. 

Amongst  the  fluid  fixed  oils,  similar  facts  are  to  be  observed;  there  are 
many  excellent  oils  wholly  unknown  to  commerce,  but  admirably  adapted 
to  the  wants  and  requirements  of  manufacturers;  these,  too,  are  waiting  for 


138 


Novelties. 


[June, 


some  fortunate  circumstance  to  bring  them  to  the  notice  of  those  able  to 
turn  them  to  practical  uses.  Let  us  hope  that  it  may  not  be  the  devastating 
and  paralysing  influences  of  war  which  shall  give  rise  to  the  introduction 
of  these  substances!  I  might  mention  many  curious  facts  to  show  how 
difficult  it  is  to  introduce  a  new  article  of  trade,  however  good,  if  in  any  way 
it  interferes  with  the  established  custom  and  routine  of  commerce,  and  how 
in  some  cases  it  can  only  be  brought  in  under  a  false  name,  in  order  to 
obtain  an  entrance  into  our  ports!  Till  quite  recently,  the  linseed-oil  re- 
quired for  Government  use,  throughout  the  Indian  empire,  was  wholly  sent 
out  from  Europe;  and  it  is  only  within  the  last  few  years  that  it  has  been 
found  out,  that  the  native-grown  linseed  is  quite  as  good  as  the  best  which 
can  be  had  from  Europe. 

In  preparing  oils  for  exportation,  some  care  and  attention  must  be  paid; 
when  well  expressed,  oil  has  little  tendency  to  change,  but  when  prepared  in 
a  careless  and  slovenly  manner,  contaminated  with  mucilage  and  other 
matters  from  the  seed,  it  soon  becomes  rancid,  and  then  will  not  bear  a  sea 
voyage  of  any  length.  The  value  of  these  new  oils,  therefore,  will  mainly 
depend  on  the  care  and  skill  bestowed  upon  their  preparation :  if  expressed 
with  rude  and  imperfect  machinery,  they  will  arrive  foul,  discoloured,  rancid, 
and  of  little  value;  whilst,  if  carefully  prepared,  they  will  come  over  fresh 
and  sweet,  and  fit  for  any  purpose  in  the  arts,  to  which  they  may  be  applied. 
Again,  in  collecting  these  oils,  in  our  colonies  and  elsewhere,  some  system 
must  be  adopted  for  the  cultivation  and  preservation  of  the  plants  yield- 
ing them  ;  the  supply  cannot  fail  to  be  small  and  uncertain,  if  the  same 
reckless  mode  .of  cutting  down  trees  is  adopted,  as  has  been  the  case  with 
the  trees  yielding  gutta  percha  and  caoutchouc — a  system  which  gradually, 
but  surely,  leads  to  the  extinction  of  the  trees  themselves.  These  remarks 
may  to  some  seem  almost  self-evident,  but  they  are  nevertheless  generally 
overlooked,  and  ..the  usual  consequences  are  disappointment,  failure,  and 
ruin. 

Several  of  the  little-known  volatile  oils  were  highly  interesting;  the  sweet- 
scented,  fragrant  ones  are  all  of  value,  though  their  importance  in  the  arts  is 
fast  diminishing,  as  the  progress  of  science  brings  us  nearer  and  nearer  to 
the  mode  of  preparing  them  artificially.  Amongst  these  oils  several  are  of 
value,  in  consequence  of  their  strong  solvent  powers  over  resin.  Thus,  for 
example,  we  have  the  excellent  oil  of  the  Eucalyptus  Piperita  and  Leptis- 
permum,  from  New  South  Wales; — that  country,  yielding  at  the  same  time 
valuable  resins,  and  essential  oils  capable  of  dissolving  them,  and  thus  of 
rendering  them  practically  useful  in  the  arts. 

In  connexion  with  this  part  of  my  subject,  I  would  also  draw  your  atten- 
tion to  a  class  of  curious  empyreumatic  volatile  oils,  obtained  by  the  destruc- 
tive distillation  of  the  bark  of  trees,  such  as  the  birch  oil  of  Russia,  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  Russian  leather,  and  from  which  it  derives  its  well-known 
fragrant  odour,  and  its  power  of  withstanding  the  attacks  of  insects  and  the 
progress  of  decay.  This  oil  does  not  appear  to  be  so  well  known  as  it  de- 
serves; it  might  probably  be  used  for  other  purposes  besides  the  preservation 
of  leather;  it  is  possible,  likewise,  that  similar  oils  might  be  obtained  by  the 
destructive  distillation  of  the  bark  of  other  trees. 

NOVELTIES. 

Glyde's  Improved  Beer  Valve. — The  drawhig  of  ale  has  long  been  a 

source  of  trouble 
to  that  useful 
body  corporate 
the  licensed  vic- 
tuallers, who 
have  been  puz- 
zled to  under- 
stand why  the 
same  engine 
which  drew  por- 
ter so  well 
should  refuse  to 
perform  its  of- 
fice when  applied 
to  ale.  This  was 
attributed  to  the 
engine  being  out 
of  order  ;  but  a 
more  scientific 
investigation 
showed  that  the 
carbonic  acid 
gas  generated 
in  the  pipe 
leading  from  the 
butt  in  the  cellar 
to  the   beer  en- 

t    n  „A     ,         ,     i     ■  ,  gme>  having  no 

vent,  drove  all  the  beer  back  into  the  butt.  Thus,  after  a  few  miimtes' 
rest,  an  attempt  to  draw  beer  only  brings  froth,  and  it  is  some  time 
before  a  proper  supply  can  be  obtained.  Mr.  Glyde  gas-fitter  of 
Hastings,  having  experienced  this  difficulty,  has  remedied  it  by  puttino-  a 


valve  at  the  bottom  of  the  supply  pipe,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  en- 
graving, a  is  a  small  spindle  valve,  prevented  from  rising  too  high  by  a 
loose  collar  on  the  lower  end  of  the  spindle.  This  valve  shuts,  when  the 
beer  engine  is  out  of  action,  and  being  air-tight,  prevents  the  pipe,  c,  leading 
to  the  engine,  from  being  emptied,  b  is  the  ordinary  cock  in  the  butt,  from 
which  a  supply  is  being  drawn.  The  valve,  which  is  registered,  is  made 
complete  in  a  valve  box,  so  that  it  can  be  readily  applied  to  the  existing  pipes. 

Improved  Lubricator. — Mr.  Coquatrix  has  patented  an  improvement  \a 


■AB- 


lubricators,  designed  to  super- 
wicks.  The  disadvantages 
when  new  they  run  too  fast, 
too  slow.  A  A  is  the  cup,  of 
pipe,  carried  down  at  E  to  the 
ing  at  each  side,  as  at  D,  to 
adjusted  by  the  screw,  F,  the 
closes  the  mouth  of  the  pipe 


sede  the  employment  of  cotton 
attending  the  wicks  are,  that 
and  when  they  get  clogged, 
the  common  form,  B  B  is  the 
bearing.  There  is  an  open- 
admit  the  oil.  The  supply  is 
point,  G,  of  which  enters  and 
E.     The  upper  edge  of  B  B 


is  milled,  and  affords  a  hold  for  the  spring  H,  thus  fixing  the  screw,  and 
consequently  the  supply  of  oil,  at  any  point  desired. 

Cressall's  Improved  Steam  Cock. — The  defects  attaching  to  the 
ordinary  cock,  when  used  for  high  pressure 
steam,  are  well  known.  They  leak,  jam,  and 
quickly  wear  out.  These  defects  are  attempted 
to  be  remedied  in  Cressall's  Registered  Steam 
Cock,  The  plug  is  screwed  at  its  lower  end,  so 
that,  as  steam  is  turned  on,  the  plug  is  raised 
from  contact  with  the  shell,  and  all  friction 
avoided.  The  thread,  in  practice,  we  imagine, 
must  be  rather  loose,  as  a  helical  spring  is  added 
at  bottom  of  the  plug  to  assist  in  raising  it.  The 
top  of  the  plug  is  furnished  with  a  stuffing  box,  to 
prevent  leakage.  We  do  not  think  this  so  good 
as  the  American  form  of  stop-valve  elsewhere 
described. 

Fletcher's  Improved  Lath  Fastening. — Messrs.  G.  Fletcher  and  Co., 
Fig.  1.  bedstead  and  hurdle  manu- 

facturers,  of  Wolverhamp- 


Wffl,  ron,     have     registered     an 
*    j   ingenious  and  simple  method 
'//.  of    fastening    the    wrought 
|   iron  laths  used  in  bedsteads, 
a  Fig.  1  shows  the  lath,  one 
end  of  which  is   connected 
to  the  bedstead  rail,  and  fig. 
2  a  plan  of  the  same.     The 
lath  is  broken  in  the  centre, 
to  save  room.      It  will  be 
observed    that    the    rail   is 
made    with     a     slit    in    it, 
about  the  width  of  the  lath. 
The   ends  of  the  laths  are 
first  bent  into  an  acute  angle, 
and  then  bent  again  into  a  right  angle.    When  the  ends  of  the  lath  are 


Fig.  2. 


1852.] 


List  of  Patents. 


139 


pressed  into  the  rail,  the  acute  angle  collapses  and  allows  the  lath  to  enter; 
and  when  it  has  passed  through  the  rail,  it  springs  out,  as  shown  in  the 
sketch,  and  prevents  the  lath  being  withdrawn.  To  take  the  laths  out,  the 
ends  must  be  compressed,  to  allow  them  to  pass  through  the  slits. 

Eodd's  Registered  Filter-tap. — Having  paid  a  tribute  to  beer,  we 
must  relieve  our  conscience,  by  noticing  a  remedy  for  the  complaints  of  our 
water-drinking  friends.  We  have  often  lamented  the  want  of  a  cheap  and 
good  filter  for  the  million,  and  we  think  we  have  now  found  it.     Pig.  1  is 

an  outside  view   of  Mr. 
Eodd's  filter,  and  fig.  2  is 
a  section,  about  quarter 
size.      It  is  of  brass,  tin- 
ned inside,  to  prevent  the 
slightest  contamination  of 
the  water ;  and  is  composed 
of    three    cylinders,    the 
second  one  having  a  se- 
ries of  small  holes,  drilled 
laterally,  near  the  bottom, 
through  which  the  water 
enters    the    filter,    which 
may  be  attached  directly 
to   the    cistern    or    butt. 
The  course  of  the  water 
is  shown  by  the  arrows. 
The  filter  is   filled  with 
peat   charcoal,   or    other 
approved  material.  When 
the   filthy   stuff 
supplied  by  the 
water     compa- 
nies   is    passed 
through  one  of 
these   filters,   it 
will    pass    out 
not     only    me- 
chanically,   but 
chemically    pu- 
rified, from  the 
deodorizing  and 
purifying  power 
of  the  peat  char- 
coal, as  we  have 
on  previous  oc- 
casions    amply 
Fig.  2.  shown. 

Railways  in  Denmark. — It  has  been  decided  by  the  Danish  Government 
to  form  a  railway  between  the  towns  of  Flensburg  and  Husum,  and  thence 
to  Tonningon  and  Rendsburg.  The  Lowestoft  Steam  Navigation  Company 
have  made  the  proposal  of  constructing  a  line,  without  fixing  the  Government 
to  the  payment  of  any  interest  on  the  capital,  but  in  consideration  of  having 
the  usual  favourable  conditions  conceded  to  the  Company,  such  as  exemptions 
from  duty  upon  all  articles  required  for  the  construction  of  the  line,  &c.  A 
period  of  100  years  has  been  named  for  the  extension  of  the  concession  to 
be  granted  by  the  Government  in  regard  to  the  undertaking.  Besides  open- 
ing the  communication  between  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of  the  duchy  of 
Schleswig,  for  the  operations  of  commerce  in  a  more  direct  manner  between 
Sweden  and  Russia,  by  the  establishment  of  steamboats  at  Flemsburg,  to  run 
to  Copenhagen,  Stockholm,  St.  Petersburg,  &c,  the  Company  has  in  view,  in 
an  especial  manner,  the  establishing  quicker  postal  and  passenger  communi- 
cation between  England  and  Germany;  having  calculated  that,  as  their 
steamboats  can  run  from  Lowestoft  to  Tonningen  in  15  hours,  while  it 
generally  takes  from  45  to  50  hours  for  the  Hull  steamers  to  reach  Ham- 
burgh, many  travellers  will  gladly  avail  themselves  of  the  short  run  across 
from  Lowestoft,  and  then  avail  themselves  of  the  railway  to  the  latter  city, 
which  will  only  take  about  four  hours'  time.  One  of  the  Lowestoft  Com- 
pany's boats,  the  City  of  Norwich  steamer,  arrived  at  Gliickstadt  a  few  days 
ago,  in  the  short  period  of  28  hours;  the  shortest  passage  ever  made. 

American  Axes  in  Canada. — The  Montreal  Herald  states  that  a  manu- 
factory of  American  Axes  has  been  established  on  the  Laehine  Canal  by 
Messrs.  Scott,  Brothers,  and  Co.  Their  steel  and  iron  are  imported  from 
England,  and  their  coal  from  Pennsylvania.  To  balance  the  expense  of 
importing  coals,  they  have  the  tariffs  both  of  the  province  and  the  United 
States.  They  have  the  provincial  duty  of  12-J-  per  cent,  against  imported 
hardwares,  and,  instead  of  the  30  to  40  per  cent,  duty  the  United  States  im- 
poses on  British  iron  and  steel,  they  have  the  nominal  one  of  2^  per  cent. 

The  American  axe,  it  is  well  known,  is  of  a  peculiar  shape,"curved  in  its 
outline,  and  very  thick  towards  its  edge,  so  that  a  section  of  it  would  not 
be  an  acute  triangle,  but  the  meeting  at  an  acute  angle  of  two  curves.  Its 
use  is  principally  to  fell  the  trees,  and  the  object  of  its  peculiar  shape  is,  to 
clear  itself  when  struck  into  the  green  wood,  so  as  not  to  stick  and  require 


an  effort  to  extricate  itself,  but  to  come  out  easily,  and  rather  to  recoil  for 
another  blow. 

Another  Rat-Trap. — Mr.  John  T.  Vedder,  of  Schenectady,  N.Y.,  h;_s 
taken  measures  to  secure  a  patent  for  a  new  and  improved  rat-trap;  one,  it 
is  said  by  some,  that  will  make  the  rats  scarce  wherever  used.  This  rat-  trap 
not  only  makes  the  rat  catch  himself,  but  drown  himself  at  the  same  time; 
and,  more  than  that,  he  adds  rat-murder  to  rat-suicide,  for,  in  the  act  of 
making  his  own  fate,  he  resets  the  trap  for  another  rat,  without  so  much  as 
leaving  a  solitary  line  of  warning — like  that  which  used  to  be  on  the  old 
Schcmc.ady  canal  packets,  viz., — "Passengers  are  requested  not  to  stand  on 
deck,  under  the  penalty  of  being  knocked  down,  killed,  and  drowned  by  the 
bridges." 

Artificial  Noses  and  Ears  are  now  made  of  India-rubber.  Artificial 
hands,  &c,  are  also  made.  It  is  generally  believed,  that  India-rubber  will 
never  be  required  to  supersede  the  material  of  which  the  great  number  of 
consciences  are  made. — Scientific  American. 

Engineer  to  the  Clyde  Trust. — The  election  of  resident  engineer,  in 
place  of  the  late  Mr.  Bremner,  took  place  at  Glasgow,  on  the  18th  inst.  The 
committee  appointed  to  investigate  the  claims  of  the  various  candidates — 
thirty-seven  in  number — unanimously  reported  in  favour  of  Mr.  J.  F.  Ure,  of 
London.  Mr.  Ure  is  a  native  of  Glasgow,  about  thirty  years  of  age,  and  has 
been  employed  by  Mr.  Kyle,  and  by  Mr.  Rendel,  C.E.  Mr.  Collie,  of 
Glasgow,  was  also  proposed,  but,  on  a  division,  Mr.  Ure  received  19  votes, 
and  Mr.  Collie  11. 


NOTES    FROM    CORRESPONDENCE. 

***  We  cannot  insert  communications  from  anonymous  correspondents. 

Sir  E.  McNeill's  Experiment  on  Canal  Tow-Boats,—  Will  you 
allow  me  to  suggest  to  this  gentleman  that  his  experiments,  as  detailed  at 
p.  109,  would  have  been  more  to  the  point,  had  we  been  told  the  effective 
power  by  indicator,  which  the  engines  of  the  respective  boats  were  exerting. 
To  say  that  the  pressure  on  the  valve  was  45  lbs.  in  one  case,  49  in  another, 
and  50  in  a  third,  is  mere  child's  play.  Neither  do  I  see  any  account  of  the 
consumption  of  fuel.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  these  points  are  not  to  be  over- 
looked in  the  "  further  report"  alluded  to. 

C.E. 

[Erratum. — We  perceive  that  our  printers  committed  the  error  of  dating 
this  report  (p.  109)  1852,  instead  of  1851.] 

How  to  use  Coke  for  House  Fires. — I  have  bought  some  coke  from 
^he  gas  works,  but  the  servants  won't  use  it,  and  my  wife — (on  second 
thoughts,  I  need  not  touch  on  that,  as  she  will,  perhaps,  see  it  in  the  Artizan, 
and  I  should  not  like  to  hurt  her  feelings).  Well,  they  say  it  puts  the  fire  out, 
and  all  sorts  of  nonsense.  What  are  we  to  do  with  it,  for  we  have  got  the 
cellar  full  ?— C.  H. 

Our  correspondent's  dilemma  admits  of  an  easy  solution.  The  coke  being 
in  its  unsophisticated  state,  is  doubtless  in  large  lumps,  which  will  put  a 
moderate-sized  fire  out,  by  a  sort  of  negative  process  ;  that  is  to  say,  they 
will  not  readily  ignite.  The  remedy  is,  merely  to  break  them  up  into  pieces 
about  the  size  of  a  large  egg,  which  is  easily  done  with  a  sharp-nosed  ham- 
mer. The  retail  dealers  in  coke  do  this,  and  it  pays  them  well  for  the  trouble; 
for  a  bushel  of  large  coke  will  make  a  bushel  and  a  half  of  small. 

Rotary  Engines. — "  J.  P.  P."  wishes  to  know  what  are  the  defects  of 
rotary  engines,  as  hitherto  constructed,  and  what  are  the  points  required  to 
make  one  suitable  for  locomotive  and  marine  engines.  We  fear  the  answer 
would  not  be  a  very  encouraging  one;  but  we  will  say  something  on  this  point 
next  month. 

"  H.  F."  is  thanked  for  his  reminder.     Try  Mr.  Weale. 

"  M.  Bosscha." — The  experiments  of  Mr.  Whitelaw  on  the  centrifugal 
pump,  are  fully  recorded  in  the  Artizan  for  1846-7  and  8. 

Books  Received. — "  The  Rifle;''  "Exhibition  Lectures,  delivered  at  Society 
of  Arts;"  "Loss  of  the  Orion,"  2nd  edition;  "Guide  to  Photography;" 
"Lecture  on  Electro  Metallurgy." 

LIST  OF  ENGLISH  PATENTS, 

Fkom  the  24th  of  Apkil  to  the  17th  of  May,  1852. 

Six  months  allowed  for  enrolment,  unless  otherwise  expressed. 

Samuel  Heseltine,  the  younger,  of  Harwich,  Essex,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  en- 
gines to  be  worked  by  air  or  gases.    April  24. 

William  Church,  civil  engineer,  and  Samuel  Aspinwall  Goddard,  merchant  and  manufac- 
turer, and  Edward  Middleton,  manufacturer,  all  of  Birmingham,  for  improvements  in 
fire-arms  and  ordnance,  and  in  projectiles  to  be  used  with  such  or  the  like  weapons  ;  and 
also  improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  the  manufacture  of  part  or  parts  of  such 
fire-arms,  ordnance,  and  projectiles.    April  24. 

Armand  Jean  Baptiste  Lonis  Marceschean,  of  Rue  de  Moscow,  Paris,  France,  gentleman, 
for  improvements  in  the  mode  of  conveying  letters,  letter- bags,  and  other  light  parcels  and 
articles.    April  24. 

Richard  Christopher  Mansell,  of  Ashford,  Kent,  for  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
railways,  in  railway  rolling-stock,  and  in  the  machinery  for  manufacturing  the  same. 
April  24. 

William  Exall,  of  Reading,  Berks,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  the  process,  composition , 


140 


List  of  Patents. 


[June,  1852. 


or  combination  of  materials,  machinery,  and  apparatus  for  making  bread  and  biscuits,  part 
of  which  machinery  is  applicable  to  the  mixing  and  kneading  of  plastic  substances  in  general. 
(Partly  a  communication.)    April  27. 

Alfred  Taylor,  of  Warwick-lane,  London,  and  Henry  George  Frasi,  of  Herbert-street, 
North-road,  Middlesex,  for  improvements  in  heating  and  supplying  water  for  baths  and  other 
usss,  in  the  construction  of  water-closets,  and  in  supplying  them  with  water,  and  in  cocks 
for  drawing  off  liquids.     April  27. 

William  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in 
machinery  for  weaving,  colouring,  and  marking  fabrics.  (Being  a  communication.) 
April  28. 

Thomas  Richards  in,  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  for  improvements  in  treating  matters  con- 
taining lead,  tin,  antimony,  zinc,  or  silver,  and  in  obtaining  such  metals  or  products 
thereof.    April  28. 

Charles  Fisher,  of  South  :Hackney,  Middlesex,  for  improvements  in  transferring  orna- 
mental designs  on  to  woven  or  textile  fabrics,  and  in  the  apparatus  connected  therewith. 
April  29. 

John  Lintorn  Arabin  Simmons,  of  Oxford-terrace,  Hyde-pai'k,  Middlesex,  Captain  in  the 
Eoyal  Engineers,  and  Thomas  Walker,  of  the  Brunswick  Ironworks,  Wednesbury,  Stafford, 
Esq.,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  ordnance,  and  in  the  construction  and  manu- 
facture of  carriages  and  traversing  apparatus  for  manoeuvring  the  same.    April  29. 

Peter  Bruff,  of  Ipswich,  Suffolk,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
the  permanent  way  of  rail,  tram,  or  other  roads,  and  in  the  rolling  stock  or  apparatus 
used  therefor.    April  29. 

James  Fletcher,  of  Leyland,  Lancaster,  bleacher,  for  improvements  in  machinery  or 
apparatus  for  stretching  and  dyeing  woven  fabrics.    April  29. 

John  Hinks,  of  Birmingham,  manufacturer,  and  Eugene  Nicolle,  of  Birmingham,  civil 
engineer,  for  a  new  or  improved  composition,  or  new  or  improved  compositions,  and  machi- 
nery for  pressing  or  moulding  the  same,  which  machinery  is  also  applicable  for  moulding 
or  pressing  other  substances.    April  29. 

George  Goodman,  jun.,  of  Birmingham,  Warwick,  manufacturer,  for  an  improved  method, 
or  improved  methods,  of  ornamenting  japanned  metal  and  papier  mache  wares.    April  29. 

Stewart  M'Glashen,  of  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  sculptor,  for  the  application  of  certain  me- 
chanical powers,  for  lifting,  removing,  and  preserving  trees,  houses,  and  other  bodies. 
April  29. 

John  Robinson,  of  Rochdale,  Lancaster,  timber-merchant,  for  improvements  in  machinery 
or  apparatus  for  shaping  wood  into  mouldings  and  other  forms.    April  29. 

John  Cumming,  of  Paisley,  Renfrew,  North  Britain,  pattern  designer,  for  improvements 
in  the  production  of  surfaces  for  printing  or  ornamenting  fabrics.    April  29. 

Alexander  Parkes,  of  Pembrey,  Carmarthen,  chemist,  for  improvements  in  obtaining  and 
separating  certain  metals.    Mayl. 

Hugh  Lee  Pattinson,  of  Scot's-house,  near  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  manufacturing  chemist, 
for  improvements  in  smelting  certain  substances  containing  lead.    May  1. 

John  Moore,  of  Arthur's  Town,  Wexford,  for  improvements  in  nautical  instruments  ap- 
plicable for  ascertaining  and  indicating  the  true  spherical  course  and  distance  between  port 
and  port.    May  1. 

James  Johnson,  of  Waterloo-place,  Kingsland,  Middlesex,  hat-manufacturer,  for  certain 
improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  hats.    May  1. 

Thomas  Mosdell  Smith,  of  Hammersmith,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  wax  candles.    May  1 . 

William  Wood,  of  Pontefvact,  York,  carpet  manufacturer,  for  improvements  in  the  manu- 
facture of  carpets  and  other  fabrics,  and  in  apparatus  or  machinery  connected  therewith. 
May  1. 

Charles  Thomas,  of  Bristol,  soap  manufacturer,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of 
soap.    May  1. 

Edward  Gee,  of  Liverpool,  merchant,  for  improvements  in  apparatus  for  roasting  coffee 
and  cocoa,    May  1. 

Henry  Bridson,  of  Bolton,  Lancaster,  bleacher,  for  improvements  in  machinery  for 
stretching,  drying,  and  finishing  woven  fabrics.    May  1. 

Augustus  Siebe,  of  Denmark-street,  Snho,  Middlesex,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  ma- 
chinery for  manufacturing  paper.    (Being  a  communication.)    May  1. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for 
improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  printing  surfaces.    (Being  a  communication.,)  May  1. 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  the  firm  of  J.  C.  Robertson  and  Co.,  of  Fleet-street,  Mid- 
dlesex, patent  agent,  for  improvements  in  paddle-wheels.  (Being  a  communication.) 
May  4. 

Richard  Jordan  Gatling,  New  York,  for  certain  improvements  in  machinery  for  seeding 
grain.    May  i. 

George  Robins  Booth,  of  the  Wandsworth-road,  Surrey,  for  improvements  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  gas.    May8. 

George  Frederick  Muntz,  jun.,  of  Birmingham,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of 
metal  tubes.    May  8. 

Joseph  Jepson  Oddy  Taylor,  of  Gracechurch-street,  London,  naval  engineer,  for  improve- 
ments in  ships,  boats,  and  vessels,  and  in  certain  articles  of  ships'  furniture.     May  8. 

William  Littell  Tizard,  of  Aldgate  High-street,  London,  brewers'  engineer,  for  improve- 
ments in  machinery,  apparatus,  and  processes  for  the  preparation  of  grain,  and  for  its  conver- 
.  sion  into  malt,  saccharine,  vinous,  alcoholic,  and  acetous  liquors.    May  8. 

Alexandre  Jules  Saillant,  jun.,  of  the  Rue  Vivienne,  Paris,  tailor,  for  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  articles  of  dress.    May  8. 

John  Campbell,  of  Bowfield,  Renfrew,  N.  B.,  bleacher,  for  improvements  in  the  manufac- 
ture and  treatment  or  finishing  of  textile  fabrics  and  materials,  and  in  the  machinery  or 
apparatus  used  therein.    May  8. 

William  Gillespie,  of  Forbane-hill,  Linlithgow,  Scotland,  gentleman,  for  an  improved 
apparatus,  instrument,  or  means  for  ascertaining  or  setting  off  the  slope  or  level  of  drains, 
banks,  inclines,  or  works  of  any  description,  whether  natural  or  artificial,  or  under  land  or 
water.    May  8. 

William  Annitage,  of  Manchester,  for  an  improved  safety  envelope,  and  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  machinery  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  same.    May  8. 

Peter  Fairbairn,  of  Leeds,  York,  machinist,  and  Peter  Swires  Horsman,  of  Leeds  aforesaid, 
flax-spinner,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  process  of  preparing  flax  and  hemp  for  the 
purpose  of  heckling,  and  also  machinery  for  heckling  flax,  hemp,  China  grass,  and  other 
vegetable  fibrous  substances.    May  8. 

Samuel  Hall,  of  Manchester,  Lancasier,  agent,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  construc- 
tion of  cocks,  taps,  or  valves.    May  17. 

George  Frederick  Parratt.  of  Piccadilly,  for  improvements  in  life-rafts.    May  17. 

William  Edward  Newton,  of  Chancery -lane,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements 
in  the  construction  of  docks,  basins,  railways,  and  apparatus  connected  therewith,  for  raising 
or  removing  vessels  or  ships  out  of  the  water,  or  on  to  dry  land,  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
serving or  repairing  the  same.     (Communication.)    May  17. 


Prussia,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  printing,  damping,  stiffening,    opening,  and 
spreading  woven  fabrics.    March  24. 

James  Melville,  of  Roebank  Works,  Lochwinnoch,  Renfrew,  calico  printer,  for  improve- 
ments in  weaving  and  printing  shawls  and  other  fabrics.    March  29. 

Alexander  Forfar,  of  Milnathort,  Kinross,  builder,  for  improvements  in  ventilation,  and 
the  prevention  of  smoky  chimneys.    March  29. 

Joseph  Jones,  of  Bilston,  Stafford,  furnace-builder,  for  certain  improvements  in  furnaces 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  iron.    March  29.     Four  months. 

Sir  John  Scott  Lillie,  of  Pall-mall,  Companion  of  the  Most  Honourable  Military  Order  of 
the  Bath,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  construction  and  covering  of  roads,  floors,  walls, 
doors,  and  other  sm-faces.    April  2.    Four  months. 

William  Watson  Pattinson,  of  Felling  New  House,  Gateshead,  manufacturing  chemist, 
for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  chlorine.    April  2. 

George  Mills,  of  Southampton,  Hants,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  steam-engine  boil- 
ers, and  in  steam-propelling  machinery.    April  2. 

Alexandre  Hediard,  of  Rue  Taitbout,  Paris,  gentleman,  for  certain  improvements  in  ro- 
tary steam-engines.    April  5. 

Joseph  Pimlott  Oates,  of  Lichfield,  Stafford,  surgeon,  for  certain  improvements  in  ma- 
chinery for  manufacturing  tiles,  quarries,  drain-pipes,  and  such  other  articles  as  are  or  may 
be  made  of  clay  or  other  plastic  substances.    April  6. 

Russell  Sturgis,  of  Bishopsgate-street,  London,  merchant,  for  improvements  in  weaving 
looms.    (Communication.).    April  8.    Four  months. 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  the  firm  of  J.  C.  Robertson  and  Co.,  of  166,  Fleet-street, 
London,  patent  agents,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  treatment  and  preparation  of  fibrous 
and  membraneous  materials,  both  in  the  raw  and  manufactured  state,  in  applying  electro- 
chemical action  to  manufacturing  purposes,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  saline  and  metallic 
compounds.     (Communication.)    April  10. 

Thomas  Barnett,  of  Kingston-upon-Hull,  grocer,  for  improvements  in  machinery  for  grind- 
ing wheat  and  other  grain.    April  13. 

Charles  William  Siemens,  of  Birmingham,  engineer,  for  an  improved  fluid  meter.  April  15. 

Richard  Roberts,  of  Manchester,  Lancaster,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  machinery  or 
apparatus  for  regulating  and  measuring  the  flow  of  liquids,  also  for  pumping,  forcing,  agi- 
tating, and  evaporating  fluids,  and  for  obtaining  motive  power  from  fluids.  April  16,  Four 
months. 

William  Whittaker  Collins,  of  Buckingham-street,  Adelphi,  civil  engineer,  for  certain  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  steel.    April  16.    Four  months. 

John  Hack  Winslow,  of  Troy,  New  York,  United  States,  iron-master,  for  improvements  in 
machinery  for  blooming  iron.    April  16. 

William  Hyatt,  of  Old-street  Road,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  applying  and  obtaining 
mctive  power.    April  16. 

Martyn  John  Roberts,  of  Woodbank,  Gerard's-cross,  Bucks,  Esq.,  for  improvements  in 
galvanic  batteries,  and  obtaining  chemical  products  therefrom.    April  19. 

Francois  Joseph  Beltzung,  of  Paris,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of 
bottles  and  jars  of  glass,  clay,  gutta  percha,  or  other  plastic  materials,  and  caps  and  stoppers 
for  the  same,  and  in  pressing  and  moulding  the  said  materials.    April  19. 

John  Walton  le  Longueville  Giffard,  of  Serle-street,  Lincoln's-inn,  barrister-at-law,  for 
improvements  in  fire-arms  and  projectiles.    April  19. 

William  Gorman,  of  Glasgow,  Lanark,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  obtaining  motive 
power,  which  improvements,  or  parts  thereof,  are  applicable  to  measuring  and  transmitting 
aeriform  bodies  and  fluids.    April  20. 


LIST  OF  IRISH  PATENTS, 
Fkom  21st  of  Makch,  to  the  19th  of  April,  1852. 

Thomas  Barnett,  of  Kingston-upon-Hull,  York,  grocer,  for  certain  improvements  in  ma- 
chinery for  grinding  wheat  and  other  grain.    Mareh  22. 

Russell  Sturgis,  of  Bishopsgate-street,  London,  merchant,  for  improvements  in  weaving 
looms.    (Communication.)    March  31. 

Alexandre  Hediard,  of  Rue  Taitbout,  Paris,  gentleman,  for  certain  improvements  in  ro- 
taiy  steam-engines.    March  31. 

Henry  Bernouilli  Barlow,  of  Manchester,  Lancaster,  consulting  engineer,  for  improve- 
ments in  preparing  and  dressing  hemp  and  flax,  and  in  the  machinery  employed  therein. 
April  5. 


LIST  OF  SCOTCH  PATENTS, 
From  22nd  of  Makch  to  the  22nd  of  April,  1852. 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  the  firm  of  J.  C.  Robertson  and  Co.,  of  166,  Fleet-street, 
patent  agents,  for  improvements  in  presses  and  pressing,  in  centrifugal  machinery,  and  in 
apparatus  connected  therewith,  part  or  parts  of  which  are  applicable  to  various  useful  pur- 
poses.   (Communication.)    March  24. 

Colin  Mather,  of  Salford,  Lancaster,  machine-maker,  and  Ernest  Rolffs ,  of  Cologne, 


April  22, 
i,     22, 


3224. 
3225, 


„     23,  3226, 


„  23, 

„  23, 

„  24, 

„  24, 

„  26, 

it  27, 

„  28, 

i.  29, 

„  30, 
May    1, 

.»  1. 

„  3, 

„  3, 

„  3, 

»i  5, 

„  5, 

..  7, 

„  7, 

„  10, 

„  11, 

„  12, 

„  12, 

>,  12, 

.,  14, 

,,  14, 

»  14, 

„  17, 

„  17, 

„  IS, 

„  19, 

„  19, 

,.  19, 

„  20, 

„  20, 


3227, 
3228, 

3229, 
3230, 
3231, 
3232, 
3233, 
3234, 
3235, 
3236, 
3237, 
3238, 
3239, 
3240, 

3242, 
3243, 
3244, 
3245, 
3246, 
3247, 
3248, 
3249. 
3250, 
3251, 
3252, 
3253, 
3254, 
3255, 
3256, 
3257, 
3258, 
3259, 
3260, 
3261, 


DESIGNS  FOR  ARTICLES  OF  UTILITY. 
From  22nd  of  April  to  the  20th  of  May,  1852. 

I.  Firkins  and  Co.,  Worcester,  "Gloves." 

F.  Ayckbourn,  Guildford-street,  Russell-square,  "  Apparatus  for  support- 
ing persons  in  the  water." 

W.  M'Lennan,  Glasgow,  "  Apparatus  for  moulding  and  attaching  shoe- 
soles." 

C.  Farrow,  Great  Tower-street,  "  Self-closing  valve." 

C.  Baker,  Rotherfield-street,  Islington,  and  W.  G.  Gardiner,  Wellisford, 
Somersetshire,  "  Fire-escape,  or  servant's  safety-guard." 

J.  Murphy,  Newport,  Monmouthshire,  "  Tyre  for  wheels." 

T.  K.  Baker,  Fleet-street,  City,  "  Lever-cock  or  hammer  for  fire-arms." 

F.  Mason,  Ipswich,  "  Reaping-machine." 

J.  B.  Palmer,  Wednesbury,  "  Mould  for  projectile." 

L.  N.  Le  Gras,  Tennison-street,  Lambeth,  "Aerated liquor  bottle-stopper.' 

Hargrave,  Harrison,  and  Co.,  Wood-street,  Cheapside,  "  Parasol-cane." 

W.  I.  H.  Rodd  and  Co.,  Little  Nev,  port-street,  "  Filter-tap." 

J.  Graham  and  J.  James,  Birmingham,  "  Carpet-bag." 

G.  Fletcher  and  Co.,  Wolverhampton,  "Portable  bedstead." 
C.  Maschurtz,  Birmingham,  "  Match-box." 

Morris  and  Son,  Astwood  Bank,  near  Redditch,  "  Needle-case." 

3241,  A.  Stuart,  Edinburgh,  "Script  type,  to  be  called  'The  American 

mercantile  script,' " 

L.  Glyde,  Hastings,  "Air-tight  valve  for  beer-engines." 

M.  Buck,  Skeyton,  Norfolk,  "  Currant  dressing-machine." 

G.  Holcroft,  Manchester,  "  Steam-boiler." 

S.  Woodbourne,  Liss,  "  Horse-rake  " 

W.  Dray  and  Co.,  London-bridge,  "Right-and-left-hand  hill-side  plough." 

A.  Marion  and  Co.,  Regent-street,  "  Combined  pen-cleaner  and  stopper." 

J.  Winterbottom,  Yorkshire,  "Jar  and  bottle-stopper." 

R.  Marples,  Sheffield,  "  Pad  for  joiners'  brace." 

G.  Thonger,  Northampton,  "  Fly-catcher." 

Fowler  and  Fry,  Bristol,  "  Brick-die." 

G.  Walsh,  Halfax,  "  Beer-engine  suction." 

E.  Cockey  and  Son,  Frome,  "  Heating  boiler." 

R.  W.  Savage,  St.  James's-square,  "  Invisible  door-spring." 
T.  Beckett,  Manchester,  "  Spindle-gauge." 
Callins,  Brothers,  Birmingham,  "  Crayon-holder." 

F.  Richmond  and  P.  Chandler,  Salford,  "  Chaff-machine." 
Guest  and  Chrimes,  Rotherham,  "  Water-closet  service-box." 

T.  D'Almaine  and  Co.,  Soho-square,  "  Hopper  escapement  for  pianoforte." 
P.  A.  L.  de  Fontainemoreau,  Finsbury,  "Self-indicating  altometer." 
E.  Williams,  George-street,  Borough,  "  Machine  for  making  rolled  balls 
of  boiled  sugar." 


EMPLOYED     THJIRif     TAIBILE, 

-By  Mass™ Dunn. Matterzley  8c  CZ  Manchester. 


W^M 


I- +- 


-V/krts!.. 


THE     AKTIZAN. 

No.  VII.— Vol.  X.— JULY  1st,  1852. 


THE  EVENTS  OF  THE  MONTH. 

Under  the  head  of  "  Events  of  the  Month,"  we  propose,  in  future,  to 
give  a  brief  notice  of  those  current  events  to  which,  from  their  import- 
ance, it  may  be  desirable  to  call  our  readers'  attention. 

We  may  congratulate  our  readers,  in  the  first  place,  on  the  passing  of 
the  Patent  Law  Amendment  Bill,  which  was  read  a  third  time  on  the 
23rd  instant,  and  comes  into  operation  on  the  1st  of  October  next.  Im- 
mediate protection,  division  of  payments,  and  reduction  of  fees,  are  the 
leading  characteristics  of  the  new  bill,  which  only  requires  a  Board  of 
Examiners  to  make  it  work  well.  The  immediate  consequence  will  be, 
a  rush  of  inventors  to  the  Patent  Office,  and  a  waste  of  money  and  time 
in  re-patenting  exploded  schemes,  which  is  fearful  to  contemplate.  It 
would  not  be  necessary  to  give  a  Board  the  power  of  putting  a  veto  on 
a  patent ;  their  duty  might  be  confined  to  pointing  out  to  the  applicant 
what  had  been  done  by  other  patentees,  and  leave  him  his  choice  to 
amend,  proceed,  or  withdraw.  The  commissioners  have  the  power  of 
publishing  not  only  future,  but  all  previous  specifications.  The  Augean 
stable  of  the  Patent  Office  requires  a  Hercules,  indeed,  for  its  purifica- 
tion. The  provisions  of  the  act  will  be  found  at  another  page.  The 
clause  requiring  a  world-wide  novelty  has  been  rejected. 

Individuals  are  proverbially  unfortunate  who  do  not  know  what  to  do 
with  their  money  ;  and  if  this  hold  good  with  nations,  we  are  at  the 
present  moment  being  punished  by  a  stream  of  gold  pouring  in  upon  us, 
for  which  we  can  find  no  employment.  We  are  told,  that  in  America, 
the  mighty  Mississipi  cuts  annually  for  himself  fresh  channels  through 
the  forests,  and  that  a  paternal  government  clears  away  the  timber  in 
the  direction  the  flood  is  likely  to  take,  to  prevent  those  trees  being 
converted  into  snags  — the  terror  of  the  steam-boats.  Can  any  sagacious 
individual  point  out  to  us  the  course  which  the  golden  stream  is  likely 
to  take?  Is  it  to  the  railways,  steamboats,  submarine  telegraphs, 
canals,  mines,  or  colonisation  ?  We  must  look  to  the  Press  to  clear 
away  the  snags,  in  whichever  direction  the  stream  flows. 

Amongst  railways,  the  Madras  line  promises  well.  It  has  several 
large  towns  and  a  large  population,  on  eighty  miles  of  length,  may  be 
constructed  cheaply,  and  there  is  no  competing  water-carriage.  The 
line  is  to  be  a  single  one  at  first,  and  the  East  India  Company  guarantee 
4|  per  cent,  interest  on  the  cost.  The  other  Indian  railways  are  pro- 
gressing satisfactorily.  At  home  we  have  to  notice  an  attempt  on  the 
part  of  the  North  Western  Railway  Company  to  increase  the  speed 
of  their  express  trains.  It  is  said  that  Messrs.  Fairbairn,  of  Manchester, 
have  guaranteed  to  build  engines  to  do  the  distance  between  London 
and  Birmingham,  112  miles,  in  two  hours.  There  have  been  several 
fatal  accidents,  but  we  do  not  find  that  they  have  been  the  means  of  in- 
ducing any  of  the  companies  to  adopt  the  mechanical  appliances  by  which 
they  might  be  prevented,  and  which  we  have  repeatedly  pointed  out. 

The  commercial  world  is  doomed  to  suffer  for  another  session  the 
monopoly  of  the  old  Electric  Telegraph  Company ;  the  British  Telegraph 
Company  having  been  thrown  out  on  standing  order.  The  Irish  sub- 
marine telegraph  has  been  completed  by  the  energy  of  Messrs.  Nevvall 
and  Gordon,  and  various  other  lines  are  being  matured. 

The  Crystal  Palace  Company  have  secured  the  co-operation  of  the 
Brighton  Railway  Company,  and  promise  us  the  building  with  a  raised 
arched  nave  the  whole  length,  and  a  transept  twice  the  height  of  the 


present  one,  ready  by  May,  1853.  Of  the  pecuniary  success  of  a 
permanent  exhibition  of  this  kind  many  people  doubt.  This  we  may 
predict— that  its  aim  must  be  the  practical  education  of  the  masses,  if  it 
is  not  to  become  a  mere  summer  promenade.  The  South  Western  and 
Brighton  lines  are  to  be  joined,  to  bring  the  West-end  traffic ;  and  if 
the  approaches  to  the  Thames  Tunnel  are  completed  as  proposed,  a  line 
might  be  carried  through  it,  connecting  the  Eastern  Counties,  Black- 
wall  and  Brighton  lines. 

New  railways  have  become  rare ;  one — the  Plymouth  and  Tavistock — 
has  announced  its  determination  not  to  proceed  unless  it  meets  with 
entire  local  support,  and  not  to  have  a  London  engineer.  Self-reliance 
is  a  great  virtue,  but  may  be  carried  too  far;  and  we  trust  their  engineer 
will  do  better  than  the  gentleman  who  laid  out  the  Hayleline,  and  who, 
after  excavating  through  hard  rock,  had  to  fill  it  up  again,  through  an 
error  in  his  levels. 

Several  mining  companies  are  in  the  market,  amongst  which  we  may 
mention  the  Connemara  Mining  Company,  who  propose  to  work  copper 
and  silver  lead  mines  in  Galway.  They  state  in  their  prospectus  that 
other  Irish  companies  have  paid  10  to  25  per  cent.  There  have  been 
some  failures,  however — the  Arigna  Company,  to  wit.  There  are  also 
the  Arundel  United  Copper  Mines  at  Ashburton,  Devon,  and  the 
Britannia  at  Molton,  said  to  be  a  second  Ophir,  with  what  truth  time 
will  soon  show.  The  North  Wales  Consolidated  Mining  Company 
have  just  issued  a  prospectus,  as  also  the  New  South  Wales  Gold 
Mines  Company,  who  have  taken  advantage  of  a  hint  of  Professor 
Tennant's,  and  have  determined  to  find  diamonds  as  well  as  gold.  For 
various  other  companies  offering  an  investment  for  capital  we  must 
refer  to  our  list  at  another  page. 

The  rapid  extension  of  steam  navigation  is  a  remarkable  feature  at 
the  present  moment.  The  outward  and  homeward  voyages  of  the 
Great  Britain  have  surpassed  the  expectations  even  of  those  who  knew 
what  Mr.  Penn  could  do.  The  new  West  India  mail  steamers  are  a 
complete  failure,  as  compared  with  this  vessel,  and  it  has  been  evident 
to  us  for  some  time,  that  unless  this  company  make  some  radical  change 
in  their  system,  their  monopoly  will  not  be  much  longer  endured.  The 
mails,  which  they  are  paid  an  enormous  sum  to  convey,  are  regularly 
anticipated  by  those  via  New  York,  and  the  public  will  demand  a 
change,  without  stopping  to  inquire  into  the  precise  grounds  of  failure. 

The  question  of  the  relative  advantages  of  the  Pacific  and  Cape 
routes  to  Australia,  so  ably  argued  before  the  Committee  of  the  House 
of  Commons  (see  our  Analysis  of  the  evidence  on  steam  to  Australia, 
Artizan,  1851),  is  about  to  be  tested  by  the  Pacific  and  Australian 
Steam  Navigation  Company,  who,  in  all  probability,  will  secure  good 
freights  of  bullion  and  gold-diggers.  The  Australian,  for  Australia, 
via  the  Cape,  and  the  Queen  of  the  South,  for  India,  have  just  left — 
the  pioneers  of  a  fleet  of  screw  steamers  which  will  soon  cover  the 
Eastern  seas.  Some  of  our  large  shipowners  are  looking  out  for 
screw  engines  for  their  vessels.  They  will  find  nothing  better  than 
those  shown  in  our  last  volume,  if  fitted  with  a  separate  engine  for 
working  the  air-pump.  The  North  of  Europe  Company  are  about 
extending  their  operations,  which  have  hitherto  been  confined  to  the 
traffic  between  Lowestoft  and  Denmark.  A  monster  steamer  is  talked 
of,  for  bridging  the  Irish  Channel,  at  25  miles  an  hour.    We  have  a  dislike 

19 


142 


Improved  Turntable. 


[July, 


to  monsters.  The  last  one  heard  of,  for  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental 
Company,  after  making  a  very  good  scarecrow  for  the  Eastern  Com- 
panies' opposition  (now  defunct)  has  turned  out  very  like  a  whale.  It  is 
idle  to  talk  about  the  possibility  of  it.  A  tunnel  between  Dover  and 
Calais  is  quite  possible,  and  would  pay  better.  Ireland  cannot  afford 
to  pay  for  25  miles  an  hour,  for  some  years  to  come.  When  16  knots 
an  hour  was  mentioned  for  Atlantic  steaming,  we  took  the  liberty  of 
expressing  our  dissent  in  iheTimesj  andnobody  cared  to  tackle  the  figures. 
Something  more  practical  for  Ireland  is  the  Cork  Exhibition ;  which,  if 
we  had  not  been  satiated  with  The  Exhibition,  would  have  been  the 
lion  of  the  season.  As  it  is,  it  cannot  fail  to  do  a  great  deal  of  good, 
and  will  stimulate  local  exhibitions,  which  will  pave  the  way  for 
mechanics'  institutes,  schools  of  design,  public  parks,  and  the  like. 

IMPROVED  TURN-TABLE, 

BY  MESSRS.  DUNN,  HATTERSLEY,  AND  CO.,  WINDSOR-BRIDGE 

IRON-WORKS,  MANCHESTER. 

(Illustrated  by  Plate  10.) 

The  improvements  which  Messrs.  Dunn,  Hattersley  and  Co.,  have 
effected,  and  which  have  been  protected  by  registration,  consist,  firstly, 
in  arranging  the  friction-rollers  so  as  to  admit  of  their  being  more 
readily  adjusted ;  and,  secondly,  in  adding  a  break,  so  that  the  momen- 
tum of  the  table  and  the  engine  or  carriage  upon  it  can  be  arrested, 
without  the  concussion  inseparable  from  the  ordinary  turn-table,  which 
is  abruptly  stopped  by  drop-catches. 

In  plate  10,  drawn  to  a  scale  of  5  inch  to  a  foot,  fig.  I,  is  an  elevation 
in  section  of  the  turn-table ;  fig.  2,  a  plan  of  the  same  partly  in  section ; 
and  fig.  3,  a  section  through  A  B,  showing  one  of  the  bearings  of  the 
friction-roller. 

The  table  is  shown  fixed  on  wood-sleepers,  and  consists  of  a  central 
boss,  a,  attached  to  the  outer  ring,  b  b,  by  tie-rods,  c  c,  which  have  T 
heads,  dropping  into  projections  on  the  centre  boss,  a.  The  moving 
portion  of  the  table  consists  of  a  boss,  d,  the  arms,  e  e,  the  cross  rails, 
//,  and  the  rim,  y  g.  To  the  rim  are  attached  the  rollers,  h  h,  &c., 
which  run  on  the  ring,  b  b,  and  the  bearings  of  which  are  dropped  into 
recesses  cast  in  the  rim  on  the  upper  side,  so  that  they  are  accessible. 
The  bearings  of  each  roller  are  carried  by  four  bolts,  by  screwing  or 
unscrewing  which  the  adjustment  of  the  table  is  effected.  The  rollers 
are  arranged  in  such  a  position  as  to  take  the  weight  with  least  strain 
to  the  table. 

The  centre  of  the  table  is  carried  by  a  pin,  i,  on  which  rests  a  cap, 
bolted  to  the  table,  so  that  by  turning  these  bolts,  its  height  can  be 
adjusted.     Nuts  for  these  bolts  are  let  into  the  under  side  of  the  boss. 

The  brake  apparatus  is  similar  in  principle  to  that  in  use  for  railway 
carriages.  The  table  is  embraced  on  two  opposite  sides  by  wooden 
friction  blocks,  to  which  motion  is  given  through  toggle  joints. 

m  m  are  the  wooden  blocks,  curved  to  suit  the  periphery  of  the 
table,  and  connected  by  the  links,  %  n,  to  the  bars,  o  o.  These  bars 
are  also  connected  by  the  links,  r  r,  to  the  adjustable  fixed  bolts,  s  s, 
which  form  the  fulcra  for  the  action  of  the  brakes.  The  bars  are  ac- 
tuated by  the  levers,  t  t,  on  the  shaft,  x,  to  which  is  attached  a  handle, 
y.  The  arrows  show  the  direction  in  which  the  handle  and  levers  are 
moved  to  bring  the  brakes  on  the  table. 

z  z  are  balance  weights,  to  bring  back  the  brakes  when  the  hand  is 
removed  from  the  handle. 

In  this  manner  a  most  complete  command  is  obtained  over  the  mo- 
tion of  the  table,  as  it  can  be  stopped  at  any  point,  whilst  the  absence 
of  concussion  will  materially  promote  its  durability  and  diminish  the 
cost  of  repairs. 

We  take  this  opportunity  of  also  noticing  Mr.  Dunn's  most  ingenious 
invention  of  the  "  Patent  Traverser,"  by  means  of  which  a  carriage 
can  be  shifted  from  one  line  of  rails  to  another  with  wonderful  ease 


and  rapidity.  A  line  of  rails  is  laid  down  transversely  to  the  main  line, 
and  on  it  runs  the  traverser,  which  is  a  low  truck,  shown  in  end  view 
with  a  carriage  upon  it,  in  the  accompanying  engraving.     This  traverser 

has  shelves  at  the 
sides,  on  which  the 
carriage  is  run,  and 
the  flanges  of  the 
carriage  wheels  be- 
ing raised  by  the 
inclination  of  the 
shelves,  clear  of  the 
main  line,  the  car- 
riage can  be  shifted 
sideways  any  dis- 
tance that  may  be 
required.  A  great 
advantage  which 
this  plan  possesses 
over  turn-tables,  is, 
that  it  leaves  the 
main  line,  over 
which  trains  have 
to  pass  at  full  speed, 
unbroken  and  firm.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  traverser  is  carried  by 
four  wheels  at  each  end,  and  that  they  are  arranged  in  pairs,  as  near 
each  other  as  their  diameter  will  permit.  This  is  designed  to  prevent  a 
wheel  sinking  into  the  space  necessarily  left  in  the  rails  to  allow  the 
flanges  of  the  wheels  to  pass,  and  which  would  occasion  a  very  ud- 
desirable  concussion.  The  traversers  have  now  come  into  very  general 
use,  and  they  are  made  either  of  cast  or  wrought  iron,  according  to  the 
class  of  work  they  are  intended  for.  We  are  glad  to  see  that  this  very 
simple  and  original  invention  was  rewarded  with  a  council  medal  at  the 
Great  Exhibition. 

ON  RECLAIMING  LAND  FROM  THE  SEA.* 

(Concluded  from  page  129.) 

Having  disposed  of  the  question  of  materials,  the  next  important 
point  is  the  best  form  to  be  given  to  them.  As  it  is  evident  that 
different  portions  of  the  bank  have  to  sustain  varying  pressures,  it  is 
divided  into  three  sections. 

1st.  The  main  bank,  built  to  the  full  height  of  ordinary  spring  tides, 
which  is  taken,  by  way  of  example,  at  10  feet.  It  is  20  feet  wide  at 
top,  and  with  a  slope  to  sea  side,  partly  of  5  feet  base,  and  partly  of  4 
feet  base,  to  1  perpendicular,  as  the  minimum  slopes. 

2nd.  The  outburst  bank,  5  feet  high  and  8  wide  at  top,  and  with  a 
slope  of  but  1J  to  1,  because  this  part  of  the  bank  will  have  to  sustain 
but  a  transient  stress  from  the  top  of  the  tide,  and  this  only  occa- 
sionally. 

On  this  is  set 

3rd.  The  swash  banh,  which  having  only  to  sustain  the  broken 
tops  of  the  waves  is  but  2\  feet  high  and  2§  feet  wide  at  top,  though 
its  base  is  8  feet,  and  should  be  made  amply  sufficient  to  prevent  any 
part  of  the  highest  seas  going  over  the  bank. 

From  these  rules,  the  reader  may  easily  set  out  a  section  of  a  bank 
for  himself.  The  slope  at  the  back,  landward,  when  of  good  earth, 
may  be  1  to  1 . 

The  facing  of  the  wall  is  the  next  point.  If  of  sand,  it  should  first 
have  a  facing  of  clay,  before  the  stone  is  laid  on.  Flaggy  stones  must 
be  pitched  endways  (not  flat),  but  when  massive,  like  Kentish  rag 
stone,  "  12  to  15  inches  in  thickness,  or  less,  will  suffice;   and  there  is 


*  The  Practice  of  Embanking  Landi  from  the  Sea.    By  John  Wiggins.  F.G.S.    London  : 
Weale.    Rudimentary  Series. 


1852.] 


On  Reclaiming  Land  from  the  Sea. 


143 


no  better  way  than  placing  them  side  by  side  till  the  surface  is  covered, 
taking  care  to  entangle  and  hitch  the  angles  of  each  stone  with  those 
of  its  neighbours ;  then,  by  encouraging  such  maritime  plants  as  the 
soil  of  the  bank  will  produce,  the  interstices  between  the  stones  are 
much  better  occupied  than  by  a  continuous  mass  of  stone,  since 
the  roots  below  interlace  and  keep  the  stones  in  place,  and  the  vegeta- 
tion at  top  eases  off  the  wave  and  renders  it  innoxious." 

Stone,  however,  is  too  expensive  a  material  to  be  employed  for  the 
whole  face.  To  face  with  stone  up  to  high  water  at  spring  tides  is 
sufficient  in  all  but  very  exposed  situations.  Couch,  sand  rush  (arundo 
arenaria),  and  lucerne,  are  well  adapted,  from  the  binding  nature  of 
their  roots,  for  the  purpose  of  covering  the  bank. 

When  there  is  any  traffic  along  the  beach  at  low]  water,  it  may  be 
made  to  assist  in  preserving  the  base  of  the  wall,  by  laying  down  on 
the  mud  a  coating  of  gravel.  This  is  consolidated  by  the  traffic,  and 
forms  a  good  natural  sea-beach. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  back  of  the  bank  should  be 
well  swarded,  because,  in  the  event  of  the  sea  coming  over  the  bank, 
its  effect  is  to  "  peck  it  away"  from  the  back,  and  eat  it  through,  as 
happened  with  the  Holmfirth  Reservoir  {vide  p.  81). 

A  delph  or  drain  is  dug  along  the  back  of  the  bank,  and  should  not 
be  too  near,  or  it  will  affect  its  stability.  About  12  yards  from  the 
foot  is  stated  to  be  the  true  distance.  Its  usual  dimensions  are  12  feet 
wide  at  top,  6  feet  at  bottom,  and  4  or  5  feet  deep,  and  it  generally  con- 
tains 3  or  4  feet  of  water,  to  form  a  fence  for  cattle.  These  dimen- 
sions are  exceeded  when  the  soil  is  required  for  making  the  bank,  but 
it  is  only  in  strong  soil  that  this  is  admissible. 

During  the  process  of  forming  the  bank,  all  the  appliances  of  modern 
practice  may  be  brought  to  bear,  as  time  is  an  important  element  in 
the  cost.  If  it  be  too  slowly  laid,  the  material  may  be  washed  away 
as  quickly  as  it  is  deposited.  The  operation  of  shutting  up  the  two 
ends  of  the  banks  requires  considerable  judgment,  as  it  must  be  done 
in  one  tide.     Sometimes,  two  gaps  are  preferable  to  one. 

If  any  streams  run  through  the  intake,  the  author  recommends 
that  they  be  not  enclosed,  as  they  are  liable  to  give  trouble  in  winter 
when  they  are  swollen.  This,  of  course,  necessitates  an  additional 
length  of  bank.  Another  precaution  is  to  let  the  earthwork  remain, 
for  one  winter,  without  any  stone  facing,  till  it  is  seen  what  effect  the 
sea  has  upon  the  bank,  and  what  slope  it  takes. 

The  best  line  of  direction  for  the  bank  is  important.  It  should  run 
in  a  line  with,  rather  than  at  right  angles  to,  the  prevailing  winds  and 
seas,  and  with  a  few  projecting  elbows,  which  must  be  well  protected 
at  their  salient  points,  and  will  thus  cause  the  bays  to  silt  up  and  so 
defend  the  foot  of  the  bank. 

If  the  intake  is  to  be  drained  by  gravitation  simply,  the  foot  of  the 
bank  should  be  4  feet  above  low  water  mark,  so  as  to  allow  of  6  hours' 
run  between  tide  and  tide.  This,  however,  can  scarcely  be  obtained 
for  the  whole  of  the  intake,  and  a  small  portion  of  it  may  be  required 
to  be  drained  by  steam  power. 

The  eligibility  of  the  site  depends  upon  the  facilities  which  it  offers 
for  the  construction  of  the  bank,  and  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil. 

"The  best  and  earliest  indication  when  a  marine  soil  has  become  fit 
to  embank  is  the  growth  of  samphire,  which  demonstrates  its  stability 
and  permanence  of  position,  and  is  the  forerunner  of  the  marine 
grasses,  so  healthy  for  sheep,  which  are  largely  fed  on  the  very  exten- 
sive saltings  of  Essex,  care  being  taken  at  first  to  drive  them  off  as  the 
tides  put  on,  though  they  soon  learn  to  come  off  themselves,  before 
the  filling  of  the  creeks  prevents  their  escape." 

The  drainage  and  reclamation  of  the  intake  form  a  subject  to  which 
we  may  refer  our  agricultural  readers  with  much  advantage.  The 
course  to  be  adopted,  is  quaintly  summed  up  as  follows : — "  1,  To 
freshen  gradually;    2,  to  drain  effectually;    3,  to  cultivate  perfectly; 


4,  to  crop  moderately ;    5,  to  look  to  grazing  ultimately ;    6,  to  lay 
down  to  grass  carefully."     The  freshening  process,  it  may  be  men- 
tioned, depends  for  its  duration  on  the  rapidity  with  which  the  drains 
are  deepened,  which,  from  the  flow  of  water  they  induce,  cause  the 
saline  particles  to  be  washed  out  of  the  land. 

The  cost  of  embankment,  as  may  be  presumed,  varies  very  much 
according  to  locality  and  circumstances.     Taking  the  case  of  an  intake 
of  1000  acres,  where  the  distance  for  the  materials  to  be  carried  is  about 
a  mile  from  the  shore  on  each  side,  and  about  the  same  to  the  gap  left 
for  shutting  up,  the  price,  according  to  various  railway  engineers'  esti- 
mates, should  be  9d.  per  cubic  yard.     Allowing  for  the  smaller  scale  of 
work,  loss  of  materials,  night  work,  bad  weather,  &c,  Is.  per  yard  may 
be  considered  perfectly  safe  for  all  materials  brought  from  a  distance. 

The  materials  in  a  bank  of  the  dimensions  previously  given,  having 
contents  of  60  cubic  yards  per  yard  linear,  would  cost  10c?.  per  yard. 
Allowing  one-third  to  be  raised  on  the  spot  at  6d.,  and  the  rest  to  be 
brought  from  a  distance  at  Is.,  but,  for  safety,  taking  Is.  for  the  whole, 
we  have  £5,280  per  mile.     But  this  supposes  that  the  whole  bank  is 
of  these  dimensions,  which  is  very  improbable.     On  an  average,  .£3,000 
per  mile  may  be  taken,  to  which  must  be  added  the  facing  of  stone,  a 
safe  estimate  for  which  is  £1,000  per  mile.      The  estimate  of  cost  will 
therefore  stand  as  follows  : — 

4  sluices  of  3  feet  run,  each  at  £150  . .         . .      £600 

Steam  power,  say         . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  500 

600  rods  of  catch-water  drains,  at  5s.  . .  . .  150 

3  J  miles  of  circular  drain  and  fence,  at  4s.  per  rod  . .  250 

Gripping  (surface  drains),  at  l|c?.  or  2c?.  per  rod      . .  500 


Total  on  1,000  acres 
Cost  of  3§  miles  of  bank 
Contingencies,  management,  &c. 


£2,000 

15,750 

2,250 


£20,000 
being  the  cost  of  1,000  acres  ready  for  culture. 

When  we  know  that  land  thus  recovered  is  often  worth  from  £30  to 
£50  per  acre,  it  is  obvious  that  there  is  a  liberal  margin  for  profit  and 
accidental  expenses.  And  this  is  necessary;  for  the  opposition  of  vested 
interest  has  to  be  provided  against  by  an  act  of  Parliament.  The  rights 
of  the  "  frontager  "  to  feed  a  few  sheep  or  cattle  on  the  "  skirts,"  as- 
sume a  fresh  importance,  when  he  is  to  be  deprived  of  his  privilege  by 
a  company  of  adventurers,  who  are  looked  upon  as  fair  game.  Our 
author  describes,  with  a  sagacity  natural  to  the  old  campaigner,  the  plan 
of  operations  for  disarming  opposition  and  securing  good  terms.  One- 
fifteenth  seems  to  be  recognised  as  fair  royalty  for  the  adventurers  to 
pay  the  frontager,  which,  at  an  average  of  £35  per  acre,  gives  £2  (is.  6d. 
per  acre,  or  Is.  6d.  per  acre  per  annum.  Thus  our  estimate  will  stand 
as  follows : — 

Value  of  1,000  acres  embanked  and  drained      . .      £40,000 

Cost  of  embanking  and  draining       . .      £20,000 

„    of  Is.  Gd.  per  acre,  or  ^  . .  1,500 

„   Occupation  roads,  gates,  &c.    ..  1,500 

„    Parliamentary,  professional,  &c.  1,000 

„   Extra  works        1»00Q 

■         25,000 


At  £40  per  acre,  profit 
At  £35 
At  £30 


15,000 

10,000 

5,000 


Mr.  Wiggins  goes  into  some  detail  on  the  legal  questions  connected 
with  obtaining  the  act  of  Parliament,  for  which  we  must  refer  to  the 
work  itself.     The  repairs  of  old  sea-walls  are  treated  of,  and  much  in- 


144 


Cotton  and  its  Manufacturing  Mechanism. 


[July, 


formation  given  as  to  the  method  of  construction  adopted  on  the  Con- 
tinent. On  this  point  we  may  also  refer  our  readers  to  the  Artizan,  vol. 
IS4J,  pp.  58,  78,  79. 

Our  readers  will  not  fail  to  gather,  from  the  sketch  we  have  given 
them,  that  the  author  has  brought  to  bear  on  his  work  extensive  ex- 
perience and  sound  practical  judgment.  It  has  the  merit,  moreover,  of 
being  written  in  a  most  unassuming  spirit,  to  which  alone  we  can 
attribute  the  fact,  that  we  have  never  met  Mr.  Wiggins  in  print  before. 

COTTON  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURING  MECHANISM, 
By  Robert  Scott  Burn,  M.E.,  M.S.A. 

(Continued  from  page  120.) 

In  the  lap  machine,  the  eotton,  after  being  acted  upon  by  the  beaters, 
is  wound  upon  lap  rollers.     The  cotton,  after  passing  from  the  beater, 

passes  up  the  in- 

/■ — -n.  clined   apron    and 

f        •,    |  between  the  rollers, 

@  0  \^J       a  b  (fig- L) ;  [t is 

~7^S'^\'~~(\ — -— - __    next    passed    be- 

^— '     —  v — i___^^^  tween  the  two  pairs 

of  rollers,  c  c,  d  d, 
the  upper  one  of 
each  pair  being 
loaded.  The  two 
/    \3  rollers,  e  e,  revolv- 

ing i.  ing  in    the    same 

direction,  by  their  friction,  cause  the  lap  roller,  /,  to  revolve :  this  lap 
roller  is  loaded  by  a  link  and  weight,  g.  The  cotton  is  passed  from  the 
last  pair  of  rollers,  d  d,  to  the  lap,/;  round  the  surface  of  which  it  is 
wound.  As  it  increases  in  diameter,  it  rises  up,  bringing  with  it  the 
link  and  weight,  g.  As  soon  as  there  is  a  sufficient  quantity  of  cotton 
on  the  roller,  the  rollers,  c  c,  with  their  attendant  apron,  beaters,  &c, 
are  thrown  out  of  gear ;  while  the  rollers,  d  d,  continuing  to  revolve, 
the  lap  is  necessarily  torn  across  somewhere  between  the  rollers,  cc,d  d. 
The  attendant  then  raises  the  link  and  weight,  g,  by  means  of  a  lever, 
and  releasing  the  lap  roller  from  the  weight,  it  is  withdrawn,  and  an 
empty  one  put  in  its  place,  to  be  filled  as  before.  In  the  "  double 
beater  lap  machine"  (a  section  of  which  will  be  given  in  the  next  No.), 
the  rollers,  thus  filled  by  the  lap  machine,  are  placed  in  slotted  bear- 
ings, their  entire  peripheries  always  remaining  in  contact  with  the  end- 
less apron.  As  the  laps  decrease  in  diameter,  the  axes  of  the  rollers 
descend  in  the  slotted  bearings.  The  endless  apron  unwinds  the  lap 
and  delivers  it  to  the  feed  rollers,  and  from  thence  to  the  first  beater, 
the  dirt,  &c,  passing  through  the  grating ;  the  cotton  is  then  passed 
up  the  incline,  and  from  thence  delivered  to  the  second  beater.  It  is 
finally  passed  to  the  apparatus  which  in  the  form  of  machine  we  have 
figured  is  known  as  the  Patent  Condenser ;  in  which,  by  the  use  of  a 
combination  of  rollers,  as  in  the  drawing,  the  cotton  is  much  consoli- 
dated, and  a  larger  amount  is  placed  on  a  lap  roller  than  is  usually 
the  case.  From  the  arrangement  of  this  machine  at  the  feeding  end, 
different  varieties  of  cotton  can  be  mixed,  and  finally  wound  upon  the 
lap.  Each  lap  roller  revolving  in  contact  with  the  feed-apron  may  be 
supplied  with  a  different  quality  of  cotton,  and  thus,  by  proper 
arrangements,  in  this  respect,  a  quality  may  be  finally  obtained  possess- 
ing in  certain  different  proportions  the  distinguishing  qualities  or  pro- 
perties of  each.  From  the  great  speed  at  which  the  beaters  revolve, 
a  sufficient  current  is  produced  to  clear  off  a  considerable  quantity 
of  the  expelled  dust;  but,  in  order  to  do  so  effectually,  special  fanners 
are  employed,  as  in  the  drawing.  These  withdraw  the  dust  and  floating 
impurities. 
The  drawing  from  which  this  section  of  "Blower"  has  been  reduced, 


was  furnished  by  Mr.  John  Mason,  machinist,  of  Rochdale;  to  whose 
kindness  we  are  indebted  for  numerous  other  machines  used  in  the 
cotton  manufacture,  and  which  we  purpose  presenting  to  the  notice  of 
the  readers  of  the  "Artizan,"  from  time  to  time. 

The  improvements  yearly  patented,  in  connection  with  blowing 
machines,  are,  like  the  other  branches  of  cotton  mechanism,  very 
numerous.  We  shall  very  briefly  notice  two,  the  arrangements  of 
which  possess  some  novelty.  The  first  is  patented  by  Messrs.  Fair- 
bairn  and  Hetherington,  of  Leeds  and  Manchester,  and  is  proposed  as 
a  means  of  distributing  the  opened  fibres  in  a  more  uniform  condition, 
previous  to  being  lapped,  than  is  effected  by  machines  of  the  ordinary 
construction.     The  cotton,  after  passing  from  the  beater,  is  taken  up 

by  the  perforated  cy- 
linder, a  (fig.  2.),  the 
interior  of  which  being 
partially  exhausted  of 
air  by  any  of  the  usual 
methods,  causes  the 
fleece  of  wool  to  adhere 
with  some  force  to  the 
periphery.  The  cylinder 
Pig.  2.  and  grating  are  covered 

with  a  case,  b  6,  forming  part  of  that  which  encloses  the  beaters ;  the 
peculiar  direction  of  which  is  said  by  the  patentees  to  cause  the 
fibres  to  be  evenly  distributed  upon  the  surface  of  the  cylinder,  a  a, 
and  consequently  upon  the  lap  roller,  by  which  it  is  finally  taken  up. 
The  same  patentees  describe  an  improved  arrangement  of  lap  rollers, 
by  which  a  large  quantity  of  cotton  is  wound  upon  the  lap  roller.  In 
the  usual  arrangement,  the  final  roller  is  placed  above  the  friction 
rollers;  but  in  the  one  now  under  consideration  it  is  placed  horizon- 
tally before  them.  In  fig.  3.  we 
give  a  diagram  illustrating  the 
arrangement.  The  cotton  is 
taken  from  the  cylinder,  a  a 
(fig.  2),  by  rollers,  in  the  usual 
manner,  passed  between  a  pair 
of  calender  rollers,  and  from 
these  to  the  lap  rollers,  a  a 
(fig.  3).  The  upper  roller,  a',  revolves  in  contact  with  and  is  sup- 
ported by  the  intermediate  and  smaller  roller,  b  j  the  cotton  passes 
between  the  lower  lap  roller,  a,  and  the  intermediate,  b.  By  this 
arrangement,  the  lap,  as  it  is  finally  passed  round  the  roller,  c,  is  less 
distended  than  when  it  is  placed  above  the  rollers,  e  e,  as  in  fig.  1. 
In  the  arrangement  in  fig.  1,  as  the  lap,  f,  increases  in  diameter,  it 
rises  up,  taking  with  it  the  link  and  weight,  g,  so  that  the  pressure  is 
always  uniform.  In  the  new  arrangement,  now  treated  of,  the  pressure 
is  maintained,  and  the  lap  roller,  c,  always  kept  close  up  to  the  rollers, 
a  a',  by  the  following  mechanism.  The  roller,  c,  is  supported  on  a 
traversing  frame,  which  has  its  motion  so  that  it  moves  out  and  in, 
approaching  to  and  receding  from  the  rollers,  a  a,  in  the  direction  of 
the  arrow,  d.  Hanging  weights  are  applied  to  the  traversing  frame  in 
such  a  manner,  that  the  roller,  c,  is  always  kept  up  to  the  rollers,  a'  a, 
the  frame  giving  way  as  the  diameter  of  the  lap 
roller,  c,  increases.  The  pressure  of  the  roller,  c, 
against  a  a,  is  regulated  by  the  hanging  weights. 
The  roller,  c,  is  caused  to  revolve  solely  by  the 
friction  of  a'  a.  The  second  improvement  we  have 
to  notice  is  one  patented  by  Messrs.  Tatham  and 
Cheetham,  machine  makers,  Rochdale,  and  con- 
sists of  the  application  of  an  additional  pair  of 
rollers,  placed  in  the  position  as  in  fig.  4,  at  b  2 
on  the  cotton  passing  from  between  the  ordinary 


1852.] 


Cotton  and  its  Manufacturing  Mechanism. 


145 


feed  rollers,  a,  it  is  struck  by  the  scutcher,  d.  This  causes  it  to  pass 
in  the  direction  shown  by  the  dotted  lines ;  it  is  then  taken  up  by 
the  additional  rollers,  b,  and  once  more  subjected  to  the  action  of  the 
scutcher.  By  this  arrangement,  the  cotton  is  subjected  twice  to  the 
action  of  the  scutchers  during  one  revolution.  If  desired,  more  than 
one  pair  of  additional  rollers  may  be  added ;  thus,  for  certain  qualities 
of  material,  acting  still  more  advantageously.  The  cotton  is  greatly 
condensed  upon  the  lap  roller,  by  an  arrangement  in  which  the  cotton 
is  made  to  pass  between  a  concave  plate  placed  beneath  the  lap 
roller  and  the  surface  of  the  roller.  The  concavity  of  the  plate 
corresponds  to  the  convexity  of  the  roller,  and  the  cotton,  in  passing 
through,  is  drawn  over  the  surface  and  condensed,  before  being  wound 
upon  the  lap  roller. 

As  will  have  been  noticed,  the  action  of  the  "  blower,"  "  beater,"  or 
scutcher,  is  calculated,  while  disentangling  or  opening  the  fibres  of 
cotton  one  from  another,  to  lay  them  at  the  same  time  in  all  manner  of 
directions.  Now,  before  cotton  can  be  spun  into  thread  or  yarn,  it  is 
essentially  requisite  to  have  them  all  as  parallel  to  one  another  as  pos- 
sible. This  parallelisation  is  the  important  process  which  the  machine 
next  to  be  considered  and  known  as  the  "  carding  engine,"  is  designed 
to  effect.  The  operation  of  carding  may  be  defined  to  be  a  species  of 
combing.  If  a  number  of  fibres  of  cotton,  in  a  state  similar  to  that 
when  passed  from  the  "  blower,"  be  laid  upon  the  teeth  of  a  comb, 
some  knotted  and  entangled,  others  lying  in  all  imaginable  directions 
one  to  another,  and  if  another  comb  be  brought  in  contact  with  these, 
and  passed  repeatedly  from  one  end  of  the  lower  comb  to  the  other,  the 
fibres  will  be  arranged  parallel,  or  nearly  so,  to  one  another.  The  teeth 
of  the  comb,  or  carding  surfaces,  in  the  "carding  engine,"  are  made 
of  wire,  the  form  of  which  is  shown  in  fig  5.  The  ends,  b  b,  are  turned 

at  right  angles  to  a,  c  c  being 
placed  at  a  determinate 
angle  to  b  b.  They  are  ar- 
ranged in  strips  of  leather, 
as  b  b,  fig  6.  Suppose  two 
Fig.  e.  carding  surfaces,  as  in  fig.  6, 

be  placed  with  the  teeth  in  contact,  but  in  opposite  directions,  if  fibres 
of  cotton  are  placed  between  these,  and  the  combs  moved  to  and  fro,  in 
the  direction  of  their  length,  the  cards,  or  teeth,  of  one  comb  will  pull 
the  fibres  in  one  direction,  while  those  of  the  other  comb  will  endea- 
vour to  retain  them;  the  consequence  of  this  arrangement  will  be,  that 
each  comb,  taking  up  a  portion  of  fibre,  will  draw  them  out  and  dispose 
them  parallel  to  one  another,  in  the  direction  of  the  lengths  of  the 


Fig.  1. 


combs.  Again,  suppose  two  combs  to  act  on  fibres  of  cotton  placed 
between  them,  but  the  teeth  of  the  cards  to  be  placed  not  opposite  to 
each  other  as  above  but  in  the  same  direction,  it  is  evident  that, 
if  both  moved  in  the  same  direction,  but  having  different  speeds,  the 
comb  moving  fastest  will  strip  off  from  the  teeth  of  the  slow-moving 
card  all  the  fibres.  This  much  being  premised,  we  shall  proceed  to 
detail  some  of  the  minutiae  of  the  arrangement  and  construction  of 
carding-engines.  The  strips  of  leather  containing  the  card-teeth  are 
arranged  in  parallel  rows  on  the  surface  of  a  large  central  cylinder,  as 
a  a  (fig  7)-     This  cylinder,  in  some  instances,  is  constructed  of  parallel 

,.— ,  _m segments  of  mahogany ;  but  the  im- 

rb   )\-y^'  ^^-.'flT^         proved  method  is  by  having  on  the 

periphery  of  the  cylinder  parallel  strips 
of  bay  wood,  the  spaces  between  the 
strips  being  filled  with  cement,  in 
which  white  lead  is  the  principal  in- 
gredient. When  this  is  hardened,  the 
cylinder  is  put  into  a  lathe,  and  the 
outer  surface  faced  up  true.  Around 
the  large  cylinder,  a  a  (fig  7),  smaller 
ones  are  placed,  having  on  their  periphery  spiral  strips  of  card  fillets. 
These  small  cylinders  are  sometimes  termed  "urchins,"  or  "squirrels," 
but  more  frequently  "strippers"  and  "clearers,"  as  by  them  the  cotton 
fibres  are  taken  off  the  main  cylinder  and  re-delivered.  In  some  carding- 
engines,  especially  for  cotton  of  low  numbers,  the  carding  is  performed 
solely  by  means  of  the  large  cylinder  and  the  smaller  ones.  In  the  section 
of  the  carding-engine  an  engine  of  this  description  is  shown,  the  drawing 
there  givenbeing  a  longitudinal  section,  showing  the  arrangement  of  parts. 
This  form  is  manufactured  by  Mr.  Mason,  of  Rochdale,  and  is  used 
chiefly  for  cotton  to  be  spun  into  yarn  of  low  counts,  where  rapidity  of 
action  is  of  importance,  In  some  forms,  however,  flat  top-cards,  or 
"  flats,"  as  they  are  generally  called,  are  used.  The  arrangement  of 
these  is  somewhat  as  in  fig.  8,  where  they  are  shown  at  c  c,  the  card- 
teeth  of  the  main  cylinder  sweeping  over  the 
surface  of  the  flats  at  e  c.  As  a  general  rule, 
the  finer  the  cotton  the  more  flats  are  used.  In 
fig.  9  we  give  a  diagram,  illustrative  of  the  ar- 
rangements of  a  carding-engine,  in  which  the 
system  of  having  rollers  and  strippers  and 
"  flats  "  are  combined.  The  lap-roller  is  in- 
serted in  the  slots ;  the  cotton  is  then  passed 
between  the  feed-roller,  a  and  a,  and  caught  up 
by  the  first  card-cylinder,   b   b,   termed    the 


t© 


Fig.  9. 


146 


Beet  Sugar  Manufacture, 


[July, 


-  licker-in."  From  this  it  is  taken  up  by  the  main  cylinder,  h  h;  from 
this  it  is  taken  by  the  stripper  or  roller,  c  ;  from  this  it  is  taken  by  d, 
and  delivered  to  the  main  cylinder ;  from  this  it  is  again  taken  by  the 
stripper,  e,  which,  in  its  turn,  is  stripped  by  g  and/;  and  from/,  taken 
up  by  the  main  cylinder.  The  "  flats,"  m  m,  take  the  wool  from  the 
main  cylinder,  which,  by  its  continuous  rotation,  re-takes  it,  and  re- 
delivers it  to  the  doffing  cylinder,  n  n  ;  from  this  it  is  stripped  by  the 
comb,  o  o,  which  receives  its  motion,  as  before  described.  The' fleece 
thus  obtained  is  contracted  by  passing  through  the  trumpet-mouth, 
p  p,  and  thereafter  passed  between  rollers,  and  finally  delivered  to  the 
can. 

(To  be  continued). 


BEET  SUGAR  MANUFACTURE, 

WITH    PLANS    OF    SUGAR   WORKS,   AS    CONSTRUCTED    BY    M. 

DEWILDE,    ENGINEER. 

Translated  for  The  Artizan  from  the  French  of  M.  Armengaud  Aine. 

Illustrated  by  Plates  11  and  12. 

(Continued  from  page  126.) 

TREATMENT    OF   THE    BEET    ROOT. 

Washing  the  Roots. — As  soon  as  the  roots  arrive  at  the  works,  they 
are  placed  in  the  washing  machine,  A,  shown  in  plan  in  fig.  1,  and  in 
elevation  in  fig.  2,  plate  12.  This  machine  consists  of  a  cylinder  open 
at  the  ends,  and  formed  of  wooden  staves,  about  1  inch  apart  on  the 
outside,  and  is  mounted  on  an  iron  spindle,  and  slightly  inclined.  It 
revolves  in  a  case,  a,  raised  on  a  wooden  framework,  and  filled  with 
water.  The  roots  are  introduced  at  the  upper  end,  through  a  hopper,  b, 
and  the  cylinder  being  set  in  motion,  are  washed,  and  finally  escape  at 
the  lower  end,  and  fall  on  the  inclined  plane,  B,  which  carries  them 
directly  to  the  rasping  machines.  Instead  of  inclining  the  cylinder,  it 
may  be  made  of  a  conical  form,  which  produces  the  same  effect.  The 
water  in  the  case  is  only  changed  when  it  becomes  too  muddy,  and  it 
is  sufficient  to  take  out  the  deposit  and  fill  it  up  with  fresh  water. 

This  method  of  cleaning  the  roots,  which  is  the  most  sure  and  speedy 
way,  is  insufficient  when  they  are  more  or  less  deteriorated.  In  this 
case  they  are  cleaned  by  hand,  one  by  one,  all  the  parts  covered  with 
earth  being  scraped  with  a  knife,  and  the  small  roots,  which  harbour 
stones,  cut  off.  This  operation  is  performed  by  women ;  two  of  whom 
can  prepare  4,000  to  4,500  roots  per  day.  If  the  roots  are  large,  they 
must  be  cut  into  two  or  more  pieces  to  prepare  them  for  the  rasping 
machine.     The  loss  from  this  operation  is  about  6  or  7  per  cent. 

As  suon  as  the  roots  are  cleaned,  the  juice  may  be  extracted;  and,  to 
perform  this  operation,  numerous  plans  have  been  tried,  in  order  to 
obtain  the  best  effect.  In  spite  of  scientific  researches,  and  skilful  en- 
deavours, manufacturers  appear  to  prefer  the  old-fashioned  system,  which 
consists  in  reducing  the  beet  to  a  fine  pulp,  and  expressing  the  juice  by  a 
powerful  press,  rather  than  those  which  proceed  upon  the  principle  of 
separating  the  juice,  by  slicing  the  root,  and  maceration,  which  is  thus 
defined  by  M.  Dumas  : — "  The  operation  consists  in  submitting  the 
beet-root  to  the  action  of  a  bath,  similar  to  that  employed  in  the  ex- 
traction of  saltpetre,  and  in  bursting  the  cells  by  briskly  elevating  the 
temperature  by  the  admission  of  steam." 

As,  however,  these  last  methods  may  prove  very  useful,  when  we 
have  only  desiccated  beet-root  to  deal  with,  we  will  speak  of  those 
plans  which  have  had  the  most  notoriety. 

Amongst  the  first,  we  have,  by  M.  Mathieu,  of  Dombasle,  a  patent 
for  fifteen  years,  dated  19th  May,  1831,  under  the  title  of  Process  for 
the  extraction  of  Sugar  from  Beet-root.  The  invention  is  based  on  the 
following  facts  : — 1.  If  sliced  beet-root  be  put  to  soak  in  cold  or  tepid 
water,  the  water  will  only  absorb  a  very  small  quantity  of  saccharine 
matter,  however  finely  the  beet-root  may  be  divided.     2.  If  the  vital 


principle  in  the  roots  has  been  previously  destroyed,  either  by  their 
desiccation  or  by  the  application  of  a  sufficient  degree  of  heat,  the  affi- 
nity between  the  liquid  and  the  saccharine  matter  in  the  roots  acts 
without  obstacle,  so  that  it  effects  a  division  of  the  saccharine  matter 
between  the  liquor  in  the  roots  and  that  in  which  they  are  soaked. 
This  division  takes  place  in  less  time,  as  the  roots  are  more  finely 
divided,  and,  to  some  extent,  at  low  temperatures. 

On  this  principle,  if  we  cut  the  beet-roots  into  slices  about  one-quarter 
of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and,  adding  water,  boil  them  by  steam  or  other 
means  for  half  an  hour,  the  water  will  extract  about  half  the  sugar  con- 
tained in  the  roots.  When  this  water  is  drawn  off,  if  a  similar  quantity 
of  fresh  water  be  poured  over  the  roots,  it,  in  its  turn,  will  extract  the 
half  of  the  sugar  remaining  in  the  roots,  and  so  on,  until,  by  repeated 
maceration,  the  whole  of  the  sugar  is  extracted.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  we  take  a  fresh  quantity  of  roots,  and  macerate  them  in  the  liquor 
first  obtained  from  the  previous  mass  of  roots,  this  liquor,  already 
charged  with  saccharine  matter,  will  take  up  an  additional  quantity ; 
and  by  repeating  this  operation  with  fresh  roots  any  required  number 
of  times,  it  will  acquire  a  density  equal  to  that  of  the  juice  which  the 
same  roots  would  have  given  by  expression.  This  juice  may  then  be 
treated  in  the  ordinary  way,  with  lime,  animal  charcoal,  &c.  This 
method  of  maceration  has  only  been  practised  with  success  in  combi- 
nation with  hot  water,  whether  by  means  of  single  vats,  by  the  continuous 
system  of  filtration  of  M.  de  Beaujeu,  or  by  the  Champonnois  macerator. 
This  last  apparatus,  as  well  as  the  rest,  has  the  inconvenience  of 
requiring  heat.  It  is,  in  fact,  demonstrated  that  the  heat  transforms 
the  crystallisable  sugar  into  uncrystallisable,  or  molasses ;  and  so  far, 
the  experience  of  the  laboratory  is  always  confirmed  by  practice.  It  is 
principally  during  the  maceration  that  this  destructive  effect  takes  place, 
when  the  beet-juice  is  not  yet  separated  from  foreign  matters.  To  ob- 
viate these  inconveniences,  the  better  informed  amongst  the  manufac- 
turers have  employed  the  cold  system  of  maceration,  but  hitherto 
without  success.  Mr.  Huart  took  out  a  patent  in  1833  for  a  process 
of  simple  filtration  of  cold  water  through  the  pulp,  and  this  would 
have  been  very  valuable,  had  the  filtration  been  practicable  on  a  large 
scale ;  but  experience  proved  the  contrary.  M.  Beaudrimont  attempted 
to  force  cold  water  through  the  pulp,  in  an  apparatus  like  the  filter- 
press  of  M.  Real,  but  did  not  succeed.  M.  Legavrian,  instead  of  forcing 
the  water  from  above,  tried  the  upward  system  of  filtration,  but  with  no 
better  result.  The  cold  water  refuses  to  pass  through  the  mass  of 
pulp,  and  the  inventor  is  obliged  first  to  extract  a  part  of  the  juice  by 
pressure,  in  order  to  be  able  to  apply  his  system  to  the  pressed  pulp, 
to  set  free  the  sugar  which  escaped  the  press.  M.  Ducel,  of  Paris,  has 
pursued  an  inverse  process,  by  first  macerating  the  pulp  in  cold  water, 
and  then  pressing  it,  to  extract  the  juice,  which  is  thus  diluted  with  too 
much  water.  All  these  processes  have  been  abandoned,  and  have  only 
served  to  show  that  the  products  of  the  cold  system  surpass  those  of 
the  hot,  both  in  quantity  and  quality. 

Messrs.  Martin  and  Champonnois  having  recognised,  by  numerous 
trials,  the  impossibility  of  passing  cold  water  through  the  pulp,  when  in 
a  state  of  repose,  have  tried  a  method  of  agitating  the  pulp  in  cold 
water.  Their  apparatus  (patented  30th  June,  1835)  consists  of  a  large 
vertical  cylinder  of  wood  or  metal,  having  a  double  bottom  of  metal, 
pierced  with  small  holes,  and  forming  a  strainer.  In  the  centre  of  the 
cylinder  is  a  revolving  shaft,  furnished  with  inclined  arms  or  agitators  ; 
and  the  pulp,  roughly  rasped,  being  put  into  the  cylinder  by  a  syphon 
leg  below,  is  carried  up  to  the  top  by  the  movement  of  the  agitators, 
and  discharged  on  to  an  inclined  plane.  In  its  passage  upwards  through 
the  cylinder  it  meets  a  descending  stream  of  cold  water,  with  which  it 
is  ultimately  mixed,  and  which,  after  extracting  the  sugar,  escapes  by 
an  opening  provided  for  it  in  the  false  bottom. 

The  Pelletan  levigutor,  patented  the  5th  August,  1836,  is  still  em- 


1852.] 


Beet  Sugar  Manufacture. 


147 


ployed  in  many  factories.  It  is  composed  of  an  Archimedean  screw,  of 
which  the  thread  is  of  copper,  working  in  a  case  of  sheet-copper.  This 
screw  is  placed  ohliquely,  the  angle  being  varied  at  pleasure,  and  turns, 
in  bearings,  at  the  rate  of  one  revolution  per  second.  At  three-fourths 
of  its  height  is  placed  a  curved  tube,  through  which  the  water  is  intro- 
duced. The  pulp  is  fed  in  at  the  bottom  by  a  child,  and  raised  by  the 
screw,  meeting  the  descending  current  of  water,  which,  mixing  with  it, 
carries  off  the  sugar,  and  escapes  into  a  vessel  beneath. 

This  machine,  says  M.  Dumas,  can  work  up  15,000  kilog.  (33,075  lbs.) 
of  beet-roots  per  day.  It  presents  an  economy  of  labour,  and  perhaps 
a  slightly  increased  yield  over  presses ;  but  these  advantages  are  coun- 
terbalanced by  the  cost  of  fuel  and  the  waste  of  the  pulp,  which  is 
almost  entirely  lost. 

M.  Payen,  in  his  Precis  de  Cliimie  industrielle,  thus  speaks  of  two 
new  processes  for  the  extraction  of  the  juice ;  the  one  by  M.  Claes,  and 
the  other  by  M.  Tilloy,  of  Lille  :— 

"  M.  Claes  has  succeeded  in  extracting  a  large  proportion  of  the  juice 
by  combining  the  old  method  of  presses  with  M.  Boucher's  levigating 
process.  This  mixed  process  consists  in  washing  the  pulp,  and  then 
using  the  excess  of  water  which  it  retains  to  exhaust  another  portion  of 
pulp  already  treated  by  the  press.  Ten  rows  of  vessels  containing  the 
pulp  are  arranged  in  endless  chains,  set  in  motion  by  pullies.  The 
vessels,  the  bottoms  of  which  are  composed  of  wire-cloth,  are  disposed 
in  such  a  way,  that  the  liquid  filtered  through  one  row  falls  into  the 
vessels  of  a  lower  row.  Water  is  poured  into  the  first  row  only,  so  that, 
in  its  passage  from  the  first  to  the  tenth,  it  becomes  almost  as  rich  as 
the  juice  itself.  The  pulp  in  the  upper  range  of  vessels,  drained  of  the 
water,  re-descends  upon  the  endless  chain,  balancing  the  weight  of  the 
ascending  vessels,  and  arrives  at  the  bottom.  It  is  then  mixed  with 
pulp  from  hydraulic  presses,  and  furnishes  it  with  water,  which,  by  the 
endosmose  and  exosmose  action,  causes  the  cellules  to  give  up  their 
juice,  and  the  two  pulps,  when  pressed  in  hydraulic  presses,  give  a  fresh 
quantity  of  juice.  The  mixture  of  the  two  pulps  serves  to  feed  cattle, 
whilst  the  pulp  from  the  ordinary  levigators  contains  too  much  water 
for  that  purpose." 

"  M.  Tilloy  employs  another  method  of  levigation.  As  soon  as  the 
pulp  leaves  the  press,  the  bags  are  plunged  for  an  instant  into  water, 
containing  ^  part  of  tannin.  A  second  pressure  gives  one-half  the 
juice  which  the  pulp  retained,  and  the  bags  are  then  again  plunged 
into  the  same  water,  which  they  absorb,  and  are  pressed  a  third  time. 
The  aqueous  juice  which  comes  from  them  serves  instead  of  water  to 
steep  the  bags  after  the  first  pressure.  They  obtain  thus,  at  the  first 
pressure  70  per  cent ;  at  the  second  16,  and  at  the  third  9,  making  a 
total  of  95  per  cent." 

The  Rasping  Pkocess.  We  have  already  said  that,  after  being 
washed,  the  roots  are  carried  to  the  rasping  machines,  which  effect 
the  tearing  asunder  the  cellular  tissue  containing  the  juice.  The 
rasping  machine  is  shown  at  C,  figs.  1  and  2,  plate  12.  We  may  have 
occasion  hereafter  to  give  details  of  this  machinery.  The  object  is  to 
divide  the  particles  as  finely  as  possible. 

The  Squeezing  Process.  As  soon  as  the  roots  have  been 
reduced  to  a  state  of  pulp  by  the  rasping  machine,  it  is  collected  by 
a  workman  with  a  shovel,  and  thrown  into  a  linen  bag  held  ready  by 
another  workman,  and  as  soon  as  filled,  it  is  submitted  to  the  action 
of  a  press.  These  bags  are  ordinarily  about  14  inches  wide  by  20  to 
25  long,  but  their  size  is  only  limited  by  the  table  of  the  press 
employed. 

The  linen  is  very  strong,  and  should  not  be  too  close  in  its  texture, 
in  order  to  allow  the  juice  to  escape  freely. 

Woollen  bags  are  also  used,  which  are  said  to  be  cheaper,  and  more 
durable. 


The  quantity  of  pulp  put  into  them  should  be  such,  that  when 
squeezed  out  it  will  not  exceed  2  inches  in  thickness. 

The  manufacturers  here  differ  in  their  mode  of  treatment;  some 
have  used  a  kind  of  rolling  mill,  which  they  have  been  compelled 
to  give  up,  from  the  small  quantity  of  juice  yielded,  only  50  per  cent. 
The  greater  number  have  employed  hydraulic  presses,  which  naturally 
suggest  themselves  as  the  most  convenient.  For  a  time,  the  "  Pecqueur" 
presses  were  much  talked  about,  but  they  have,  nevertheless,  been 
given  up.  The  hydraulic  presses  have  prevailed,  and  were,  until 
lately,  exclusively  employed.  They,  however,  use  now,  in  many 
factories,  an  additional  preparatory  press,  bearing  the  name  of  the 
revolving  juice  table  {table  pivotante  a  jus). 

This  apparatus  is  shown  by  D  in  the  general  plan,  fig.  1,  plate  12,  and 
in  detail  in  figs.  7  and  8,  in  plate  11.  It  is  composed  of  a  cast  iron 
table  with  three  wings,  furnished  with  grooves,  a  to  facilitate  the  escape 
of  the  juice.  The  table  is  supported  by  a  cast  iron  base,  bolted  to  the 
foundation,  and  carries  in  the  centre  a  wrought  iron  spindle  e.  On  this 
spindle  slides  a  frame/,  which  can  be  adjusted  at  any  height  above  the 
table,  and  which  carries  a  hand-wheel  g,  and  pinion,  which  takes  into  a 
second  wheel,  and  through  another  pinion  gives  motion  to  the  rack  *', 
and  the  press  j.  The  rack  is  held  in  a  vertical  position  by  two  rollers 
at  the  back,  as  is  usual.  The  juice  escapes  by  the  spout  k;  the  bag  of 
pulp,  streaming  with  juice,  is  laid  as  soon  as  filled,  on  a  wicker  hurdle ; 
another  hurdle  is  superposed,  and  then  another  bag,  and  so  on,  until  a 
sufficient  number  of  bags  is  accumulated.  (The  wicker  hurdle  absorbs 
some  of  the  juice  and  requires  frequent  repairs  ;  sheet  iron  has  been 
used  with  good  results,  it  is  said.)  The  pile  of  bags,  having  been  laid 
upon  one  of  the  wings  of  the  table,  the  press  is  brought  down  on  it  by 
the  workman  turning  the  hand-wheel,  and  whilst  this  operation  is  being 
performed,  another  pile  is  placed  on  another  wing.  As  soon  as  the 
press  is  raised,  the  table  is  turned  one-third  round,  and  the  fresh  pile 
of  bags  brought  under  the  press,  whilst  those  already  pressed  are  re- 
moved. The  juice  expressed  runs  into  the  general  reservoir  II,  plate  12. 

M.  Tresel,  machine  maker,  of  St.  Quentin,  has  improved  this  apparatus 
by  making  four  wings  to  the  table,  and  making  the  press  descend  by  a 
vertical  screw  moved  by  a  horizontal  fly-wheel.  His  machines  are  strong 
and  well-designed. 

When  the  bags  of  pulp  have  received  this  first  pressing,  they  carry 
them  to  the  hydraulic  presses,  E.  Six  of  these  presses  are  arranged 
in  a  semicircle  round  the  revolving  juice  table,  for  the  facility  of 
moving  the  bags,  and  the  juice  runs  by  the  gutter,  j  (fig.  1),  to  the 
vat,  H.  The  injection  pumps  for  the  presses  are  shown  at  F  (figs.  1 
and  3),  and  are  driven  by  a  shaft,  k  (fig.  3).  On  this  shaft  are  three 
pulleys ;  I,  which  chives  the  rasping  machine,  C ;  m,  which  drives  the 
washing  machine,  A ;  and  n,  which  drives  the  injection  pumps,  F. 

M.  Dorey  suggested,  in  1837,  a  system  of  presses  combining  the 
advantages  of  the  press  and  of  the  macerating  process,  without  en- 
tailing their  inconveniences.  His  system  is  based  upon  the  property 
which  two  liquids  of  different  densities  possess  of  remaining  in  two 
strata,  unmixed,  even  when  exposed  to  considerable  pressure.  The 
water,  by  its  inferior  specific  gravity,  remains  above  the  beet  juice,  and 
entering  between  all  the  particles  of  the  pulp,  extracts  the  juice,  so  as 
to  produce  as  much  as  90  to  92  per  cent,  of  the  juice  perfectly  pure. 

On  this  plan,  the  water  cannot  be  mixed  with  the  juice,  except  when 
the  operation  is  stopped,  when,  in  order  to  empty  the  cylinders  of  pulp, 
a  little  water  cannot  fail  to  escape ;  but,  as  the  operation  is  continuous, 
this  inconvenience  is  only  felt  when  the  work  is  suspended. 

The  process  is  very  simple  and  efficacious.  To  commence  opera- 
tions, the  rasped  pulp  is  put  into  a  cylindrical  vessel,  with  a  metal 
sieve  at  bottom,  which  stands  on  gutters.  Then,  by  means  of  a  wheel 
and  pinion,  this  vessel  is  brought  under  one  or  other  of  two  large 
cylinders,  which  form  the  principal  part  of  the  apparatus,  and  tU 


148 


Beet  Sugar  Manufacture. 


[July, 


sieve  (with  the  pulp)  is  elevated  by  means  of  a  screw  passing  through 
the  bottom  of  a  reservoir,  at  the  base  of  the  apparatus,  until  it  is  held 
in  position  by  four  spring  catches,  which  prevent  it  descending.     The 
screw  is  then  lowered,  to  admit  of  another  sieveful  being  added,  and 
so  on,  care  being  taken  to  open  the  cylinder  at  top,  in  order  to  allow 
the  air  to  escape. 

When  the  cylinders  are  filled  with  pulp,  they  proceed  to  fill  them 
up  with   water,  taking  care  first  to  place  on  the  top  a  wire  netting 
(with  a  hole  in  the  centre),   to  prevent   the   too  great   disturbance, 
which  would  favour  the  mixing  of  the  two  liquids.     This  operation 
finished,  the  cover  of  the  cylinder  is  fastened  down  by  means  of  a 
screw.     This  done,  they  continue  to  introduce  additional  masses  of 
pulp  from  below,  and  the  water,  having  no  escape  above,  is  compelled 
to  descend  through  the  pulp,  carrying  the  juice  before  it,  which  falls 
into  the  receiver  provided  for  it.     When  the  sieves  have  arrived  at  the 
end  of  the  cylinder,  it  is  necessary  to  take  them  out,  to  add  fresh  ones, 
and,  for  this  purpose,  the  cover  is  taken  off.     The  pulp  is  compressed 
into  half  its  original  volume,  and  having  been  squeezed  into  a  recess  left 
in  the  cover,  can  be   readily   taken  out  without  being  spilt.     It  is 
totally  devoid  of  juice  and  flavour,  and  is  finally  dried  by  pressure 
in  an  ordinary  screw  press. 

Before  replacing  the  cover,  it  is  necessary  to  add  a  quantity  of  water, 
to  replace  that  taken  off  in  the  pulp,  in  order  to  keep  the  water  in  the 
cylinder  at  the  same  level.     This  quantity  is  easily  calculated  ;  it  is 
only  necessary  to  know  the  weight  of  the  pulp  when  it  enters  the 
cylinder,  and  when  it  is  taken  out,  and  to  deduct  from  the  latter  3  per 
cent.,  calculated  on  the  original  weight,  the  weight  of  the  solid  matter 
remaining  the  same.     Thus,  say, 

Pulp  put  on  the  sieve     . .  . .  . .      50      kilog. 

Pulp  taken  out    . .  . .  . .  25         „ 

Difference      . .  25         „ 

Deduct    3    per    cent    on   50  kilog.   for 

solid  matter     ..  ..  ..  ..        l-50    „ 

Weight   of   liquid   taken   with    the   ex- 
hausted pulp     . .  . .  . .  . .      23"50    ,, 

This,  then,  will  give  23i  kilog.  of  water,  which  must  be  introduced 
into  the  cylinder  at  each  time,  to  keep  the  water  at  the  same  height. 
The  water  put  in,  and  the  cover  replaced,  a  fresh  sieve  full  of  pulp  can 
be  introduced,  and  so  on,  until  it  is  desirable  to  cease  work.  To  ex- 
haust the  pulp  remaining  in  the  cylinder,  empty  sieves  can  be  put  in, 
until  all  the  charges  are  exhausted. 

This  mode  of  extraction,  which  appears  very  rational,  has  not  been 
persevered  in,  from  the  difficulties  attending  the  evaporation,  and  the 
expense.  The  same  idea  has  been  tried  in  1831,  by  MM.  Graar. 
Their  plan  was  to  put  a  certain  quantity  of  pulp  into  a  cast  iron 
cylinder,  with  a  perforated  bottom,  over  which  was  placed  a  fine 
cloth.  Water  was  poured  on,  which  filtered  through  and  extracted 
the  juice;  but  all  these  plans  (says  M.  Caillat)  lead  to  the  conclusion, 
that  one  liquid  cannot  completely  displace  another  without  their  mixing, 
and  that  there  is  a  limit  to  the  action  of  this  apparatus,  which  is  deter- 
mined by  the  too  rapid  escape  of  the  juice,  under  a  certain  pressure, 
which  will  not  permit  another  fluid  to  replace  it. 

M.  Haraois  was  the  first  who  proposed  to  press  the  bags  of  pulp 
twice  over.  In  addition  to  this,  M.  Demesmay  proposed  to  submit  the 
bags  of  pulp  to  steam,  in  a  close  chest,  but  in  a  few  minutes  the  pulp 
was  reduced  to  a  jelly,  and  the  juice  could  not  be  extracted.  By  this 
process  they  obtained  75  to  85  per  cent,  of  juice. 

MM.  Ilallette  and  Evrard,  patented,  21st  July,  1845,  a  process,  in 
which  the  pulp,  after  being  squeezed  in  a  hydraulic  press,  was  to  be 
submitted,  in  bags  of  an  impermeable  material,  to  steam  and  pressure; 
but  we  are  not  aware  what  success  they  obtained. 

MM.  Pruvost,  Coudroy  and  Co.,  have  patented,  13th  November, 


1 847,  steam  presses,  in  which  the  pressure  of  steam  on  a  piston  is 
made  to  supersede  the  manual  labour  otherwise  employed. 

Treatment  of  the  Juice. 

The  juice  of  the  beet  root,  in  the  state  in  which  it  leaves  the  presses, 
is  slightly  milky,  inclining  to  a  yellowish  white,  and  sometimes  to  a 
greenish  tinge,  when  the  roots  are  not  quite  ripe ;  and,  at  other  times, 
to  a  reddish  white,  after  the  colour  of  the  roots  used.  When  it  is 
exposed  to  the  air,  the  colour  changes  to  a  light  violet,  and  then  this 
tint  becomes  deeper,  and  finally  changes  to  a  dirty  brown.  If  it  be 
left  for  some  hours  in  open  vessels,  it  finally  acquires  a  ropy  con- 
sistency, and  begins  rapidly  to  decompose  at  a  temperature  above  15  or 
18  centi.  M.  Decock  has  lately  proposed,  to  remedy  this  inconve- 
nience, to  add  tannin  in  powder,  which  is  efficacious  in  preventing 
fermentation,  and  which  has  but  trivial  inconveniences  attending  it. 

The  Defecating  Process. — This  is  the  first  chemical  operation  which 
follows  the  extraction  of  the  juice,  and  is  for  the  purpose  of  depriving 
the  juice  of  the  soluble  and  insoluble  foreign  matters  present,  and 
which  would  otherwise  deteriorate  the  sugar.  The  juice  is  taken  from 
the  vat,  H,  to  the  defecating  pans,  I,  by  means  of  a  "  liquor  lift" 
(monte-jus),  worked  by  steam  pressure.  This  liquor-lift,  p,  is  a  vessel 
of  wrought  or  cast  iron,  communicating  by  an  orifice  at  the  bottom 
with  the  juice-vat,  and  connected  at  the  side  by  a  pipe  to  the  steam 
boilers,  K.  When  it  is  desired  to  elevate  the  juice,  the  lift  is  filled  with 
steam  by  opening  a  cock,  and  this  steam  being  condensed,  forms  a 
vacuum,  which  fills  the  lift  with  juice  by  the  atmospheric  pressure. 
On  the  steam  being  again  admitted,  it  forces  the  liquor  up  the  pipe,  o, 
which  is  provided  with  cocks,  to  fill  either  of  the  pans,  I.  Although 
not  so  stated  by  the  author,  it  appears  that  a  valve  is  required  between 
the  vat  and  the  lift,  which  would  allow  the  lift  to  fill,  but  not  allow  the 
juice  to  flow  back.  The  pipe,  o,  is  of  course  carried  nearly  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  forming  the  lift,  so  as  to  keep  it  full  of  liquor. 

Fig.  9,  plate  11,  represents  a  section  of  one  of  the  defecating  pans 
complete.  The  upper  cylindrical  portion  is  of  copper,  with  a  flange  at 
the  bottom,  to  which  is  attached  a  nearly  hemispherical  bottom,  a, 
also  of  copper.  This  has  a  cast  iron  cover,  b,  which  leaves  a  vacaut 
space  hetween  for  the  admission  of  steam  to  heat  the  liquor.  The 
liquor  is  drawn  off  by  the  cock,  c,  which  is  constructed  in  a  peculiar 
manner.  The  shell  of  the  cock  has  three  openings,  one  above  the 
other,  and  the  plug  has  also  three  corresponding  openings,  but  arranged 
round  the  periphery  in  such  a  way  that  only  one  can  open  at  a  time. 
The  top  of  the  plug  is  of  course  closed,  and  the  bottom,  where  the 
handle  is  fixed,  open.  By  turning  the  plug  round,  therefore,  so  as  to 
bring  either  of  the  openings  together,  the  defecated  liquor  can  be 
drawn  off  at  three  different  heights,  as  the  defecation  takes  place. 

Another  cock  is  provided,  to  admit  the  steam  to  the  double  bottom, 
and  is  also  made  to  carry  off  the  condensed  water,  which  returns  into 
the  boiler.  It  is  desirable  that  these  two  operations  should  be  per- 
formed simultaneously,  or  the  unrelieved  pressure  of  the  steam  might 
distort  the  thin  copper  bottom  of  the  pan,  or  disturb  the  defecation, 
and  the  following  arrangement  is  adopted  for  the  purpose.  The  plug, 
d,  has  two  passages,  the  upper  in  connection  with  the  steam  pipe  and 
the  passage,  e.  and  the  lower  in  connection  with  the  escape  pipe  and 
passage,  g.  In  this  way,  one  passage  cannot  be  opened  without  the 
other. 

M.  Nillus,  of  Havre,  proposed,  in  1845,  a  different  construction  for 
the  defecating  pans,  shown  in  fig.  10.  In  this  plan,  the  copper  bottom, 
a,  is  made  concave  instead  of  convex,  so  as  to  withstand  the  internal 
pressure,  and  is  further  strengthened  by  the  stay,  b.  The  cocks  are  of 
the  ordinary  construction,  c  being  to  draw  off  the  defecated  liquor, 
d  to  admit  the  steam,  and  e  to  allow  the  condensed  water  to  escape. 

It  is  bv  the  aid  of  lime  that  the  chemical  result  of  the  defecation 


1852.] 


Beet  Sugar  Manufacture. 


149 


is  obtained.  An  excess  of  lime,  says  M.  Payen,  renders  the  evapora- 
tion difficult ;  the  portion  of  saccharate  of  lime  not  decomposed  by 
the  charcoal  or  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  atmosphere  cannot  crystallise, 
augments  the  quantity  of  molasses,  and  renders  the  sugar  viscous. 
The  quantity  of  lime  necessary  varies  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
beet  roots,  and  the  time  of  using  them.  At  the  early  part  of  the 
season,  they  employ  about  3  kilog.  of  lime  to  about  1000  litres  of  juice; 
but  when  it  is  advanced,  this  quantity  is  increased  to  6,  8,  and  even 
10  kilog.  to  the  1000,  the  growth  of  the  beet  having  increased  tbe 
quantity  of  free  acids. 

Before  proceeding  with  the  defecation,  it  is  necessary  to  kill  the 
lime  completely,  by  mixing  with  it  about  ten  times  its  weight  of  hot, 
or  even  boiling  water.  It  is  then  passed  through  an  iron  wire-sieve, 
to  separate  the  saud  and  other  foreign  matters.  This  important  opera- 
tion can  be  best  performed,  when  operating  on  large  quantities ;  as, 
for  example,  on  150  to  200  kilog.  of  lime,  representing  about  50  defe- 
cations, of  1000  litres  of  juice  each.  The  management  of  the  dose 
becomes  more  easy,  for,  at  each  defecation,  it  is  sufficient  to  take  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  milk  of  lime,  taking  care  to  agitate  it,  to  render 
the  density  uniform,  before  plunging  in  the  instrument.  If  the  milk 
of  lime  marks  10°,  about  30  litres  are  necessary  to  represent  3  kilo- 
grammes of  dry  lime. 

We  have  already  said,  that  it  is  necessary  to  raise  the  temperature 
briskly  to  75°,  when  the  lime  is  to  be  added,  the  liquor  being  agitated, 
to  mix  it  thoroughly.  The  temperature  is  allowed  to  rise,  and  as  soon 
as  any  sign  of  boiling  appears,  it  is  checked  by  shutting  off  the  steam, 
and  admitting  air  into  the  double  bottom  of  the  pan,  as,  if  the  boiling 
were  continued,  the  liquor  would  remain  turbid. 

The  defecation  is  judged  to  be  perfect  when  the  liquor  is  clear,  the 
flakes  well  separated,  the  scum  solid  and  of  a  greenish  brown  colour; 
when  it  detaches  itself  from  the  sides  of  the  pan,  and  cracks  at  the 
moment  of  boiling,  and  when  an  ammoniacal  odour  prevails  then  in 
the  steam.  "When  the  defecation  does  not  present  these  symptoms, 
and,  above  all,  when  the  limpidity  of  the  liquor  is  imperfect,  the  pro- 
portion of  lime  must  be  changed.  The  proper  dose  is  arrived  at,  after 
some  trials,  but  to  obtain  complete  clarification  it  is  impossible  to 
avoid  erring  on  the  side  of  excess  of  lime,  which  unites  with  the 
sugar,  and  to  remove  which  afterwards  has  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  manufacturer  for  a  long  time. 

Sulphuric  acid  has  also  been  employed  for  the  defecation.  Achard  first 
pointed  out  this  method,  which  was  for  a  long  time  in  use,  but  is  now 
entirely  given  up.  MM.  Crespel  have  used  a  modification  of  this 
system,  by  employing  less  acid,  only  150  grammes  per  hectolitre,  and 
then  saturating  it  with  quick  lime.  M.  Bouche  has  used  alum,  and 
obtained  good  results.  Nevertheless,  by  this  process,  there  is  a  risk  of 
leaving  the  sulphate  of  potass  in  the  sugar.  On  the  perfection  of  the 
defecation  depends  the  quality  of  the  sugar,  and  the  more  care  is 
taken  in  this  step,  the  less  the  trouble  in  purifying  the  sugar,  and  the 
less  the  quantity  of  molasses.  After  the  defecation,  the  juice  has  less 
specific  gravity,  by  reason  of  the  precipitated  matters.  Thus,  the  juice 
from  the  presses  will  indicate  6°  or  8°  on  the  hydrometer,  and  after 
defecation,  only  4°  to  6°. 

The  liquor  runs  from  the  defecating  pans  by  a  pipe,  v  (fig.  4),  into  a 
gutter  running  along  the  top  of  the  filters,  O.  The  scum  is  received  by 
a  truck,  M,  running  on  a  railway,  and  is  afterwards  put  in  bags  and 
pressed  under  presses  N.  These  presses  are  entirely  of  wood,  and  offer 
no  subject  for  remark. 

The  first  filtration.  The  defecated  juice  is  submitted  successively 
and  alternately,  a  various  number  of  times,  to  concentration  and  filtra- 
tion; the  order  and  the  number  of  the  operations  depending,  in  a 
great  measure,  on  the  system  pursued  by  the  manufacturer.  The 
method  most  followed,  and  that  which  we  shall  describe,  is  to  filter 


after  the  defecation,  and  then  to  concentrate  to%5°  or  27°;  to  refilter, 
and  to  boil. 

As  soon  as  the  defecation  is  finished,  the  clear  liquor  passes  into  the 
filters,  O,  which  are  filled  with  granulated  animal  charcoal,  which  has 
already  served  for  the  final  filtration  of  the  syrups.  The  filters  usually 
employed  are  cylindrical  vessels  of  cast-iron,  containing  from  3,000  to 
4,000  kilog.  of  charcoal,  and  furnished  with  a  manhole  above  the  double 
bottom.  In  order  that  the  filtration  should  be  regular,  and  to  prevent 
channels  forming  through  the  charcoal,  its  surface  is  kept  constantly 
covered  with  liquor,  which  is  supplied  by  ordinary  ballcocks,  seen  in 
plan,  fig.  1,  pi.  12.  The  double  bottom  has  a  communication  with  the 
atmosphere  by  a  tube  inserted  in  it,  which  allows  the  air  to  find  its  way 
between  the  particles  of  charcoal,  and  to  escape  as  fast  as  the  syrup 
descends.  The  filtered  liquor  is  run  into  a  vat,  or  at  once  put  into  the 
evaporating  pans.  It  is  led  by  the  gutter,  z  (fig.  2),  and  the  pipe,  y, 
into  the  reservoir,  P. 

The  first  evaporation,  which  is  only  a  preparatory  operation,  is  de- 
signed to  precipitate  the  soluble  salts,  which  had  escaped  the  first  filtra- 
tion. Achard,  whom  M.  Dumas  calls  the  "  Father  of  the  beet-sugar 
manufacture,"  had,  from  the  first,  appreciated  the  difficulties  which  the 
use  of  a  naked  fire  presents,  and  had  tried  heating  by  steam ;  but  he 
committed  the  error  of  using  steam  of  low  pressure,  which  would  only 
raise  the  temperature  of  the  juice  to  70°,  which  rendered  the  evapora- 
tion very  slow,  and  rendered  a  large  portion  of  the  juice  uncrystallisnble. 
These  unsatisfactory  results  led  them  to  use  the  naked  fire,  its  incon- 
veniences being  compensated  by  the  rapidity  of  the  process,  and  the 
quantity  of  the  produce. 

The  use  of  high-pressure  steam  and  suitable  apparatus  unites  the 
advantages  of  an  equal  temperature,  a  facility  of  adjusting  it  instan- 
taneously, and  a  rapidity  of  evaporation  superior  to  that  of  an  open 
fire,  since,  by  the  use  of  steam,  the  heating  surface  can  be  increased 
without  risk. 

There  exist  two  systems  of  evaporation,  in  one,  the  air  being  removed 
(the  vacuum  pan),  and,  in  the  other,  not.  The  former  is  used  in  large 
works  and  refineries  ;  the  latter  is  the  more  common.  Various  appa- 
ratuses are  in  use.  Those  by  M.  Dubrunfant,  and  those  of  M.  Pean, 
composed  of  an  inclined  plane,  cut  in  steps,  and  receiving  the  syrup  at 
the  upper  part.  Others,  by  the  same  maker,  had  a  plate,  furnished 
with  transverse  divisions,  with  openings  alternately  to  the  right  and 
left,  so  as  to  make  the  syrup  take  a  long  course ;  these  apparatuses 
were  heated  by  steam.  There  is  also  the  plan  of  M.  Braine-Che- 
valier,  of  forcing  hot  air  into  the  liquor,  the  expense  of  which  was  not 
compensated  for  by  the  advantage  gained;  and  that  of  M.  Pecqueur, 
composed  of  a  pan  heated  by  numerous  tubes,  about  2  inches  in 
diameter,  separated  one  from  the  other,  and  running  into  a  general 
pipe  going  round  the  pan,  and  opening  into  a  second  pipe.  The 
pan  swung  upon  two  trunnions,  one  serving  for  the  admission,  and 
the  other  for  the  escape,  of  the  steam.  This  arrangement  gave  great 
facility  for  emptying  the  pan  of  syrup,  by  swinging  it  over.  Many 
other  attempts  continue  to  be  made,  but  none  of  them  have  perfectly 
succeeded. 

The  apparatus  most  commonly  used  is  that  represented  as  Q  in  the 
general  plan,  and  in  detail  in  figs.  5  and  6,  plate  11.  It  is  a  copper  pan 
of  a  cylindrical  form,  and  furnished  with  a  coil  of  steam  pipe,  a  a, 
arranged  so  as  to  distribute  the  heat  equally,  the  coldest  portion  of  the 
pipe  lying  next  to  the  hottest.  The  coils  of  pipe  are  held  together  by 
four  stays,  bolted  through  from  side  to  side.  The  pan  is  provided  with 
a  cover,  in  two  parts ;  the  hinder  half  fixed  to  the  pan,  and  carrying  the 
chimney,  b,  while  the  other  half  is  hinged  on  to  it,  and  is  furnished  with 
a  circular  plate  of  glass,  seen  in  plan,  fig.  1,  through  which  the  process 
which  the  liquor  is  undergoing  may  be  observed.  As  it  is  found  that 
the  vapour  condensed  in  the  chimney  is  apt  to  return  in  chops  into  the 

20 


150 


Agricultural  Engineering. 


[July, 


pan,  the  chimney  is  provided  with  a  short  internal  pipe,  c,  which  forms 
a  channel  to  receive  the  condensed  water,  which  is  led  off  by  the  drain- 
pipe, d.  The  defecated  and  filtered  liquor  is  brought  to  the  pans  by  a 
pipe,  e,  connected  to  each  by  cocks. 

The  emptying  of  the  pans  is  effected  bv  a  large  cock,  g,  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  pan,  and  conducting  the  liquor  again  to  the  charcoal 
filters,  through  the  agency  of  the  second  liquor-lift,  p\  Thus  the 
horizontal  gutter,  I,  and  the  tube,  m,  carry  the  liquor  to  the  vat,  R. 

Of  the  second  filtration.  The  complementary  operation  of  filtration 
is  intended  to  extract,  by  means  of  the  animal  charcoal,  those  foreign 
substances  which  had  escaped  the  first  filtration,  to  retain  the  lime  pre- 
cipitated by  the  evaporation,  and  to  deprive  the  syrup  of  the  colour 
which  the  evaporation  gives  it.  The  second  filtration  is  effected  with 
the  same  sort  of  filters,  and  with  the  same  precautions  as  the  first,  but 
care  is  taken  to  use  fresh  charcoal,  which,  after  being  thus  used,  serves 
for  the  first  filtration.  The  syrup  then  comes  from  the  filters  clear  and 
limpid,  and  is  fit  to  undergo  the  operation  of  boiling,  and  to  give  crystals 
of  a  good  colour.  It  flows  through  the  pipe,  n2,  into  the  reservoir,  S, 
whence  it  is  raised  into  the  vacuum  pan  by  the  air-pump  attached  to  it. 

The  boiling  in  vacuo.  The  vacuum  pan  is  usually  placed  on  the  same 
floor  as  the  filters  and  evaporating  pans;  T,  fig.  1,  plate  12,  is  the 
vacuum  pan,  U  the  condenser,  and  V  the  air-pump,  which  do  not  differ 
from  those  usually  employed.  When  the  syrup  is  sufficiently  boiled, 
it  is  run,  by  means  of  the  gutter,  x,  into  the  large  receivers,  X  X,  where 
crystallisation  commences. 

(To  lie  continued.) 


AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING. 

REPORT  ON  THE  APPLICATION  OF  LIQUID  MANURE  BY 
STEAM  POWER  AT  EDINBURGH. 

BY  W.  LEE,  ESa.,  C.E. 

It  will  be  understood  that,  in  speaking  of  superficial  area,  the  Scotch 
acre  is  always  intended.  It  contains  6084  square  yards,  equal  to 
L271  acres  English,  or  rather  more  than  an  acre  and  a  quarter. 

The  old  Craigentinny  meadows,  irrigated  by  the  Foul  burn,  have  been 
in  existence  probably  sixty  years,  and  contain  about  180  acres.  They 
are  not  laid  out  so  methodically  as  the  more  recent  part  of  the  work. 
Mr.  Buchanan  has  a  plan  of  the  whole,  showing  the  open  gutters  and 
panes,  ou  a  scale  of  four  chains  in  an  inch.  The  more  recent  portions 
are  the  sea-meadows  and  the  high  level,  which  is  irrigated  by  means 
of  a  steam-engine. 

The  soil  of  the  old  meadows  is  a  hard  clay.  Some  of  it  had  been 
underdrained  before  the  irrigation  began ;  but  the  drains  were  found  to 
carry  off  the  irrigation-water,  and  were  also  in  the  way  of  the  levelling 
operations,  and  were  therefore  destroyed. 

The  sea-meadows  were  formed  in  1826,  upon  what  was  a  mere  series 
of  sand-hills  and  beach,  without  any  soil  at  all.  What  little  soil  there 
is  now  has  resulted  from  the  application  of  the  sewage-water. 

About  fifty  acres  are  above  the  level  of  the  "  burn."  For  them  the 
sewage-water  is  lifted  fifteen  feet  by  a  steam-engine  of  eight  horse- 
power, at  Southside  farm. 

Having  ascertained  that  the  irrigation  goes  on  upon  the  high  level 
for  the  same  length  of  time,  and  is  repeated,  after  the  same  intervals,  as 
in  the  portions  where  no  artificial  power  is  used,  the  steam-pumps  be- 
come standard  measures  by  which  to  ascertaiu  the  quantity  of  town 
sewage-water  capable  of  producing  such  great  fertility. 

The  engine  is  capable  of  irrigating  a  very  much  larger  surface;  but  it  is 
used  also  for  threshing  and  other  farm  purposes.  The  cylinder  is  10  inches, 
working  from  .30  to  40  lbs.  pressure,  and  making  46  strokes  per  minute. 
There  are  two  pumps  with  18-inch  barrels,  making  14  strokes  per  minute, 


and  having  alternate  action  of  2  feet  9  inches,  or  3  feet  6  inches.  I 
find  the  quantity  raised  to  be  93 J  cubic  feet  per  minute.  The  engine 
works  night  and  day ;  but  the  time  occupied  for  irrigation  amounts  to 
about  224  days,  of  12  hours  each.  Two  tons  of  fuel  are  consumed  per 
24  hours,  at  5s.  3d.  per  ton ;  and  there  are  two  enginemen  and  two 
watermen,  who  attend  to  the  gutters,  I  ascertained  that  the  ordinary 
working  expenses  of  the  engine,  including  wear  and  tear,  amounts  to 
10s.  6d.  per  12  hours. 

The  result,  when  reduced  to  a  practical  shape,  is  strongly  against  the 
economy  of  surface-irrigation  by  open  gutters  and  surface-shedding, 
when  compared  with  the  effects  produced  by  pipes  and  jet,  hereafter 
to  be  considered.  In  this  case,  the  quantity  of  fluid  applied  is  so  enor- 
mous, that  a  very  large  portion  of  it  must  escape  into  the  sea,  without 
being  productive  of  any  good.  The  amount  calculated  from  the  pump- 
ing power  is  equal  to  66  inches  in  depth  over  the  whole  surface,  during 
the  course  of  the  year,  or  8,886  tons  per  acre,  taking  the  specific  gra- 
vity of  the  sewage  at  66  lbs.  per  cube  foot.  During  the  present  season, 
the  whole  of  the  meadows  have  been  watered,  according  to  the  state- 
ment of  Mr.  Bryce,  eight  or  nine  times,  so  that  each  application  was 
equal  to  1,000  tons  per  acre.  It  must  be  remembered,  that  these  quan- 
tities refer  both  to  the  irrigation  by  steam-power  and  by  gravitation. 

The  total  area  irrigated  by  the  "  Foul  burn"  is  about  260  acres ;  and 
I  find  the  average  discharge  of  sewage-water  from  that  part  of  the  city 
draining  into  it  to  be  about  220  cubic  feet  per  minute.  Exclusive  of 
Sundays,  this  would  give  a  quantity  equal  to  11,232  tons  per  acre  per 
annum ;  but,  taking  the  number  of  days  during  which  the  process  of 
irrigation  goes  on  at  224,  as  in  the  former  calculation,  the  net  quantity 
laid  on  will  be  8,042  tons  per  acre  per  annum. 

When  it  is  considered  that  some  of  the  fluid  is  used  more  than  once, 
and  that  storm-water  requires  some  margin,  these  two  statements  of 
quantity  corroborate  each  other  in  a  remarkable  manner. 

The  laying  out,  levelling,  gutters,  and  sluices,  in  the  old  meadows 
would,  in  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Buchanan,  cost  nearly  £15  per  acre;  but 
it  was  done  piecemeal,  and  in  a  very  irregular  manner. 

The  30  acres  of  sea-meadow  cost  ,£700  laying  out,  equal  to  £23  6s.  Sd. 
per  acre.  The  ground  was  very  rough — absolutely  worthless — and  the 
work  expensive. 

The  remaining  part,  including  the  high  level,  varied  from  £30  per 
acre  to  £6,  but  the  average  was  about  £15  per  acre. 

With  respect  to  the  high  level,  the  steam-engine  was  already  upon 
the  farm,  but  its  value,  and  also  that  of  the  pumps,  must  be  taken  into 
account.  A  deep  open  gutter,  of  about  250  yards  long,  and  a  tunnel  of 
about  the  same  length,  had  to  be  driven,  to  convey  the  sewage  to  the 
engine-well.     These  two  cost  upwards  of  £1000. 

The  working  expenses,  for  the  irrigation  by  gravitation,  may  be  taken 
at  13s.  3d.  per  acre  per  annum,  including  the  cleansing  of  the  open 
gutters.  The  following,  therefore,  appears  to  be  the  cost  of  the  open- 
gutter  system : — 

High  Level. 

Forming  50  acres,  at  £15        £750  0  0 

Engines  and  pumps,  say            . .          . .          . ,  250  0  0 

Tunnels  and  gutter        . .          . .          . .          . .  1000  0  0 


£2000    0    0 


Annual  interest  and  depreciation,  /§  per  cent. .    £150     0     0 
Wages,  fuel,  &c,  224  days,  at  10s.  6d.  . .        117  12    0 


£267  12    0 


Equal  to  rather  more  than  £5  7s.  per  acre  per  annum. 


1852.] 


Notes  by  a  Practical  Chemist. 


151 


Sea  Meadows. 
Annual  interest,  &c,  per  acre 
Annual  working  expenses  . . 


€1  15 
0  13 

0 
3 

€2    8 

3 

€i   2 

13 

6 
3 

£l  15 

9 

Per  acre 

Old  Meadows,  &c. 
Annual  interest,  &c,  per  acre 
Annual  working  expenses 

Per  acre 


The  total  capital  invested  is  about  €5,400,  and  the  annual  working 
expenses,  exclusive  of  interest,  €256  14s.  6d. 

Before  making  a  few  remarks  on  the  value  and  produce  of  these 
meadows,  I  must  observe,  that  their  great  fertility  is  extrinsic,  and 
entirely  independent  of  the  nature  of  the  soil.  There  is  no  principle 
of  vitality  in  the  mineral  particles  of  clay  and  sand,  but  when  the  ele- 
ments of  vegetable  substances  are  largely  applied,  in  a  state  of  solution, 
to  the  germs  and  roots  of  plants,  an  unprecedented  state  of  fertility  is 
produced,  equally  upon  lands  of  the  most  opposite  character.  Some 
of  these  meadows  are  heavy,  undrained  clay,  which,  in  a  state  of  nature, 
would  be  almost  sterile ;  and  others  are  porous  sea-sand,  absolutely 
worthless  only  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  yet  both,  at  the  present 
moment,  are  yielding  upwards  of  ten  times  the  average  value  of  agri- 
cultural land  in  this  country.  These  remarks,  as  to  the  character  of 
the  soil,  are  of  course  applicable  to  all  the  places  visited,  and,  in  fact, 
to  soils  generally. 

During  a  careful  examination  of  these  meadows,  I  could  not  observe 
any  difference  between  those  nearest  to  the  city  and  those  adjoining 
the  sea ;  but  it  appeared  that  generally  the  oldest  meadows  were  the 
most  fertile.  On  inquiry,  I  was  informed  by  Mr.  Bryce,  that  the  action 
of  the  sewage-water  is  not  a  sudden  impetus,  followed  by  reaction  and 
exhaustion,  but  the  land  goes  on  increasing  in  value,  according  to  the 
length  of  time  the  system  has  been  in  operation. 

I  observed  no  stench  at  all  on  the  meadows  or  the  carriers  ;  I  could 
distinguish  it,  however,  where  the  tailwater  of  the  burn,  after  passing 
through  a  sluice,  tumbles  down  a  roughly-paved  incline.  The  weather 
was  cool  at  the  time. 

The  fifth  crop  of  grass  since  April  was  being  cut  off  these  meadows 
at  the  time  of  my  visit  in  October. 

A  very  fine  crop  of  turnips,  expected  to  realise  about  £25  per  acre, 
had  been  manured  by  a  dressing  of  the  liquid  before  sowing,  with  the 
addition  of  about  24  loads  of  the  cleansings  of  the  gutters,  and  16  loads 
of  farm-yard  litter,  per  acre. 

Mr.  Bryce,  the  manager,  said,  "  I  would  prefer  for  turnips  even  the 
cleansings  from  the  gutters,  with  farm-yard  manure  to  guano  with  farm- 
yard manure,  because  the  sewage  refuse  has  more  durability  than  guano. 
I  shall  have  a  good  crop  of  barley  after  these  turnips  without  further 
solid  manure ;  and  then  sow  down  for  grass  ;  I  could  not  do  that  with 
guano." 

A  very  small  plot  of  this  land  is  let  at  present  at  €9  per  acre,  but,  in 
general  terms,  the  inferior  meadow  produces  ,€11.  The  highest  rent 
this  year  is  €31.  There  are  several  lots  let  at  €30  per  acre,  and  the 
average  of  the  whole  is  more  than  €20. 

I  have  only  to  mention  one  additional  fact  respecting  the  value  of 
these  meadows  -.—The  Leith  branch  of  the  Edinburgh  and  Dalkeith 
Railway  passes  through  the  meadows  formed  about  25  years  since  out 
of  worthless  sea-beach.  The  value  of  the  land  had  to  be  settled  by  a 
jury,  who,  after  hearing  all  the  evidence  on  both  sides,  awarded  33 
year's  purchase  at  €20  per  acre,  making  €6G0  per  acre  as  the  value. 


NOTES    BY   A    PRACTICAL    CHEMIST. 


Preparation  of  Benzoic  Acid  by  Sublimation. — Benzoic 
acid,  as  ordinarily  obtained  by  sublimation,  is  apt,  in  course  of  time,  to 
grow  yellow,  from  the  presence  of  an  essential  oil.  This  may  be  avoided 
by  operating  as  follows  : — The  gum  benzoin,  in  coarse  powder,  is  spread 
at  the  bottom  of  an  iron  vessel,  then  covered  with  a  layer  of  animal 
charcoal  of  half  a  centimetre  in  thickness.  The  vessel  is  then  tightly 
covered  over  with  a  sheet  of  porous  paper,  as  in  Mohr's  process,  whilst 
above  is  placed  a  stout  paper  cap  which  exactly  fits  the  sides  of  the 
vessel.     The  whole  is  then  exposed  to  a  moderate  heat  in  the  sand  bath. 

Preparation  of  Pure  Potassa.. — The  usual  process  is  to  ignite 
the  bitartrate,  wash  the  residue  with  pure  water  and  boil  the  solution 
of  carbonate  of  potassa  thus  formed  with  hydrate  of  lime  in  an  iron 
vessel.  The  solution  of  hydrate  of  potassa  is  then  boiled  to  dryness, 
the  residue  dissolved  in  alcohol  and  evaporated  in  silver  dishes.  The 
potassa  thus  prepared  is  usually  free  from  sulphates  and  chlorides,  but 
contains  very  frequently  a  trace  of  the  silicate  of  potassa.  This  impurity, 
according  to  Mr.  H.  Wurtz,  may  be  thus  removed.  An  aqueous  solution, 
of  the  carbonate  in  question  is  evaporated  to  dryness  in  sheet-iron 
vessels  at  a  sand  heat,  lumps  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  being  added  from 
time  to  time.  The  silicate  of  potassa  is  thus  converted  into  carbonate, 
and  on  redissolving  in  water,  the  silicate  appears  in  the  form  of  flakes 
floating  on  the  liquid,  and  may  be  separated  by  filtration.  The  filtered 
liquid,  free  from  silica,  may  now  be  used  for  the  preparation  of  pure 
hydrate  of  potassa,  taking  care  to  use  lime  which  is  likewise  free  from 
silica. 

A  solution  of  hydrate  of  potassa  kept  in  glass  bottles  becomes,  in 
course  of  time,  impure,  by  taking  up  silica  from  the  glass.  Flint  glass 
bottles  will  preserve  such  a  solution  much  longer  than  any  other.  Pure 
silver  is,  however,  the  best  material  for  bottles  in  which  solution  of 
potassa  is  to  be  preserved. 

ANSWERS    TO    CORRESPONDENTS. 

"  P.  T."  We  can  by  no  means  share  in  your  approval  of  the  cul- 
tivation of  beet-root  for  the  purpose  of  manufacturing  sugar.  For  an 
able  exposure  of  its  fundamental  fallacies  we  may  refer  you  to 
Liebig's  "  Letters  on  Chemistry."  Beet-root  sugar  is  only  able  to 
maintain  itself  by  the  aid  of  accidental  advantages.  Give  the  tropical 
agriculturist  the  benefit  of  due  mechanical  and  chemical  appliances,  and 
place  him  on  an  equal  footing  as  regards  import  duties,  and  the  cane 
will  at  once  drive  its  puny  European  rival  out  of  the  market.  The 
cultivation  of  beet-root  in  England  or  Ireland  is  especially  to  be 
deprecated,  because  as  soon  as  they  find  themselves  unable  to  cope 
with  their  opponents,  those  engaged  in  it  will  begin  to  clamour  for 
protective  duties. 

"  Zero."  Opium  can  be  made  to  yield  colours  verv  similar  to  those 
obtained  from  madder,  but  its  high  price  renders  them  of  little  im- 
portance in  a  practical  point  of  view. 

"  A  Student."  The  boundary  line  between  metallic  and  non-me- 
tallic bodies  is  now  very  hard  to  trace,  many  substances,  such  as 
iodine,  silicon,  arsenic,  selenium,  and  tellurium,  being  alternately 
assigned  to  the  one  and  the  other  of  these  great  classes;  whilst  concern- 
ing even  those  whose  place  is  uncontested  very  few  general  truths  of 
value  can  be  asserted.  S. 


PITCHER'S  PATENT  HYDRAULIC  STEAM   ENGINE 
GOVERNOR. 

We  consider  ourselves  fortunate  in  having  lately  introduced  into  this 
country  several  worthy  specimens  of  American  ingenuity,  and  the 
numerous  inquiries  which  they  have  occasioned  us  is  the  best  proof 
that  our  labours  have  been   appreciated  amongst  our  daily  increasing 


152 


Pitchers  Patent  Hydraulic  Steam  Engine  Governor. 


[July, 


circle  of  readers.  On  the  present  occasion,  we  have  to  direct  attention 
to  a  subject  of  the  highest  importance  to  our  great  "  cotton  interest" — 
the  more  perfect  regulation  of  the  prime  mover  of  their  mills,  a  point 
on  which  much  ingenuity  has  been  expended,  with  a  very  dispropor- 
tionate result.  The  principle  of  this  invention,  which  we  owe  to  Mr.  L. 
B.  Pitcher,  of  Syracuse,  U.  S.,  is  briefly  this — a  small  pump,  set  in 
motion  by  the  engine,  keeps  floating,  by  the  water  it  delivers,  a  plunger 
working  in  a  cylinder.  The  water  has  a  certain  area  to  escape  through, 
ami  if  the  speed  of  the  engine  (and  of  the  pump)  increases,   the  water 


2,  with  the  outer  casing  removed.     The  various  letters  of  reference,  in 
the  different  views,  refer  to  the  same  parts. 

A  is  the  base  plate  of  the  apparatus,  having  cast  on  it  the  valve  seats, 
B  B,  C  being  the  suction  valve,  and  D  the  delivery.  The  details  of 
these  valves  are  worth  noticing,  as  they  make  a  very  simple  casting.  The 
valve  is  formed  of  a  disc  of  brass,  to  which  is  pinned  a  ring  of  India 
rubber,  to  obviate  the  concussion  ;  they  are  guided  by  a  spindle  bolted 
through  the  bottom  of  the  valve  box.  A  collar  on  the  spindle  prevents 
the  valve  from  rising  too  high,  and  a  spiral  spring  between  them  causes 


Fig.  1. 

being  delivered  faster  than  it  can  escape,  causes  the  plunger  to  rise, 
and  by  its  connection  with  the  throttle  valve,  shut  off  the  steam,  and 
vice  versa. 

The  way  in  which  this  is  worked  out  will  be  readily  understood  from 
the  engravings.  Fig.  1  is  an  elevation  of  an  engine,  designed  and  con- 
structed by  Messrs.  Muir  and  Co.,  engineers,  of  Manchester,  to  which 
the  hydraulic  governor  has  been  attached,  and  which  needs  a  notice, 
on  its  own  account,  in  passing.  It  is  an  inverted  steeple  engine,  an 
arrangement  which  has  the  merit  of  rendering  all  the  parts  accessible. 
The  lower  end  of  the  steeple  and  the  connecting  rod,  are,  it  will  be 
perceived,  guided  in  slots  in  the  frame,  sunk  into  the  foundation.  Fig. 
2  is  an  elevation  in  section  of  the  hydraulic  portion  of  the  regulating 
apparatus,  to  a  scale  of  about  two  inches  to  a  foot.  Fig.  3  is  an 
external  view  of  the  throttle  valve-box,  and  the  method  of  connecting 
the  governor  to  the  throttle  valve;  and  fig.  4  is  an  external  view  of  fig. 


the  valve  to  shut  promptly,  without  waiting  for  the  return  blow  of  the 
water.     (At  the  Kingston  Water  Works,  we  observed   that  the  double 

beat  valves  were  loaded 
with  lead,  to  answer  the 
same  purpose.)  These 
valves  will  answer  very 
well  for  this  purpose; 
but,  for  an  actual  pump, 
they  are  not  to  be  re- 
commended, since  they 
wear  lose  on  the  spindle 
after  working  sometime, 
and  allow  the  water  to 
leak   past.       E    is   the 


Fig.  3. 


1852.] 


Danger  of  Using  Burning  Fluids. 


153 


pump  plunger,  about  2£  inches  diameter,  working  four  inches  stroke, 
and  100  strokes  per  minute,  and  connected  by  the  rod,  P,  to  a 
crank  overhead,  arranged  in  any  convenient  way.  F  is  the  regulating 
piston,  about  2  inches  diameter,  connected  by  the  rod,  0,  to  the  throttle 
valve.  This  rod  has  a  spiral  spring,  L,  attached  to  it,  to  prevent  the 
piston,  F,  falling  further  than  is  necessary  to  open  the  throttle  valve. 
G  is  an  escape  hole,  which,  by  allowing  the  water  beneath  the  piston, 
F,  to  escape,  prevents  it  rising  higher  than  is  necessary  to  shut  the 


necessary,  however,  to  remark,  that  the  cylinders,  being  immersed  in 
water,  the  regulating  piston,  F,  will  stand  at  any  height  that  the  supply 
of  steam  may  render  necessary ;  so  that,  when  the  supply  of  steam  is 
once  adjusted,  the  engine  will  run  steadily  until  a  further  change  takes 
place.  In  the  ordinary  centrifugal  governors  this  result  can  never  be 
attained,  except  by  adjusting  the  connection  with  the  throttle  valve  for 
every  variation  by  hand,  and  thus  destroying  its  character  as  a  self- 
actor.     It  is  obvious  that  this  regulator  may  be  attached  to  the  ordinary 


Fig.  4. 


throttle  valve.  N  (fig.  4)  is  the  constant  escape,  which  has  an  adjusting 
spindle  carried  up  to  the  outside  of  the  case.  As  a  water  cistern  is 
required  for  the  pump,  the  case,  J,  and  cover,  H,  answer  the  purpose. 
The  rods  of  the  plunger  and  piston  work,  without  packing,  through  the 
cups  I  and  K,  which  catch  any  water  that  may  be  drawn  up.  When 
the  governor  is  at  work,  the  pump  communicates  a  series  of  pulsations 
to  the  piston,  F.  On  the  upper  end  of  the  rod,  O,  are  two  tappets,  R  R, 
which  strike  the  box,  Q,  and  communicate  motion,  through  the  lever, 
S,  to  the  throttle  valve.     Its  action  we  have  already   explained;  it  is 


throttle  valve,  but  the  inventor,  by  experience,  prefers  that  kind  of 
valve  shown  in  section,  fig.  5.  W  is  a  disc  keyed  on  the  spindle,  T, 
and  having  a  number  of  openings  in  it,  with  corresponding  openings  in 
the  seat.  A  set  screw,  Y,  bearing  against  the  point  of  the  spindle,  affords 
a  means  of  adjusting  the  valve  to  the  face,  so  that,  whilst  it  is  kept 
steam-tight,  the  friction  shall  be  reduced  as  far  as  possible. 

The  patent  governor  has  been  tried  in  Manchester  with  the  same 
satisfactory  results  as  its  extensive  use  in  America  ensured,  and  we  hope 
soon  to  be  able  to  report  that  it  has  been  applied  in  London. 


DANGER  OF  USING  BURNING  FLUIDS. 

Mr.  E.  N.  Horsford,  Rumford  Professor  in  Harvard  University,  has 
recently  presented  to  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  a 
paper  on  the  probable  causes  of  explosions  arising  from  the  use  of 
spirits  of  turpentine,  better  known  in  this  county,  as  camphine,  and 
in  America  (with  the  addition  of  some  alcohol)  as  burning  fluid.  The 
following  is  the  account  of  the  circumstances  under  which  a  fatal  ex- 
plosion took  place,  and  which  are  remarkable,  from  the  absence  of  any 
direct  contact  between  the  fluid  and  any  ignited  body. 

The  explosion  took  place  at  about  eleven  o'clock  a.m.  in  an  unfinished 
apartment — an  addition  to  the  main  building,  9  feet  by  10,  open  to  the 
ridge  pole,  and  6  feet  high  at  the  eaves.  A  little  to  the  right  of  the 
centre  of  the  room  (looking  from  the  main  building),  was  a  cast-iron 
cooking  stove,  unusually  thin  and  very  smooth.  At  a  distance  of  6  feet 
from  the  stove  and  3  feet  from  the  floor  on  a  shelf  in  the  corner  of  the 
room,  partially  sheltered  from  the  direct  heat  of  the  stove  by  two  inter- 
vening water  pails,  was  the  tin  gallon  can  which  exploded.  It  was 
about  half  filled  with  burning  fluid,  and  had  of  course  been  repeatedly 
opened  in  serving  the  lamps  in  daily  use.  The  neck  or  larger  opening 
of  the  can  was  stopped  by  a  pine  plug,  which,  although  pressed  to  its 
place  with  difficulty  from   the  irregular  surfaces  of  both   stopper  and 


neck,  closed  the  passage  but  imperfectly,  leaving  a  space  more  than 
half  around  the  stopper  of  a  diameter  continuous  from  top  to  bottom, 
varying  from  a  twentieth  to  a  twelfth  of  an  inch.  The  nose  or  smaller 
opening  was  closed  by  a  rag  stopper. 

About  fifteen  minutes  before  the  accident,  the  girl,  the  unfortunate 
sufferer,  rekindled  with  shavings  and  pine  wood  the  fire  in  the  stove 
(which  since  breakfast  had  not  been  replenished),  and  set  in  its  place  on 
the  stove  a  tea  kettle  containing  about  aquart  of  water.  The  mothcr,a  few 
moments  before  the  accident,  lifted  one  of  the  kettles  from  its  place  on 
the  stove,  and  observed  that  the  fire  was  burning  well,  and  that  a  space 
of  about  two  inches  in  diameter,  on  the  top  of  the  stove,  was  red  hot. 
As  the  mother  left  the  room,  the  girl  tipped  the  tea-kettle,  to  pour  some 
boiling  water  into  a  vessel  on  the  stove  hearth,  by  inclining,  not  removing 
the  kettle.  An  instant  after  the  explosion  occurred.  The  fragments  of 
the  can  were  found  on  the  floor,  the  bottom  entirely  disconnected  from 
the  sides,  the  nose  and  neck  separated  from  the  conical  top,  and  the 
seam  uniting  the  top  with  the  sides  unsoldered  through  two-thirds  of 
its  circumference,  leaving  undisturbed  the  part  nearest  the  inner  water 
pail.  The  neck,  with  the  plug  still  in  it,  was  found  beyond  the  stove. 
The  other  parts,  with  the  exception  of  the  nose,  were  found.  The 
nose  was  overlooked  at  the  time  of  the  accident,  and  afterwards  found 


154 


Patent  Law  Amendment  Bill. 


[July, 


in  rubbish  out  of  doors.  The  dress  of  the  unfortunate  victim  of  the 
accident,  the  clothing  recently  washed  and  suspended  about  the  apart- 
ment to  dry,  more  or  less  of  the  pine  wood  interior  to  the  ridge  pole, 
the  floor  about  the  fragments  of  the  can,  and  the  doors  and  boards 
in  front,  and  at  the  end,  enclosing  the  closet  under  the  sink,  all  took 
fire.  About  half  of  the  outside  and  corresponding  inside  of  the  water 
pail  nearest  the  can,  and  which  was  empty,  were  burned.  The  outer 
pail,  which  was  filled  with  water,  is  said  to  have  been  scorched  a  little 
on  one  side.  Only  the  shelf  on  which  the  can  stood,  and  the  boards  in 
the  corner  on  two  sides  of  it,  were  not  burned. 

To  account  for  this  explosion,  it  is  only  necessary  to  suppose  that  the 
volatilised  spirit,  having  impregnated  the  atmosphere  of  the  room,  was 
attracted  by  the  draft  on  raising  the  kettle.  The  stove  appears  to  have 
been  one  of  those  on  the  top  of  which  are  holes  for  the  insertion  of  the 
various  utensils,  and  the  fire  having  been  burning  vigorously,  the  lifting 
ef  the  kettle  would  have  the  effect  of  increasing  the  current  of  air 
through  the  opening.  In  accordance  with  this  idea,  Dr.  J.  R.  Nichols, 
of  Haverhill,  Mass.,  and  Dr.  C.  T.  Jackson  have  suggested  that  a  train 
of  vapour  might  have  led  to  the  stove  from  the  can,  have  fired,  and 
conducted  flame  to  the  can. 

This  suggestion  is  based  upon  facts  like  the  following.  Mr.  Collins, 
of  Haverhill,  an  acquaintance  of  Dr.  Nichols,  witnessed  the  flame  from 
a  lamp  flit  through  a  space  of  at  least  four  feet  to  a  burning  fluid  can. 
A  similar  phenomenon  has  been  frequently  observed  in  the  use  of  ether. 
Alighted  lamp  creating  a  draught  toward  itself,  has  taken  the  exhaling 
ether  from  an  open  vessel  along  the  top  of  the  table  to  the  flame  and 
fired  it,  and  the  train  has  conducted  the  flash  to  the  bottle.  An  officer 
of  our  navy  has  informed  me  that  he  once  witnessed  the  leap  of  flame 
from  a  burning  lamp  through  at  least  eight  feet  of  space,  from  a  lantern 
to  an  unstopped  bottle  of  ether. 

The  can  would  be  removed  by  the  explosion  and  jump  like  a  steam 
boiler  from  its  seat.  The  spilling  of  the  liquid  in  its  course  would 
account  for  the  burning  of  the  pails. 

Professor  Horsford  has  ascertained  from  direct  experiment  that  spon- 
taneous combustion  from  an  admixture  of  the  fluid  with  cotton,  is 
highly  improbable,  if  not  impossible,  and  sums  up  an  interesting  paper 
by  stating  as  proved :— 1st.  That  the  explosion  was  caused  by  bringing 
a  mixture  of  burning  fluid  vapour  and  atmospheric  air,  in  contact  with 
an  incandescent  body. 

2nd.  That  the  evidence  does  not  require  us  to  believe  in  the  spon- 
taneous explosion  of  burning  fluids. 

We  may  remark,  that  a  primary  step  to  prevent  explosions  should  be 
the  compulsory  use  of  metallic  stoppers  to  the  cans  containing  the 
fluid.  These  are  usually  screwed  nipples  in  this  country,  but  we  have 
seen  these  lost,  and  a  cork  put  in.  We  would  suggest  an  arrangement 
on  the  principle  of  the  powder  flask,  which  cannot  be  left  open,  and 
which  has  no  loose  parts  to  be  lost. 


PATENT   LAW  AMENDMENT  BILL. 

The  following  are  the  more  important  clauses  of  the  Patent  Law 
Amendment  Bill,  which  we  trust  will  receive  the  royal  assent  before 
this  sheet  reaches  the  hands  of  our  readers  : — 

I.  The  Lord  Chancellor,  the  Master  of  the  Rolls,  Her  Majesty's 
Attorney  General  for  England,  Her  Majesty's  Solicitor  General  for 
England,  the  Lord  Advocate,  Her  Majesty's  Solicitor  General  for  Scot- 
land, Her  Majesty's  Attorney  General  for  Ireland,  and  Her  Majesty's 
Solicitor  General  for  Ireland,  for  the  time  being  respectively,  together 
with  such  other  person  or  persons  as  may  be  from  time  to  time  ap- 
pointed by  Her  Majesty,  as  hereinafter  mentioned,  shall  be  commis- 
sioners of  patents  for  inventions ;  and  it  shall  be  lawful  for  Her  Majesty, 
from  time  to  time,  by  warrant  under  her  royal  sign  manual,  to  appoint 


such  other  person  or  persons  as  she  may  think  fit  to  be  a  commissioner 
or  commissioners  as  aforesaid ;  and  every  person  so  appointed  shall 
continue  such  commissioner  during  Her  Majesty's  pleasure;  and  all  the 
powers  hereby  vested  in  the  commissioners  may  be  exercised  by  any 
three  or  more  of  them,  the  Lord  Chancellor  or  Master  of  the  Rolls 
being  one. 

VI.  Every  petition  for  the  grant  of  letters  patent  for  an  invention, 
and  the  declaration  required  to  accompany  such  petition,  shall  be  left 
at  the  office  of  the  commissioners,  and  there  shall  be  left  therewith  a 
statement  in  writing,  hereinafter  called  the  provisional  specification, 
signed  by  or  on  behalf  of  the  applicant  for  letters  patent,  describing  the 
nature  of  the  said  invention  ;  and  the  day  of  the  delivery  of  every  such 
petition,  declaration,  and  provisional  specification  shall  be  recorded  at 
the  said  office,  and  endorsed  on  such  petition,  declaration,  and  pro- 
visional specification,  and  a  certificate  thereof  given  to  such  applicant 
or  his  agent ;  and  all  such  petitions,  declarations,  and  provisional  spe- 
cifications shall  be  preserved  in  such  manner  as  the  commissioners  may 
direct,  and  a  registry  thereof  and  of  all  proceedings  thereon  kept  at  the 
office  of  the  commissioners. 

VII.  Every  application  for  letters  patent  made  under  this  act  shall 
be  referred  by  the  commissioners,  according  to  such  regulations  as  they 
may  think  fit  to  make,  to  one  of  the  law  officers. 

VIII.  The  provisional  specification  shall  be  referred  to  the  law  officer, 
who  shall  be  at  liberty  to  call  to  his  aid  such  scientific  or  other  person 
as  he  may  think  fit,  and  to  cause  to  be  paid  to  such  person  by  the  ap- 
plicant such  remuneration  as  the  law  officer  shall  appoint ;  and  if  such 
law  officer  be  satisfied  that  the  provisional  specification  describes  the 
nature  of  the  invention,  he  shall  allow  the  same,  and  give  a  certificate 
of  his  allowance,  and  such  certificate  shall  be  filed  in  the  office  of  the 
commissioners,  and  thereupon  the  invention  therein  referred  to  may, 
during  the  term  of  six  months  from  the  date  of  the  application  for 
letters  patent  for  the  said  invention,  be  used  and  published  without 
prejudice  to  any  letters  patent  to  be  granted  for  the  same,  and  such 
protection  from  the  consequences  of  use  and  publication  is  hereinafter 
referred  to  as  provisional  protection  :  provided  always,  that  in  case  the 
title  of  the  invention  or  the  provisional  specification  be  too  large  or  in- 
sufficient, it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  law  officer  to  whom  the  same  is 
referred  to  allow  or  require  the  same  to  be  amended. 

IX.  The  applicant  for  letters  patent  for  an  invention,  instead  of 
leaving  with  the  petition  and  declaration  a  provisional  specification  as 
aforesaid,  may,  if  he  think  fit,  file  with  the  said  petition  and  declara- 
tion an  instrument  in  writing  under  his  hand  and  seal  (hereinafter  called 
a  complete  specification),  particularly  describing  and  ascertaining  the 
nature  of  the  said  invention,  and  in  what  manner  the  same  is  to  be 
performed,  which  complete  specification  shall  be  mentioned  in  such 
declaration,  and  the  day  of  the  delivery  of  every  such  petition,  declaration, 
and  complete  specification  shall  be  recorded  at  the  office  of  the  com- 
missioners, and  endorsed  on  such  petition,  declaration,  and  specification, 
and  a  certificate  thereof  given  to  such  applicant  or  his  agent,  and  there- 
upon, subject  and  without  prejudice  to  the  provisions  hereinafter  con- 
tained, the  invention  shall  be  protected  under  this  act  for  the  term  of 
six  months  from  the  date  of  the  application,  and  the  applicant  shall 
have,  during  such  terms  of  six  months,  the  like  powers,  rights,  and 
privileges  as  might  have  been  conferred  upon  him  by  letters  patent  for 
such  invention,  issued  under  this  act,  and  duly  sealed  as  of  the  day  of 
the  date  of  such  application ;  and  during  the  continuance  of  such  pow- 
ers, rights,  and  privileges  under  this  provision,  such  invention  may  be 
used  and  published  without  prejudice  to  any  letters  patent  to  be  granted 
for  the  same  ;  and  where  letters  patent  are  granted  in  respect  of  such 
invention,  then  in  lieu  of  a  condition  for  making  void  such  letters 
patent,  in  case  such  invention  be  not  described  and  ascertained  by  a 
subsequent   specification,   such  letters  patent  shall  be  conditioned  to 


1852.] 


Patent  Law  Amendment  Bill. 


155 


become  void,  if  such  complete  specification,  filed  as  aforesaid,  does  not 
particularly  describe  and  ascertain  the  nature  of  the  said  invention, 
and  in  what  manner  the  same  is  to  be  performed ;  and  a  copy  of  every 
such  complete  specification  shall  be  open  to  the  inspection  of  the  public, 
as  hereinafter  provided,  from  the  time  of  depositing  the  same,  subject 
to  such  regulation  as  the  commissioners  may  make. 

X.  In  case  of  any  application  for  letters  patent  for  any  invention, 
and  the  obtaining  upon  such  application  of  provisional  protection  for 
such  invention,  or  of  protection  for  the  same,  by  reason  of  the  deposit 
of  a  complete  specification  as  aforesaid  in  fraud  of  the  true  and  first 
inventor,  any  letters  patent  granted  to  the  true  and  first  inventor  of 
such  invention  shall  not  be  invalidated  by  reason  of  such  application, 
or  of  such  provisional  or  other  protection  as  aforesaid,  or  of  any  use  or 
publication  of  the  invention  subsequent  to  such  application,  and  before 
the  expiration  of  the  term  of  such  provisional  or  other  protection. 

XI.  Where  any  invention  is  provisionally  protected  under  this  act, 
or  protected  by  reason  of  the  deposit  of  such  complete  specification,  as 
aforesaid,  the  commissioners  shall  cause  such  provisional  protection  or 
such  other  protection  as  aforesaid  to  be  advertised  in  such  manner  as 
they  may  see  fit. 

XII.  The  applicant  for  letters  patent,  so  soon  as  he  may  think  fit 
after  the  invention  shall  have  been  provisionally  protected  under  this 
act,  or  where  a  complete  specification  has  been  deposited  with  his  peti- 
tion and  declaration,  then  so  soon  as  he  may  think  fit  after  such  deposit, 
may  give  notice  at  the  office  of  the  commissioners  of  his  intention  of 
proceeding  with  his  application  for  letters  patent  for  the  said  invention, 
and  thereupon  the  said  commissioners  shall  cause  his  said  application 
to  be  advertised  in  such  manner  as  they  may  see  fit;  and  any  persons 
having  an  interest  in  opposing  the  grant  of  letters  patent  for  the  said 
invention  shall  be  at  liberty  to  leave  particulars  in  writing  of  their 
objections  to  the  said  application  at  such  place,  and  within  such  time 
and  subject  to  such  regulations  as  the  commissioners  may  direct. 

XIII.  So  soon  as  the  time  for  the  delivery  of  such  objections  shall  have 
expired,  the  provisional  specification  or  complete  specification  (as  the 
case  may  be)  and  particulars  of  objection  (if  any)  shall  be  referred  to 
the  law  officer  to  whom  the  application  has  been  referred. 

XIV.  It  shall  be  lawful  for  the  law  officer  to  whom  any  application 
for  such  letters  patent  is  referred,  if  he  see  fit,  by  certificate  under  his 
hand,  to  order  by  or  to  whom  the  costs  of  any  hearing  or  inquiry  upon 
any  objection,  or  otherwise  in  relation  to  the  grant  of  such  letters 
patent,  or  in  relation  to  the  provisional  [or  other]  protection  acquired 
by  the  applicant  under  this  act,  shall  be  paid,  and  in  what  manner  and 
by  whom  such  costs  are  to  be  ascertained  ;  and  if  any  costs  so  ordered 
to  be  paid  be  not  paid  within  four  days  after  the  amount  thereof  shall 
be  so  ascertained,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  such  law  officer  to  make  an  order 
for  the  payment  of  the  same,  and  every  such  order  may  be  made  a  rule 
of  one  of  Her  Majesty's  superior  courts  at  Westminster. 

XV.  It  shall  be  lawful  for  such  law  officer,  after  such  hearing,  if  any, 
as  he  may  think  fit,  to  cause  a  warrant  to  be  made  for  the  sealing  of 
letters  patent  for  the  said  invention,  and  such  warrant  shall  be  sealed 
with  the  seal  of  the  commissioners,  and  shall  set  forth  the  tenor  and 
effect  of  the  letters  patent  thereby  authorised  to  be  granted,  and  such 
law  officer  shall  direct  the  insertion  in  such  letters  patent  of  all  such 
restrictions,  conditions,  and  provisoes  as  he  may  deem  usual  and  expe- 
dient in  such  grants,  or  necessary  in  pursuance  of  the  provisions  of  this 
act ;  and  the  said  warrant  shall  be  the  warrant  for  the  making  and  seal- 
ing of  letters  patent  under  this  act,  according  to  the  tenor  of  the  said 
warrant :  provided  always,  that  the  Lord  Chancellor  shall  and  may  have 
and  exercise  such  powers,  authority  and  discretion,  in  respect  to  the  said 
warrant,  and  letters  patent  therein  directed  to  be  made  under  this  act, 
as  he  now  has  and  might  now  exercise  with  respect  to  the  warrant  for 
the  issue  under  the  great  seal  of  letters  patent  for  any  invention,  and 


with  respect  to  the  making  and  issuing  of  such  letters  patent;  and  the 
writ  of  scire  facias  shall  lie  for  the  repeal  of  any  letters  patent  issued 
under  this  act,  in  the  like  cases  as  the  same  would  lie  for  the  repeal  of 
letters  patent  which  may  now  be  issued  under  the  great  seal. 

XXIX.  The  commissioners  shall  cause  true  copies  of  all  specifications 
(other  than  provisional  specifications),  disclaimers,  and  memoranda  of 
alterations  filed  under  or  in  pursuance  of  this  act,  and  of  all  provisional 
specifications  after  the  term  of  the  provisional  protection  of  the  inven- 
tion has  expired,  to  be  open  to  the  inspection  of  the  public  at  the  office 
of  the  commissioners,  and  at  an  office  in  Edinburgh  and  Dublin  respec- 
tively, at  all  reasonable  times,  subject  to  such  regulations  as  the  com- 
misioners  may  direct. 

XXX.  The  commissioners  shall  cause  to  be  printed,  published,  and 
sold  at  such  prices  and  in  such  manner  as  they  may  think  fit,  all  speci- 
fications, disclaimers,  and  memoranda  of  alterations  deposited  or  filed 
under  this  act,  and  such  specifications  (not  being  provisional  specifica- 
tions), disclaimers,  and  memoranda  respectively,  shall  be  so  printed  and 
published  as  soon  as  conveniently  may  be  after  the  filing  thereof 
respectively,  and  all  such  provisional  specifications  shall  be  so  printed 
and  published  as  soon  as  conveniently  may  be  after  the  expiration  of 
the  provisional  protection  obtained  in  respect  thereof ;  and  it  shall  be 
lawful  for  the  commissioners  to  present  copies  of  all  such  publications 
to  such  public  libraries  and  museums  as  they  may  think  fit,  and  to  allow 
the  person  depositing  or  filing  any  such  specification,  disclaimer,  or 
memorandum  of  alteration  to  have  such  number,  not  exceeding  twenty- 
five,  of  the  copies  thereof  so  printed  and  published,  without  any 
payment  for  the  same,  as  they  may  think  fit. 

XXXI.  It  shall  be  lawful  for  the  Lord  Chancellor  and  the  Master  of 
the  Rolls  to  direct  the  enrolment  of  specifications,  disclaimers,  and 
memoranda  of  alterations  heretofore  or  hereafter  enrolled  or  deposited 
at  the  Rolls  Chapel-office,  or  at  the  Petty  Bag-office,  or  at  the  Enrol- 
ment-office of  the  Court  of  Chancery,  or  in  the  custody  of  the  Master 
of  the  Rolls,  as  keeper  of  the  public  records,  to  be  transferred  to  and 
kept  in  the  office  appointed  for  filing  specifications  in  Chancery  under 
this  act. 

XXXII.  The  commissioners  shall  cause  indexes  to  all  specifications, 
disclaimers,  and  memoranda  of  alterations  heretofore  or  to  be  hereafter 
enrolled  or  deposited  as  last  aforesaid  to  be  prepared  in  such  form  as 
they  may  think  fit,  and  such  indexes  shall  be  open  to  the  inspection  of 
the  public  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  commissioners  shall  appoint, 
and  subject  to  the  regulations  to  be  made  by  the  commissioners ;  and 
the  commissioners  may  cause  all  or  any  of  such  indexes,  specifications, 
disclaimers,  and  memoranda  of  alterations,  to  be  printed,  published,  and 
sold  in  such  manner  and  at  such  prices  as  the  commissioners  may  think  fit. 

XXIII.  Copies,  printed  by  the  printers  to  the  Queen's  Majesty,  of 
specifications,  disclaimers,  and  memoranda  of  alterations  shall  be  ad- 
missible as  evidence,  and  deemed  and  taken  to  he  prima  facie  evidence 
of  the  existence  and  contents  of  the  documents  to  which  they  purport 
to  relate  in  all  courts  and  in  all  proceedings  relating  to  letters  patent. 

XXXIV.  There  shall  be  kept  at  the  office  appointed  for  filing  speci- 
fications in  Chancery  under  this  act  a  book  or  books,  to  be  called  "The 
Register  of  Patents,"  wherein  shall  be  entered  and  recorded,  in  chrono- 
logical order,  all  letters  patent  granted  under  this  act,  the  deposit  or 
filing  of  specifications,  disclaimers,  and  memoranda  of  alterations  filed 
in  respect  of  such  letters  patent,  all  amendments  in  such  letters  patent 
and  specifications,  all  confirmations  and  extensions  of  such  letters 
patent,  the  expiry,  vacating,  or  cancelling  such  letters  patent,  with  the 
dates  thereof  respectively,  and  all  other  matters  and  things  affecting 
the  validity  of  such  letters  patent  as  the  commissioners  may  direct,  and 
such  register,  or  a  copy  thereof,  shall  be  open  at  all  convenient  times 
to  the  inspection  of  the  public,  subject  to  such  regulations  as  the  com- 
missioners may  make. 


156 


Dimensions  of  Steam  Ships  Built  for  the  Turkish  Government. 


[July, 


XXXV.  There  shall  be  kept  at  the  office  appointed  for  filing  specifi- 
cations in  Chancery  under  this  act  a  book  or  books,  entitled  "  The 
Register  of  Proprietors,"  wherein  shall  be  entered,  in  such  manner  as 
the  commissioners  shall  direct,  the  assignment  of  any  letters  patent, 
or  of  any  share  or  interest  therein,  any  licence  under  letters  patent,  and 
the  district  to  which  such  licence  relates,  with  the  name  or  names  of 
any  person  having  any  share  or  interest  in  such  letters  patent  or  licence, 
the  date  of  his  or  their  acquiring  such  letters  patent,  share,  and  interest, 
and  any  other  matter  or  thing  relating  to  or  affecting  the  proprietorship 
in  such  letters  patent  or  licence ;  and  a  copy  of  any  entry  in  such  book, 
certified  under  such  seal  as  may  have  been  appointed,  or  as  may  be 
directed  by  the  Lord  Chancellor  to  be  used  in  the  said  office,  shall  be 
given  to  any  person  requiring  the  same,  on  payment  of  the  fees  herein- 
after provided;  and  such  copies  so  certified  shall  be  received  in  evi- 
dence in  all  courts  and  in  all  proceedings,  and  shall  be  prima  facie 
proof  of  the  assignment  of  such  letters  patent,  or  share  or  interest 
therein,  or  of  the  licence  or  proprietorship,  as  therein  expressed  :  pro- 
vided always,  that  until  such  entry  shall  have  been  made,  the  grantee 
or  grantees  of  the  letters  patent  shall  be  deemed  and  taken  to  be  the 
sole  and  exclusive  proprietor  or  proprietors  of  such  letters  patent,  and 
of  all  the  licences  and  privileges  thereby  given  and  granted  ;  that  cer- 
tified duplicates  of  all  entries  made  in  said  register  of  proprietors  shall 
forthwith  be  transmitted  to  the  office  of  the  commissioners  in  Edin- 
burgh and  Dublin,  where  the  same  shall  also  be  open  to  the  inspection 
of  the  public ;  and  any  writ  of  scire  facias  to  repeal  such  letters  patent 
may  be  issued  to  the  sheriff  of  the  county  or  counties  in  which  the 
grantee  or  grantees  resided  at  the  time  when  the  said  letters  patent 
were  granted ;  and  in  case  such  grantee  or  grantees  do  not  reside  in 
England  or  Wales,  it  shall  be  sufficient  to  file  such  writ  in  the  Petty 
Bag-office,  and  serve  notice  thereof  in  writing  at  the  last  known  resi- 


dence or  place  of  business  of  suck  grantee  or  grantees ;  and  such  regis- 
ter or  a  copy  shall  be  open  to  the  inspection  of  the  public  at  the  office 
of  the  commissioners,  subject  to  such  regulations  as  the  commissioners 
may  make. 


Schedule  of  Fees  and  Stamp  Duties. 

On  leaving  petition  for  grant  of  letters  patent     £5     0    0 

On  notice  of  intention  to  proceed  with  the  application       , .      5     0     0 
On  warrant  of  law  officer  for  letters  patent  (stamp)     . .      ..      5     0     0 

On  sealing  of  letters  patent 500 

On  filing  specification 500 

Cost  of  three  years'  patent       ,=£25    0    0 

At  or  before  the  expiration  of  the  3rd  year 40     0     0 

On  certificate  of  payment  of  the  fee,  fyc.  (stamp)        . .      . .    10     0    0 

Cost  of  seven  years' patent        £75    0    0 

At  or  before  the  expiration  of  the  7th  year 80     0     0 

On  certificate  of  payment  of  the  fee,  tyc.  (stamp) 20     0     0 

COST  OF  14  YEARS' PATENT  FOR  THE  THREE  KINGDOMS  ^175      0      0 

On  leaving  notice  of  objections      £2     0     0 

Every  search  and  inspection 010 

Entry  of  assignment  or  licence       050 

Certificate  of  assignment  or  licence        050 

Filing  application  for  disclaimer 500 

Caveat  against  disclaimer       2     00 


DIMENSIONS    OF    STEAM    SHIPS    BUILT 

BY  MESSRS.  T.,  J.,  AND  R 


FOR    THE    TURKISH    GOVERNMENT, 

WHITE,  OF  C0WES. 


" 

NAME  OF  SHIP. 

Tonnage. 

o  c 

Light  Draft. 

Load  Draft. 

Weight 

of 

Ship. 

6 
to 

O 
o 

o 

Displacement. 

Maker 

of 
Engines. 

Kind  of 
Engines 

and 
Boilers. 

ii  -■ 

o     . 

h  i 
a  a 

So 

Cm 

O 

c  i 

<** 
o 

Til; 

S  c 

z 
A 

2 
2 

2 
1 

7. 

- 

g 

-' 
Y, 

S 
6 

12 

2 
2 

o 

i  1 

= 

X 

'- 
~ 

c 
7 

_ 
_ 

O.M 

N.M 

Forwd. 

Aft. 

Forwd. 

Aft. 

Light  line. 

Load  line. 

VASSITEI  TIDJARET. 

Length,  195  feet. 
Beam  31  feet  8  inches. 

936 

784 

300 

ft.     in. 
8        5 
rigged  c 

ft.     in. 
9        9 
omplete 

Engin 
9ft.  7in. 
with  50  to 
10      1 

loa 
12   lij 

es  in 

12ft.  3in. 
ns  coals 

12      6 
ded 

12    11J 

470 

100 

470 

8tns.7cwt 

per  inch 

1,350 

11    tons  3 

cwt.  per 

inch. 

Maudslay 

Sons  and 

Field. 

Double 

cylinder  and 

tubular. 

Two 
150s 

Two 
in. 
46J 

ft.  in. 
5      0 

ft.  in.  ft.  in. 
24    010    0 

NUBAISH  TIDJARET. 

Length,  139f.  lOin.  Keel,13Gf.6in. 
Beam,  25f.  ljin.    Depth,  13f.  9in. 

407& 

304 

200 

5        7 
with  en 
7        0 

6      10 
gine  in 
8      11 

with  72  to 

8  3 
with  120 1 

9  8 

ns  coals 

9      9 

ons  coals 

10    11 

185 

and 

engines 

342 

72 

185 

410  tons 
to  8  feet 
average. 

ditto. 

Double 

cylinder  and 

flue. 

Two 
100s 

Two 
39J 

4      0 

16    6 

10    0 

SHAHPERE. 

Length  aloft,  182  feet. 
Breadth,  27  feet  3  inches. 
Depth,  17  feet  3  inches. 

750 

667 

240 

6        9 

steam  up 
8        4 

7        5 
&5t.eoal 
9        0 

77  ts.  coal 

8  8 
10  ts.  mor 

9  1 
400  tons 

goods&70 
11       9 

s  &  water 
10      8 

e  water 
10    11 

measure 

tns.  coals 
12      0 

375 

70 

375 

1,116  to  12 
feet,  10  tns. 
6  cwt.  per 
inch  at 
load  line. 

ditto. 

Oscillating 
and  flue. 

Two 
120s 

59J 

4      6 

20    0 

7    10 

No.  1— GREYHOUND. 

Length,  120  feet. 
Breadth,  18  feet. 
Depth,  9  feet  7  inches. 
(A.  sister  vesssel,  same  size.) 

188 

60 

launchi 
2        7 
with  m 

2  9 
50  tons  h 

tit 

3  11 

ng  draft 
4        4 
asts  in 

4  5i 
allast  & 
ted 

5  7 

66  tons 
and 
6      0 

coals 
engine 
7      0 

132 
engines  in 
at  4ft.  5in. 

194 

at  6  feet  & 

66  tons 

coal. 

ditto. 

ditto. 

Two 
30s 

32 

2    10 

13    0 

6      0 

No.  7— Two  Tugs. 
Length,  88  feet. 
Breadth,  18  feet  C  inches. 
Depth,  8  feet  2  inches. 

140 

80 

masted 

2  11 
35  tons 

3  7 

&  rigged 

3  9 
ballast 

4  9 

50  tons 
5    10 

coals 
6    10 

50 

115 
at  6  feet. 

ditto. 

ditto. 

Two 
40s 

36 

3      0 

12    0 

7      0 

1 
1 

No.  3 — Four  vessels  with 

deck-houses. 
Length  120  feet. 
Breadth,  18  feet. 
Depth,  8  feet  2  inches. 

188 

60 

without 

2  8 
CO  tons 

3  9 

masts 

3  11J 
ballast 

4  11 

engines 
tons  pat 
4    10J 

find  25 
ent  fuel 
5    10A 

132 

194 

ditto. 

ditto. 

Two 
30s 

32 

2    10 

13    0 

6      0 

1852.] 


Reviews. 


157 


THE  PACIFIC  ROYAL  MAIL  STEAM  NAVIGATION  COM- 
PANY'S NEW  IRON  STEAM  VESSELS,  "  LIMA  "  AND 
"  QUITO." 

Built  and  fitted  by  Mr.  Robert  Napier,  Glasgow,  1851. 


"Quito." 

ft.  tenths. 

248     7 

29     0 

17     0 


Dimensions. 

"  Lima." 

ft.    tent 

Length  on  deck 

249     5 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships  . 

29     2 

Depth  of  hold,  do. 

17      1 

Length  of  poop 

68     6 

Breadth  of  do. 

29     2 

Depth  of  do 

7     7 

Length  of  engine-space    . . 

85     4 

Tonnage. 

Tons. 

QKC  78 

lfifi-92 

lDD100 

Total 

1,122$, 

Contents  of  engine-space  . 

461tf0 

Register 

661Too 

68 

29 

8 

85 


8 

7 
0 

6 
Tons. 

176T90'0 


M21tfu 


A  pair  of  side-lever  engines  of  412  horse  (no- 
minal) power  :  diameter  of  cylinders,  73  inches  x 
6  feet  stroke  ;  diameter  of  air-pumps,  41  inches  x 
3  feet  3  inches  stroke  ;  diameter  of  paddle-wheels, 
extreme,  27  feet,  and  26  feet  4  inches  effective  ;  20 
floats,  8  feet  9  inches  x  2  feet  4  inches.  (All  the 
particulars  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Santiago,  in 
the  June  number.)  The  Lima  was  launched  from 
the  building-yard,  Govan,  September  the  12th. 
Draft  of  water  at  launching,  forward,  5  feet  2 
inches,  and  6  feet  10  inches  aft.  On  the  trial  from 
Greenock  to  the  Bell-buoy,  Liverpool,  in  Novem- 
ber last,  a  distance  of  202i  miles,  made  the  run 
in  13  hours  and  15  minutes,  having  500  tons  of  pig 
iron  on  board. 

The  Quito  was  launched  from  the  building-yard, 
Govan,  on  the  12th  of  November  ;  the  draft  of  wa- 
ter forward,  5  feet  1  inch,  and  6  feet  1 1  inches  aft. 
Sailed  from  Liverpool  February  the  7  th,  for  Ma- 
deira, Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  Valparaiso,  having  70 
passengers  on  board  ;  both  vessels  have  made 
quick  passages  to  their  destinations. 

DESCRIPTION. 

A  full  female  figure-head  {Lima)  ;  a  full  male 
figure-head  {Quito);  mock  quarter-galleries;  clip- 
per bow  ;  standing  bowsprit  ;  two  masts  ;  brig- 
rigged  ;  square-sterned  and  clinch-built  vessels  ; 
two  decks  and  a  poop,  with  a  top-gallant  forecastle. 
Port  of  Liverpool. 

Lima,  commander — Mr.  John  Williams. 

Quito,        do.  Mr.  W.  B.  Wells. 

THE  LIVERPOOL   AND  DUBLIN   SCREW  STEAM   SHIP- 
PING company's  NEW  IRON  VESSEL,  "  TIMES." 

Built  and  fitted  by  Messrs.  Smith  and  Rodger,  engineers  and 
iron  ship-builders,  Glasgow,  1851. 


Dimensions. 
Length  on  deck 
Breadth  on  do.,  amidships 


ft.   tenths. 
158     5 
20     1 


Dimensions. 
Depth  of  hold,  do. 
Length  of  engine-space 
Breadth  of  do. 
Depth  of  do. 

Tonnage. 

Hull 

Contents  of  engine-space 

Register 


ft.   tenths 

13 

6 

51 

0 

18 

2 

13 

6 

Tons. 
301f0'0 
119t»,5„ 


182T 


A  pair  of  steeple-engines  (on  Mr.  David  Napier's 
4-pistou-rod  patent  principle),  of  50  horses  nominal 
power :  diameter  of  cylinders,  30  inches  x  2  feet 
6  inches  stroke,  having  a  double-acting  air-pump  ; 
screw  with  two  blades,  9  feet  diameter  and  1 1  feet 
pitch;  diameter  of  driving-wheel,  7  feet  9  inches, 
and  70  teeth  ;  diameter  of  pinion,  3  feet  9  inches, 
and  34  teeth ;  pitch,  4  inches ;  breadth  of  teeth, 
13  inches.  One  tubular  boiler  :  length,  10  feet  6 
inches  ;  breadth,  9  feet  1  inch  ;  depth,  11  feet  6 
inches.  Steam-chest:  length  above,  6  feet  6  inches; 
ditto  below,  7  feet  6  inches ;  breadth,  5  feet ; 
depth,  3  feet.  Two  cylindrical  furnaces,  3  feet  8 
inches  x  7  feet  ;  having  190  tubes,  diameter,  2| 
inches  ;  capacity  of  coal-bunkers,  22  tons.  Has  a 
round-house  amidships  :  length,  34  feet;  breadth, 
12  feet  8  inches  ;  height,  6  feet  8  inches  ;  and  ac- 
commodates 28  first-class  passengers.  Also  a 
round-house  aft:  length,  18  feet;  breadth,  10  feet; 
height,  6  feet  8  inches  ;  and  accommodates  8  pas- 
sengers. Total,  36  passengers.  Launched  at  20 
minutes  after  3  p.m.,  August  the  15th.  Launch- 
ing-draft  of  water  (mean),  5  feet  2  inches  ;  dis- 
placement, 145  tons  ;  average  steam-pressure,  15 
lbs.  per  square  inch.  Engines  making  50  revolu- 
tions per  minute  ;  the  average  passages  between 
Liverpool  and  Dublin  (123  miles)  being  10^  hours. 

DESCRIPTION. 

A  shield  figure  head  ;  imitation  galleries;  square- 
sterned  and  clinch -built  vessel ;  clipper  bow  ;  one 
deck  (and  'tween  decks);  standing  bowsprit;  three 
masts;  schooner-rigged.  Port  of  Glasgow;  com- 
mander, Mr.  J.  Cony. 

SHIPBUILDING. 

WHITEHAVEN. 

Messrs.  L.  Kennedy  and  Co.,  ship-builders,  have 
at  present  on  the  stocks  a  new  ship  in  a  forward 
state,  to  class  13  years,  having  a  poop  and  a  top- 
gallant forecastle. 

Dimensions.  ft.     in. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake    . .  . .      147     6 

Breadth  of  beam  ..  ..  ..        31  11 

Depth  of  hold 21     1 

Tonnage 648s9j  tons. 

For  the  foreign  trade. 

Also  upon  the  stocks,  a  clipper-ship,  to  class  13 
years,  flush  on  deck. 


ft. 

in 

141 

6 

26 

0 

17 

0 

9J5  tons 

Dimensions. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake 

Breadth  of  beam 

Depth  of  hold 

Tonnage 

Also  for  foreign  trade. 


DUNDEE. 

Messrs.  J.  and  A.  Caiman,  ship-builders,  have  on 
the  stocks,  building,  a  ship  or  barque,  in  a  very  for- 
ward state,  adapted  either  for  a  screw  or  a  sailing 
vessel. 

ft.     in. 

. .       140     0 

..      129     0 

24     2 

15     0 

356ejij  tons. 

330       „ 


Dimensions. 
Length,  extreme. . 

„         of  keel  and  fore-rake 
Breadth  of  beam 
Depth  of  hold 
Tonnage,  O.M. 

Do.,  N.M 

Adapted  for  the  foreign  trade. 


PAISLEY. 

June  6th  there  was  launched  from  the  building- 
yard  of  Messrs.  Blackwood  and  Gordon,  engineers 
and  iron  ship-builders,  a  very  handsomely  modelled 
screw  steam-vessel,  named  the  Best  Bower,  in- 
tended for  the  Leith  and  Hamburg  trade,  and  will 
sail  as  a  consort  to  the  screw-steamer,  Holyrood;  to 
be  commanded  by  Captain  Robert  Cook.  It  was 
estimated  that  there  were  no  fewer  than  20,000  to 
30,000  persons  present  at  the  launch,  this  being  the 
first  built  at  the  port  of  Paislev  since  the  Petrel  was 
launched  there,  in  1845,  and  the  first  built  for 
screw-propulsion.  The  launch  was  effected  in  fine 
style. 

Dimensions.  ft. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake      ..         ..  190 

Breadth  of  beam  . .         . .         . .  . .  26 

Depth  of  hold 16 

Tonnage 6279PT  tons. 

With  a  pair  of  engines,  of  120  horses  power,  col- 
lectively; the  screw  is  10  feet  6  inches  in  diameter, 
and  12  feet  6  inches  pitch. 

June  the  6th  the  keel  of  a  paddle  wheel  river- 
steamer  was  laid  down  on  the  site  of  the  one 
launched,  for  the  Greenock  Steam-packet  Com- 
pany, to  be  running  in  August. 

Dimensions.  ft.  in. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake    ..         ..  165  0 

Breadth  of  beam             16  0 

Depth  of  hold 7  3 


Tonnage 


211$  tons. 


INCH-GREEN  (PORT-GLASGOw). 

Messrs.  Laurence,  Hill,  and  Co.,  iron  ship-build- 
ers, launched  from  their  building-yard,  011  the  7th 
of  June,  a  paddle  river-steamer,  named  the  Dunoon, 
to  ply  between  Greenock  and  Dunoon  and  Rothsay, 
&c,  with  passengers,  in  connection  with  the  Glas- 
gow, Paisley,  and  Greenock  branch  of  the  Caledo- 
nian Railway.  The  machinery  is  by  Messrs.  Scott, 
Sinclair,  and  Co.,  Greenock.  This  is  the  third  irou 
vessel  launched  by  this  firm. 


REVIEWS. 

Elements  of  Practical  Geometry,  for  Schools  and  Workmen.     By  the 

Author  of  Arithmetic  for  Young  Children.  London:  Groombridge. 
We  should  consider  it  a  greater  honour  to  be  the  author  of  a  single 
good  elementary  scientific  work,  than  of  all  the  brilliant  "  leaders"  that 
the  press  can  boast  of.  Without  saying  that  the  work  before  us  comes 
up  to  our  estimate  of  what  such  a  work  might  be,  we  can  express  our 
approval  of  its  general  tendency.  It  rather  seems  to  be  deficient  in  ex- 
amples of  the  application  of  the  problems  to  the  things  of  every-day 
life,  if  it  is  intended  to  be  put  into  the  hands  of  a  teacher ;  and  a  greater 
degree  of  interest  might  surely  be  imparted  to  the  notable  47th  of 
Euclid,  than  is  contained  in  the  following  rule  :— "  To  make  a  square 
equal  to  any  two  other  squares.     Make  a  right  angle  with  one  side  of 


each  of  the  two  smaller  squares,  join  the  distant  ends  of  the  sides :  and 
on  this  third  line  draw  a  square,  which  will  cover  an  area  equal  to  that 
of  both  the  smaller  squares."  We  suspect  the  author  can  do  better 
than  this,  if  he  tries.  ^_^_ 

The  Dictionary  of  Domestic  Medicine  and  Household  Surgery.  By 
Spencer  Thomson,  M.D.,  &c,  &c.  Part  I.  London  :  Groombridge. 
Health,  which  according  to  popular  proverbs,  ought  to  take  precedence 
both  of  wealth  and  wisdom,  is  usually  sacrificed  quite  as  often  from 
ignorance  as  from  any  other  cause.  More  enlightenment  on  sanitary 
matters  has  done  a  great  deal,  but  much  yet  remains  to  be  done,  which 
may  be  materially  accelerated  by  the  publication  of  sound  information 
in  a  popular  form.     Mr.  Thompson's  work  seems  well  adapted  for  the 

purpose. 

21 


153 


American  and  English  Steamers. 


[July, 


INDICATOR-DIAGRAM  FROM  THE  "EMPIRE  STATE." 

We  have  received  from  our  New  York  correspondent  a  number  of 
diagrams,  of  which  the  accompanying  one  is  a  specimen.     It  is  from  the 

Empire  State, 
runninginLong 
Island  Sound, 
before  the 

fi,  valves  were 
considered  to 
be  finally  ad- 
justed. A  sin- 
gle beam - en- 
gine, 75 -inch 
cylinder  by  12 
feet  stroke, 
making  18  re- 
volutions, or  432  feet  per  minute.  Steam  in  boiler,  25  lbs. ;  cut-off 
at  one-third ;  average  pressure,  24*75.  The  nominal  horse-power, 
according  to  the  English  rule,  would  be  270.  The  indicated  power 
is  1,430.  This  is  about  the  best  example  of  a  marine-engine  diagram 
that  we  have  seen.  The  cylinder-valves,  of  course,  are  double-beat 
valves. 

We  have  also  a  somewhat  similar  diagram  from  the  Union,  with  a 
pair  of  side  lever-engines,  60  inches  diameter  and  7  feet  stroke, 
making  16  revolutions.     Steam,  22^  lbs. ;  cut-off  at  fjth  of  the  stroke. 


AMERICAN  AND  ENGLISH  STEAMERS. 

(From  the  New  York  Sun.) 

On  the  3rd  of  September  last  there  appeared  in  the  columns  of  the 
Sun  a  letter,  written  by  its  present  proprietor,  on  the  occasion  of  his 
return  by  the  steamer  Atlantic,  from  a  short  European  tour,  in  the 
course  of  which  the  following  remarks,  respecting  American  and  Eng- 
lish ocean  steamships  and  machinery  were  made : — 

"  During  my  absence,  I  have  seen  frequent  notices  in  English  papers,  of 
great  improvements  made  in  the  Atlantic's  engines,  at  the  time  of  her  repair 
in  Liverpool,  from  which  it  was  either  inferred,  or  stated,  that  a  great  in- 
crease in  her  speed  might  thereafter  be  expected.  Of  course  I  felt  interested 
in  learning  what  these  English  improvements  could  be  ;  and  placing  myself 
under  the  care  of  Mr.  Rogers,  the  chief  engineer  (who  I  must  thank  for  his 
kind  attention),  I  have  inspected  minutely  the  engine-room.  Not  one  solitary 
alteration  lias  been  made.  The  new  pillar  blocks  and  shafts  were  made  of 
increased  size  and  strength — nothing  more. 

"  From  Mr.  Rogers,  who,  I  am  told,  is  one  of  the  very  best  engineers  that 
America  can  boast  of  (I  can  certify  to  his  being  a  working  one),  I  gathered 
some  facts,  which,  with  a  premise  of  my  own,  will  be  generally  interesting. 

"  Since  the  first  application  of  steam  to  the  propulsion  of  vessels,  the  Eng- 
lish have  been  constantly  engaged  in  perfecting  engines  for  marine  use, 
while  it  is  hardly  ten  years  since  American  attention  was  first  directed 
especially  to  ocean  navigation.  The  general  result  in  speed  is  known  ;  but 
there  are  few  who  understand  that,  in  the  short  experience  we  have  thus 
'  far  had,  three  very  important  improvements  have  been  made  by  us  in  the 
bracing  and  arrangement  of  engines. 

"In  building  the  last  fast  boats  (the  Asia  and  Africa),  the  Cunard  line 
adopted  two  of  these  American  improvements  ;  and  in  the  extra  fast  boats 
now  building,  they  are  to  go  the  whole  figure,  and  fashion  the  engines  en- 
tirely after  the  most  improved  American  models.  More  than  this,  one  of 
the  engineers  of  the  Royal  Navy  (his  name  I  have  forgotten),  after  scruti- 
nising closely  the  American  engines,  was  so  highly  pleased  with  them,  as  to 
say  to  Mr.  Rogers  that  it  should  be  adopted  for  the  next  naval  vessel  built,  if 
any  exertions  of  his  could  effect  that  object. 

"  These  are  facts  which  Americans  may  remember  to  the  nation's  advan- 
tage, when  American  skill  in  steamer-building  is  called  in  question." 

This  portion  of  the  letter  attracted  much  attention  in  England, 


beino-  copied  into  the  journals,  and  commented  upon  by  the  editors  or 
correspondents.  In  the  London  Builder  only  was  its  accuracy  ques- 
tioned, and  there  not  by  its  judicious  editor,  but  by  a  very  indiscreet 
correspondent,  as  the  sequel  will  show.  These  contradictions  did  not 
meet  our  eyes  at  the  time,  and  it  is  but  recently  that  we  have  obtained 
a  copy  of  the  original  publication  of  them.  As  the  matter  is  one  of 
more  than  ordinary  importance,  we  publish  the  letter  in  the  Builder, 
that  its  wilful  falsities  may  be  the  more  apparent,  when  placed  in  con- 
trast with  the  truth  : — 


BRITISH    AND   AMERICAN    STEAMERS. 

In  your  number  of  the  4th  inst.,  you  quoted  an  extract  from  an  American 
paper,  in  which  it  is  stated  that  improvements  made  in  the  steam  engine  by 
Americans  have  been  adopted  in  building  the  "last  fast"  boats  of  the  Cunard 
line,  and  that  in  the  "  extra  fast"  boats  of  the  same  line  now  in  course  of  con 
struction,  "  they  are  to  go  the  whole  figure,  and  fashion  the  engines  entirely 
after  the  most  approved  American  models."  By  giving  currency,  as  you 
have  done,  on  this  and  other  recent  occasions,  without  comment,  to  the  over- 
weening estimates  which  the  Americans  form  of  their  own  superiority,  you 
appear  to  me,  Mr.  Editor,  to  do  much  towards  weakening  the  well-founded 
confidence  which  has  hitherto  been  entertained  in  the  perfection  of  British 
machinery,  thereby  injuring  British  interests,  particularly  with  reference  to  the 
demands  for  engin  es  from  foreigners . 

It  is  time,  therefore,  that  the  real  facts  of  the  case  respecting  the  manu- 
facture of  the  engines  on  board  Collins's  American  line  of  steamers  (the 
vessels  more  immediately  alluded  to  in  the  American  newspaper)  should  be 
made  known,  which  I  now  do  from  undoubted  authority,  and,  as  regards 
some  of  the  particulars,  from  my  own  knowledge,  and  which  are  as  follow: 

The  United  States  Government,  perceiving  the  failure  of  all  the  attempts 
that  had  been  made  to  establish  an  American  line  of  Atlantic  steamers, 
which  should  compete,  in  point  of  speed  and  efficiency,  with  the  Cunard  line, 
and  deeming  it  of  the  greatest  national  importance  that  this  inferiority 
should  no  longer  continue,  subsidised,  with  a  large  annual  subvention,  Collins's 
line  (besides,  it  is  believed,  giving  pecuniary  aid,  in  some  shape  or  other,  to- 
wards the  construction  of  the  vessels),  on  condition  that  no  expense  should 
be  spared  in  obtaining  the  most  perfect  and  efficient  engines  that  could  be 
constructed;  and  as  there  was,  at  that  time  (although  it  is  only  two  years 
ago)  no  manufacturer  in  the  United  States  who  could  make  engines  fulfilling 
these  conditions,  the  contractors  for  the  American  line  turned  their  views 
towards  the  Clyde,  and  obtained  permission  from  the  proprietors  of  the 
Cunard  line  to  take  mouldings  or  castings  of  every  part,  even  to  the  minutest 
particular,  of  the  engines  constructed  by  Napier,  of  Glasgow,  on  board  the 
largest  of  their  vessels ;  and,  in  order  that  nothing  might  be  wanting  to 
make  the  engines  equal  to  those  in  the  Cunard  steamers,  the  contractors 
imported  men  from  the  manufactories  on  the  Clyde,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  the  engines  in  New  York,  so  that  they  might  be  of  national  or 
American  fabric. 

As,  therefore,  the  last  constructed  and  fastest  of  the  American  ocean- 
going steamers  are  made  entirely  after  the  British  model  and  by  "  Britishers," 
you  will  perceive,  Mr.  Editor,  how  likely  it  is  that  the  Cunard  vessels,  now 
in  course  of  construction,  are  to  be  fitted  with  engines  made  after  the  Ame- 
rican model.  Where,  indeed,  have  the  Americans  anything  better  to  show 
than  the  engines  on  board  the  Collins  line,  which  are  made  after  the  British 
model?  Britannicus. 


This  letter  was  copied  extensively  into  the  English  journals,  as  an 
anchor  of  hope,  and,  for  effect,  throughout  the  continent  of  Europe.' 
It  can  easily  be  seen  how  anxiously  Englishmen  desired  the  impression 
to  prevail  that  the  Americans  were  copyists ;  and  that,  for  the  signal 
triumphs  of  their  ocean  steamers,  during  the  summer  of  1851,  they 
were  indebted  to  English  genius,  skill,  and  generous  favour.  The 
letter  of  Britannicus  met  the  eye  of  James  Brown,  Esq.,  President  of 
the  Collins  line,  in  the  columns  of  Gulignanis  Messenger,  of  Paris, 
and  he  brought  it  to  the  notice  of  Stilltnan,  Allen  and  Co.,  the  builders 
of  the  engines  for  the  Collins  steamers. 

Their  reply,  which  we  now  subjoin,  furnishes  the  most  satisfactory 


1852.] 


Channels  for  Investment. 


159 


confirmation  of  every  word  in  our  letter,  and  an  overwhelming  refu- 
tation of  the  sweeping  mis-statements  of  Britannicus.  In  place  of  any 
agent  or  member  of  the  firm  of  S.  A.  and  Co.,  ever  having  visited 
"  the  Clyde,"  or  the  establishment  of  "  Napier,  of  Glasgow,"  a  son  or 
brother  of  this  same  Napier,  some  time  ago,  came  here  and  inspected 
every  part  of  the  Novelty  Works,  by  invitation  and  permission  of  the 
proprietors.  One  other  fact,  in  favour  of  the  Collins  steamers'  ma- 
chinery, may  here  be  given.  While  it  only  requires  one  man  to  work 
these  engines,  two  or  three  are  employed  to  set  those  of  the  Cunard 
steamers  in  motion.  The  only  similarity  between  the  machinery  of 
the  two  lines  is,  that  they  are  both  "  side  lever  engines." 

But  here  is  the  letter,  and  it  requires  no  comment  at  our  hands. 
We  trust  the  Builder,  and  other  papers  which  inserted  the  statements 
of  Britannicus,  will  be  candid  and  honourable  enough  to  insert  their 
refutation. 

James  Brown,  Esq. — Dear  Sir, — I  enclose  the  piece  cut  from  Galignani's 
Messenger.  It  is  quoted  from  the  London.  Builder,  and  it  is  strange  indeed 
that  misrepresentations  so  utterly  without  any  foundation  should  find  a 
place  in  any  journal  of  any  respectability. 

The  writer  states,  as  "from  undoubted  authority,  and,  as  regards  some  par- 
ticulars,from  his  own  knowledge"  that  "the  contractors  of  the  American  line 
obtained  permission  from  the  proprietors  of  the  Cunard  line  to  take  mouldings  or 
castings  of  every  part,  even  to  the  minutest  particular,  of  the  engines  constructed 
by  Napier,  of  Glasgow,  on  board  the  largest  of  their  vessels." 

It  does  not  seem  to  have  occurred  to  the  author  of  this  remarkable  asser- 
tion, whether  it  was  very  probable,  that  the  proprietors  of  the  Cunard  line 
would  feel  disposed  to  render  any  such  aid  to  a  rival  company,  nor  does  he 
explain  by  what  mechanical  process  the  ignorant  Yankees  were  able  "  to  take 
mouldings  or  castings  of  every  part,  even  to  the  minutest  details  of  engines," 
on  board  of  a  vessel. 

How  utterly  without  foundation  this  assertion  is,  any  may  see,  who 
will  barely  look  at  the  two  sets  of  engines  ;  even  a  casual  glance  is  enough 
to  show  their  utter  dissimilarity  throughout,  in  plan,  and  in  detail ;  not  one 
piece  of  one  is  like  one  piece  of  the  other;  and  on  this  point  the  engines  speak 
for  themselves.  They  ditfer  about  as  much  as  two  sets  of  side-lever  engines 
can  differ. 

But,  according  to  this  writer,  the  possession  of  all  the  mouldings  or  cast- 
ings was  not  enough,  and,  therefore  (he  goes  on  to  say),  "  in  order  that 
nothing  might  be  wanting  to  make  the  engines  equal  to  those  in  the  Cunard 
steamers,  the  contractors  imported  men  from  the  manufactories  on  the  Clyde, 
for  the  purpose  of  making  engines  in  New  York." 

A  few  facts  will  show  the  grossness  of  this  misrepresentation,  and  exhibit 
the  purely  American  character  of  the  engines  we  built  for  your  company. 

Of  the  proprietors  of  our  concern,  every  one  is  a  native  of  the  United 
States,  and  acquired  here  whatever  mechanical  skill  or  knowledge  he 
possesses. 

Of  our  foremen,  every  man  (with  one  exception)  was  born  in  the  United 
States,  learned  his  trade  in  this  country,  and  whatever  they  have  done,  in 
connection  with  marine  engines,  has  been  at  our  works.  The  one  exception 
referred  to  has  been  employed  at  our  works  for  the  last  nineteen  years,  and 
never  did  any  work  for  marine  engines  in  any  other  place. 

The  draughtsmen  who  made  the  drawings  are  our  pupils,  and  acquired  all 
the  knowledge  and  experience  they  have,  in  connection  with  steam-engines, 
in  our  drawing  room.  The  men  who  superintended  the  setting  of  the 
engines  are  also  natives  of  the  United  States,  were  once  our  apprentices,  and 
acquired  at  our  works  whatever  skill  and  experience  they  have. 

No  man  was  ever  imported  from  the  manufactories  of  the  Clyde,  or  from 
any  other  quarter,  with  reference  to  those  engines,  and  neither  in  the  pre- 
paration of  the  plans,  nor  in  the  construction  of  the  work,  did  we  ever  re- 
ceive any  assistance,  direct  or  indirect,  from  any  engineer  on  the  banks  of 
the  Clyde,  or  from  any  other  part  of  Great  Britain. 

In  short,  the  engines  were  made  of  American  iron,  forged  or  melted  with 
American  coal,  they  were  planned  by  American  heads,  and  put  together 
by  American  hands.  In  plan,  and  many  important  features,  they  differ,  not 
merely  from  the  Cunard  engines,  but  also  from  any  ever  built  on  the  other 


side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  we  are  happy  to  find  that  their  excellence  is  so  far 
acknowledged,  as  to  render  our  English  friends  anxious  to  claim  the  credit 
of  having  produced  them. 

Kespectfully  yours, 

STILLMAN,  ALLEN  &  Co. 
Novelty  Iron  Works,  New  York,  Dec.  23,  1851. 

[We  should  not  have  occupied  our  columns  with  the  whole  of  this 
correspondence,  had  we  not  been  desirous  of  giving  our  friends  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Atlantic  the  most  ample  means  in  our  power  of 
exposing  the  misrepresentations  in  question.  The  letter  of  Britannicus 
bears  on  the  face  of  it  evidence  of  being  written  by  a  person  utterly 
unacquainted  with  marine  engineering,  and  this  ought  to  have  led  the 
conductors  of  the  Builder  to  make  inquiry  before  they  endorsed  such 
statements,  by  giving  them  currency.  It  may  be  some  consolation  for 
Messrs.  Stillman,  &  Co.  to  know,  that  our  contemporary  was  never 
yet  suspected  of  being  an  engineering  authority,  in  this  part  of  the 
world ;  still  a  very  insignificant  hand  may  set  a  stone  rolling  that  will 
do  a  vast  deal  of  mischief. 

In  reference  to  the  statement  as  to  the  number  of  men  required  to 
handle  the  Cunard  engines,  it  is  well  known  that  the  above  account  is 
under  the  mark.  We  may  also  add,  that  Messrs.  Maudsley,  Sons,  and 
Field,  have  adopted  the  American  system  of  double  beat  valves,  in  the 
steamer  they  have  lately  fitted  for  the  West  India  Mail  Company. 

Ed.  Artizan.'] 

CHANNELS  FOR  INVESTMENT. 

LIST  OF  NEW  COMPANIES  EECENTLY  ESTABLISHED 
OR  PKOPOSED. 

RAILWAY    COMPANIES. 


Amount  of 
Share. 

No.  of  Shares. 

Capital. 

Madras           .£20      . 

25,000 

..    ,=€500,000 

Plymouth  and  Tavistock       . .       20 

7,500 

150,000 

Severn  Valley            . .          . .        25       . 

14,000 

350,000 

Belgian     American      Atlantic 

Railway  and  Emigration    . .          5       . 

.      100,000 

500,000 

West  Flanders           ..         ..        10 

.       20,000 

200,000 

MINING    COMPANIES. 


Quartzburgh  Gold 

Megantic  Copper 

Australian  Cordillera  Gold  and 

Copper 
New  South  Wales  Gold  Mines 
North  Wales  Consolidated  . . 
Royal  Australian  Gold  Refining 

and  Mining 
Arundel  United  Copper 
The     Connemara      (Ireland) 

Copper  and  Silver-lead     . . 
Le     Mineur     Franco  -  Anglo 

Californian  Gold 
Australian  General  Mining  and 

Emigration. . 

Exhall  Coal 

Carberry  West  (Ireland)  Silver, 

Copper 
Wheal  Atley,   Silver-lead  and 

Copper 
North  Wheal  Alfred    Copper 

and  Lead 
Great  Crinnis  Copper 
Maraquita  and  New  Granada 


10s. 


60,000 


30,000 


i    . 
i    . 

60,000 
60,000 
50,000 

60,000 
60,000 
50,000 

i 

10,000 

10,000 

i    . 

15,000 

15,000 

i    . 

.      160,000 

.       160,000 

i    . 
i    . 

.      150,000 
50,000 

150,000 
50,000 

10s.      . 

30,000 

15,000 

£1      ■ 

6,000 

6,000 

1      . 

1      . 
1      . 

7,500 

30,000 

.      100,000 

7,500 

30,000 

100,000 

160 


Long's  Talent   Vice. 


[July, 


London  and  Sydney  Gold     . . 
Yuba  River  Alluvial  Gold     . . 

STEAM 

General  Screw  Steam  Shipping 

Company 
Australian   Royal  Mail  Steam 

Navigation  Company 
Australian    and    Pacific    Mail 

Steam-packet  Company     . . 
London  and  New  York  Screw 

Steam-ship  Co. 
General  Iron  Screw  Collier  Co. 
General  Screw  Collier  Co.     . . 
National  Patent  Steam-fuel  Co. 


Lmount  of 
Share. 

£1      .. 

No.  of  Shares. 

100,000 
100,000 

Capital. 

..    ,£100,000 

NAVIGATION. 

•• 

. .       700,000 

10      .. 

50,000    • 

500,000 

20       .. 

12,500 

250,000 

10      .. 

5      .. 
10      .. 

1       .. 

50,000 
50,000 
20,000 
50,000 

500,000 

250,000 

200,000 

50,000 

Patent  and   Inventions 

pany 
Continental 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

Corn- 


Timber   Preserv 

ing 

Crystal  Palace 
Ebro  Canalization 


2      .. 

5       .. 

.  ,€21  6s.  8d. 


Improved  Wheel  Manufacturing 

Patent  Cooperage  Company . . 

Irish  Land 

Farmers'  Estate  (Ireland) 

West  of  Ireland  Land  Invest- 
ment and  Beet-sugar,  Flax 
and  Chicory 

Irish  Beet-sugar 

Sewage  Guano 

Plate-glass  Insurance 

London,  Necropolis,  and  Na- 
tional Mausoleum 

Extramural  Cemetery  Associa- 
tion 

Australian  and  General  Emi- 
gration 

Australasian  Emigrants'  Mone- 
tary Aid 


5 
1 

25 
20 


10 

20 

1 


10 


1 


200,000 

25,000 
100,000 

60,000 

5,000 

150,000 

20,000 

25,000 


50,000 
25,000 
50,000 


10,000 
100,000- 
100,000 


1,000,000 

50,000 

500,000 
1,280,000 
25,000 
150.000 
500,000 
500,000 


500,000 
50,000 

500,000 
10,000 


100.C00 
100,000 
100,000 


LONG'S  PATENT  VICE,  &c. 
At  p.  1/2,  vol.  1851,  we  gave  a  description,  accompanied  by  a  plate,  of 
Long's  Patent  Steering  Apparatus,  the  peculiarity  of  which  consists  in 
multiplying  the  power  of  the  man  at  the  wheel,  by  means  of  a  spiral 
scroll,  giving  motion  to  a  series  of  teeth  on  the  rudder  head,  such  teeth 
being  made  of  the  roller  form,  so  as  to  remove  the  friction.  The  same 
principle  has  now  been  further  applied,  as  shown  in  the  annexed 
engravings. 

Fig.i-  Fig.  1.  is  an 

elevation,     and 
fig.  2  a  plan  of 
a  vice,  in  which 
the      moveable 
,  jaw  is    worked 
by  means  of  a 
spanner  on  the 
boss      of      the 
scroll  wheel.  In 
1  the    plan,     the 
spanner  is  sup- 
Fig.  2.  posed  to  be  re- 


moved. The  peculiar  advantages  of  this  plan  are,  that  the  jaws  are 
kept  parallel,  and  that  the  handle  is  01 1  of  the  workman's  way.  The 
same  plan  has  also  been  applied  to  form  a  crab,  which  is  very  powerful, 
has  little  friction,  and  requires  no  ratchets.  Specimens  of  these  were 
exhibited  by  Mr.  M'Connell,  C.E.,  at  the  late  meeting  of  the  Institution 
Fie- 3-  of      Mechanical 

Engineers,  atBir- 
mingham,  where 
they  were  gen- 
erally approved 
of.  Figs.  3  and 
4  are  another  ex- 


r^ 


igipooooooo 


Fig.  4. 


ample  of  its  ap- 
plication to  blind 

pulleys.      After  this,  we  trust  to  be  never  again  tormented  with  the 

clumsy  blind  pulley  in  ordinary  use. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  SEWERS  IN  NORWAY. 
Lieutenant  Klingenberg,  of  the  Norwegian  Royal  Engineers, 
who  has  been  recently  engaged  in  reporting  on  the  sewerage  and  water 
supply  of  various  towns  in  Norway,  informs  us  that  the  usual  method, 
hitherto,  of  constructing  their  sewers,  has  been  to  lay  slabs  of  timber 
as  a  foundation,  with  sides  of  dry  rubble  work,  and  covered  in  with 
stone  slabs,  as  shown  in  section.  The  timber  being  always  wet  does 
not  decay,  as  might  be  supposed,  whilst  the  stone  work  being  laid  dry 
the  sewer  takes  off  the  natural  drainage  of  the  ground.     The  surface 

drainage   is   carried    down    by 


gulleys  at  the  sides  of  the  road, 
and  access  is  obtained  to  the 
sewers  by  cylindrical  shafts,  two 
or  three  feet  in  diameter,  with 
stone  curbs  and  iron  covers. 
Wooden  covers  were  formerly 
used,  but  they  have  sometimes 
been  the  cause  of  accidents, 
by  giving  way. 

The  severity  of  the  climate 
makes  the  question  of  water 
supply,  effluvia  traps  with  water  seals,  and  water  closets,  rather  a 
peculiar  one.  Water  is  generally  to  be  had  in  great  abundance  and  of 
the  purest  quality,  but  its  delivery  cannot  be  depended  on  in  winter, 
unless  it  is  kept  constantly  flowing  through  the  pipes,  and  they  are  well 
protected  by  being  buried  some  feet  in  the  earth. 


Improved  Brick-Die. — Messrs.  Fowler  and  Fry,  of  Bristol,  have  recently 
registered  an  improved  brick-die,  designed  to  prevent  the  tearing  of  the  clay 
as  it  issues  from  the  die.     The  friction  around  the  sides  prevents  the  clay 

issuing  as  fast  as  it  does  in  the  centre, 
and  consequently  the  work  is  spoilt.- 
This  is  prevented  by  keeping  a  ring 
of  water  round  the  clay  as  it  issues 
out,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying 
engraving.  a  is  the  piston  forcing 
the  clay  ;  b,  the  ring  for  containing 
the  water  ;  c,  a  funnel  for  supplying  the  water.  The  clay  is  thus  continually 
lubricated  by  the  water  and  prevented  from  tearing.  There  is  an  old  story, 
that  a  contractor  once  made  a  fortune  on  a  heavy  contract  of  clay-cutting, 
by  giving  the  men  buckets  of  water  to  dip  their  shovels  into,  and  thus  dim- 
inishing their  labour. 


ROBERTS'  PATENT  HOLLOW  BRICKS. 
These  bricks,  which  are  well  known  as  having  been  used  in  the 
cottages  erected  by  Prince  Albert,  in  Hyde  Park,  are  gradually  coming 
into  general  use,  although  the  necessity  of  making  them  by  machine, 


1852.] 


Notes  from  Correspondence. 


161 


and  the  payment  of  royalty,  tend  to  retard  their  introduction.  Mr. 
Roberts  has  been  fortunate  in  securing  a  very  extensive  patent,  which 
covers  any  form  that  will  secure  "  a  longitudinal  bond,  whether  ob- 
tained by  the  overlapping  of  the  alternate,  or  the  parallel  courses  of 
bricks,  either  with  a  square,  a  rebated,  or  a  chamfered  joint,  and  with  a 


m 


JS5 

gig 


BE 


egg 


Fig.  1. 

level,  a  sunk,  or  a  bevilled  bed."     Fig.  1  is  a  side  elevation  of  a  dwarf 

wall,  of  which  fig. 
2  is  a  section. 
Fig.  3  shows  two 
different  sizes  of 
square  rebated 
bricks  (intead  of 
splayed  or  cham- 
fered joints)which 
are  proposed  for 
cases  where  extra 
j^  strength  is  re- 
jp     quired. 

The  peculiar  ad- 
vantages of  these 
bricks  are,  that 
they  form  a  per- 
fect bond,  and  that  all  headers  and  vertical  joints  being  avoided,  no 
damp  can  be  transmitted  through  these  joints.  They  are  also  much 
lighter  than  the  solid  brick ;  stronger,  from  being  equally  burnt,  and 
do  not  transmit  sound  or  heat.  They  can  be  made  of  any  dimensions, 
but  are  preferred  12  inches  in  length,  and  the  three  courses  rising  one 
foot  in  height.  This,  with  the  omission  of  headers,  reduces  the  num- 
ber of  joints  one-third. 

With  these  dimensions  the  cost  per  thousand  is  said  to  be  only  one- 
fourth  more  than  that  of  ordinary  bricks,  which,  taking  the  size  into 
account,  effects  a  saving  of  nearly  30  per  cent.,  with  a  reduction  of  25 
per  cent,  in  the  quantity  of  mortar,  and  the  labour,  if  laid  by  workmen 
accustomed  to  them.  Owing  to  the  diminution  of  weight,  a  saving 
will  also  be  effected  in  the  carriage.  When  used  for  cottages,  the 
expense  of  plastering  may  be  saved. 


EBB. 

Fig.  2. 


NOTES     FROM     CORRESPONDENCE. 
***  We  cannnot  insert  communications  from  anonymous  correspondents. 

"  W.  EL,"  Plymouth,  and  "  Subscriber,"  Halifax,  have  not  complied  with 
our  invariable  rule  as  above. 

"B.,"  Northfleet,  too  late  for  this  No. 

Worthington  and  Bakers'  Steam  Pump. — In  describing  the  slide, 
p.  121,  we  omitted  to  mention  that  the  reason  for  its  peculiar  conformation 
was  that  an  ordinary  slide  would  not  admit  the  steam  in  a  right  direction  ; 
the  motion  of  the  slide  being  reverse  to  that  of  the  piston. 

"C.  S."  Our  contemporary,  L' Industrie,  has  hit  upon  the  same  idea.  Sheet 


iron  as  thin  as  paper  would  be  a  very  bad  material  in  a  tropical  climate  • 
white  ink  can  be  made  just  as  easily  as  red  or  blue. 

"  Air-bubble,"  is  wrong.  The  compressed  air  engine  is  fully  dissected  at 
p.  68,  vol.  1846.  Our  opinion  of  it  is  unaltered.  Our  contemporary  says 
the  trial  was  "  very  imposing."  We  have  no  doubt  of  it,  he  is  very  fre- 
quently imposed  upon. 

"  B.  P."  The  practice  is  not  yet  determined,  and  can  hardly  be,  until 
the  New  Patent  law  has  come  into  operation.  We  cannot  venture  to  advise 
him  on  such  meagre  data,  but  if  he  will  call  at  our  office,  he  can  obtain  the 
information  he  requires  gratuitously. 

"  R.  N."  The  Humboldt  is  not  so  fast  as  the  other  boats,  but  she  did  very 
well  this  last  voyage,  fine  weather  and  fair  winds  contributed,  but  the  Great 
Britain's  run  was  excellent,  nevertheless.  We  will  forward  anything  to 
Sweden  that  he  wishes  to  send. 

"  A  Subscriber,"  N.  York.  The  fault  rests  with  his  bookseller.  Our  pub- 
lisher will  send  The  Artizan  by  post,  if  paid  for  in  advance. 

Ericsson's  caloric  engine  is  described  in  August  No.  1851. 

Books  Received. — Weale's  "Engineeis'  Pocket-book  for  1852-3;"  "  Ele- 
mentary Practical  Geometry;"  "  The  Bookselling  System,"  by  a  Retail  Book- 
seller.   Various  Newspapers,  for  which  the  senders  have  our  best  thanks. 


LIST  OF  ENGLISH  PATENTS, 

Feom  21st  of  May,  to  24th  June,  1852. 

Six  months  allowed  for  enrolment,  unless  otherwise  expressed. 

William  Watt,  of  Glasgow,  Lanark,  North  Britain,  manufacturing  chemist,  for  improve- 
ments in  the  treatment  and  preparation  of  flax  or  other  fibrous  substances,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  some  of  the  products  to  certain  purposes.    May  22. 

David  Dick,  of  Paisley,  Renfrew,  North  Britain,  machine-maker,  for  improvements  in 
the  manufacture  and  treatment  or  finishing  of  textile  fabrics  and  materials.     May  22. 

Richard  Roberts,  of  Manchester,  engineer,  for  certain  improvements  in  and  applicable  to 
boats,  ships,  and  other  vessels.     May  22. 

John  Harcourt  Brown,  of  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  and  John  Macintosh,  of  the  same  place, 
for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  and  articles  of  paper.    May  22. 

Louis  Victor  Ruze,  manufacturer,  of  Gaillon,  France,  for  certain  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  hat-plush  and  other  similar  silk  cloths.    May  22. 

John  James  Russell,  of  Wednesbury,  Stafford,  patent  tube  manufacturer,  for  improve- 
ments in  coating  metal  tubes.    May  22. 

Edward  Thomas  Bainbridge,  of  St.  Paul's  Churchyard,  for  improvements  in  obtaining 
power  when  fluids  are  used.    May  22. 

Samuel  Cunliffe  Lister,  of  Manningham,  near  Bradford,  York,  machine  wool-comber,  for 
improvements  in  treating  and  preparing,  before  being  spun,  wool,  cotton,  and  other  fibrous 
materials.    May  22. 

John  Swarbrick,  of  Blackburn,  Lancaster,  fire-brick  manufacturer,  for  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  method  of  manufacturing  retorts  used  for  gas  and  other  purposes,  and  in  the 
apparatus  connected  therewith.    May  22. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for 
certain  improvements  in  winnowing  machines.     (Being  a  communication.)    May  22. 

Thomas  Knott  Parker,  of  London-wall,  Middlesex,  carpenter,  for  improvements  in  win- 
dow sashes.    May  22. 

Johann  Stierba,  of  the  firm  of  Messrs.  Eisbrick  and  Co.,  of  Prague,  Bohemia,  gentleman, 
for  improvements  in  furnaces,  and  in  heating  and  utilising  certain  products  of  combustion. 
May  22. 

John  Mason,  of  Rochdale,  Lancaster,  machine-maker,  and  George  Collier,  of  Halifax, 
York,  manager,  for  certain  improvements  in  preparing,  spinning,  twisting,  doubling,  and 
weaving  cotton,  wool,  and  other  fibrous  materials;  also  in  tools  or  apparatus  for  construct- 
ing parts  of  machinery  used  in  such  manufactures.    May  22. 

Joseph  Walker,  jun.,  of  Wolverhampton,  Stafford,  merchant,  for  certain  improvements 
in  vacuum  pans  for  the  evaporation  and  crystallisation  of  saccharine  or  other  solutions. 
(Being  a  communication.)    May  25. 

Henry  Webster,  of  Manthorpe,  Lincoln,  wheelwright,  for  improvements  in  regulating  tho 
draft  in  chimneys  or  flues.    May  25. 

Adolphus  Charles  Von  Herz,  of  Cecil-street,  Middlesex,  Esq.,  for  improvements  in  treat- 
ing, preparing,  and  preserving  roots  and  plants,  in  extracting  saccharine  and  other  juices 
from  roots  and  plants,  in  the  treatment  of  such  juices,  and  in  the  processes,  machinery, 
and  apparatus  employed  therein.    May  29. 

Frederick  Miller,  of  Fenchurch-street,  London,  gentleman,  for  improvements  In  appa- 
ratus for  hatching  eggs.    May  29. 

Joseph  Lees,  the  younger,  of  Manchester,  calico  printer,  for  an  improved  system  01  pre- 
paring, cutting,  and  engraving  rollers  to  be  used  for  printing  woven  and  other  fabrics,  and 
improved  machinery  for  printing  and  washing  the  same  fabrics.    May  29. 

Alexander  Bain,  of  Beevor  Lodge,  Hammersmith,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in 
electric  telegraphs  and  in  electric  clocks  and  time-keepers,  and  in  apparatus  connected 
therewith.    May  29.  ,  ,     . 

AVilliam  Septimus  Losh,  of  Wreny  Sykes,  near  Carlisle,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in 
the  purification  of  coal  gas.    May  29. 

Richard  Ford  Sturges,  of  Birmingham,  manufacturer,  for  certain  new  or  improved  orna- 
mental fabrics.    May  29.  

William  Armand  Gilbee,  of  South-street,  Finsbury,  Middlesex,  for  certain  improvements 
in  machinery  for  cutting  corks.    June  1. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  mi- 
provements  in  machinery  for  propelling  vessels,  and  In  apparatus  to  bo  used  in  connection 
therewith.     (Being  a  communication.)     June  I. 

William  Henry  Phillips,  of  Cambcrwell  New-road,  Surrey,  engineer,  tor  improvements 
in  decorative  illumination,  and  in  applying  light  for  other  purposes.    June  1. 

Thomas  Willis,  of  Manchester,  machine  maker,  fov  certain  Improvements  In  machinery 
or  apparatus  for  winding  yarns  or  threads,  and  also  improvements  in  looms  tor  weaving. 

Samuel  Morris,  of  Stockport,  for  certain  improvements  in  steam-boilers.    June  3. 

William  Haughton,  of  Manchester,  for  improvements  in  machinery  tor  spinning  cotton 
and  other  fibrous  substances.     June  5. 

Robert  Hardman,  of  Bolton,  for  improvements  in  looms  for  weaving      June  ... 

Laurent  Machabee,  of  Avignon,  for  an  improved  composition  appUcan  c  to  the  coating  of 
wood,  metals,  and  other  substances  to  be  preserved  from  decay.    June  ». 


162 


List  of  Patents. 


[July,  1852. 


Edme  Angnstin  Chameroy,  of  Paris,  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements  in  steam- 
engines.    June  8.  .  ■ 

Enoch  Townend,  of  Keighley,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  textile 
fabrics.    June  8.  .     v  .    "  . 

William  Gratrix,  of  Salford,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  production  of  designs  npon 
cotton  and  other  fabrics.    June  8.  ... 

William  Rettie.  of  Aberdeen,  for  certain  improvements  in  lamps  and  burners,  m  appa- 
ratus for  ventilating  apartments,  and  in  the  mode  of  working  signal  lamps.    June  8. 

Henry  Houldsworth,  of  Manchester,  for  improvements  in  embroidering  machines,  and  in 
apparatus  in  connection  therewith.    June  10. 

Thomas  Wilts  Lord,  of  Leeds,  for  improvements  in  machinery  for  spinning,  preparing, 
and  heckling  of  flax,  tow,  hemp,  cotton,  and  other  fibrous  substances,  and  for  the  lubrica- 
tion of  the  same  and  other  machinery.    June  10. 

William  Beasley,  of  Kingswinford,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  metal 
tubes  and  solid  forms,  and  in  apparatus  and  machinery  to  be  employed  therein.    June  10. 

Michael  Joseph  John  Donlan,  of  Rugely,  Staffordshire,  for  improvements  in  treating  the 
seeds  of  flax  and  hemp,  and  also  in  the  treatment  and  preparation  of  flax  and  hemp  for 
dressing.    June  10. 

Edwyn  John  Jeffery  Dixon,  of  the  Royal  Slate  Quarries,  Bangor,  and  Arthur  John  Dod- 
son,  of  the  city  of  Bangor,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  machinery  and  apparatus  used 
in  quarrying  slate  and  stone ;  and  in  cuttintr,  dressing,  planing,  framing,  and  otherwise 
working  and  treating  slate  and  stone,  and  in  apparatus  and  waggons  used  for  moving  and 
conveying  slate  and  stone,  and  improvements  in  joining,  framing,  and  connecting  slate 
and  stone.    June  12. 

William  Reid,  of  University-street,  electric-telegraph  engineer,  and  Thomas  Watkins 
Benjamin  Brett,  of  Hanover-square,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  electric  telegraphs. 
June  12. 

Jean  Ernest  Beauvalet,  gentleman,  of  Paris,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  iron 
and  steel.    (Being  a  communication.)    June  12. 

Joseph  Brandeis,  of  Great  Tower-street,  Middlesex,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture 
of  raw  and  refined  sugar.    June  12.: 

George  Pate  Cooper,  of  Suffolk-street,  Pall-mall  East,  tailor,  for  certain  improvements  in 
fastenings  for  garments.    June  12. 

Thomas  Restell,  of  Kennington,  Surrey,  watch  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements 
in  the  construction  of  lamps  and  burners.    June  17. 

James  Norton,  of  Ludgate-hill,  merchant,  for  improvements  in  apparatus  for  ascertaining 
and  registering  the  mileage  ran  by  public  vehicles  during  a  given  period  ;  also  the  number 
of  persons  who  have  entered  in,  or  upon,  or  are  travelling  in  public  vehicles;  part  of  which 
improvements  is  applicable  to  public  buildings  and  other  places  where  tolls  are  taken. 
June  17. 

William  Cardwell  M'Bride,  of  Alistragh,  Armagh,  farmer,  for  certain  improvements  in 
machinery  for  scutching  or  otherwise  preparing  flax  and  other  like  fibrous  materials. 
June  18. 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  London,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  wheels, 
tyres,  and  hoops.    (Being  a  communication.)    June  18. 

William  Edward  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in  the  con- 
struction of  fences.    (A  communication.)    June  19. 

William  Burgess,  of  Newgate- street,  gutta-percha  merchant,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  gutta-percha  tubing.    June  21 . 

Jean  Baptiste  Georges  Landes,  of  Paris,  civil  engineer,  for  certain  improvements  in  loco- 
motive engines,  part  of  which  improvements  are  also  applicable  to  other  engines.    June  24. 
Claude  Arnoux,  of  Paris,  gentleman,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
railway  carriages.    June  24. 

Alexander  Johnston  Warden,  of  Dundee,  manufacturer,  for  improvements  in  the  manu- 
facture of  certain  descriptions  of  carpets.    June  24. 

James  Higgin,  of  Manchester,  manufacturing  chemist,  for  certain  improvements  in 
bleaching  and  scouring  woven  and  textile  fabrics  and  yarns.    June  24. 

Joseph  Swan,  of  Glasgow,  North  Britain,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  the  production 
of  figured  surfaces,  and  in  printing,  and  in  the  machinery  or  apparatus  used  therein. 
June  24. 

George  Pearson  Renshaw,  of  the  Park,  Nottingham,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in 
cutting  and  shaping.    June  24. 

James  Edward  M'Connell,  of  Wolverton,  Bucks,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in 
steam-engines,  in  boilers,  and  other  vessels  for  containing  fluids,  in  railways,  and  in  ma- 
terials and  apparatus  employed  therein  or  connected  therewith.    June  24. 
Joseph  Hart  Mortimer,  of  Hill-street,  Peckham,  for  improvements  in  lamps.    June  24. 


LIST  OF  SCOTCH  PATENTS, 
From  22nd  of  April  to  the  19th  of  Mat,  1852. 

William  Edward  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements 
in  the  method  of,  and  apparatus  for  indicating  and  regulating  the  heat  and  the  height  and 
supply  of  water  in  steam  boilers,  which  said  improvements  are  applicable  to  other  pur- 
poses, such  as  indicating  and  regulating  the  heat  of  buildings,  furnaces,  stoves,  fire-places, 
kilns,  and  ovens,  and  indicating  the  height,  and  regulating  the  supply  of  water  in  other 
boilers  and  vessels.    (Communication.)    April  23. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for 
improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  lenses.    (Communication.)    April  26. 

Matthew  Urlwin  Sears,  of  Burton-crescent,  St.  Pancras,  Middlesex,  commission  agent, 
for  the  improved  construction  of  guns  and  cannons  and  manufacture  of  cartridges  for  the 
boring  and  charging  thereof.    April  26. 

Thomas  Bell,  of  Don  Alkali  Works,  South  Shields,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture 
of  sulphuric  acid.    April  28. 

Stewart  M'Glashen,  of  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  sculptor,  for  the  application  of  certain 
mechanical  powers  to  lifting,  removing,  and  preserving  houses,  trees,  and  other  bodies. 
April  28. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  pre- 
venting the  incrustation  of  steam  boilers,  which  incrustation  is  also  applicable  to  the  pre- 
servation of  metals  and  wood.     (Communication.)    April  28. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  im- 
provements in  the  method  of  manufacturing,  and  in  machinery  to  be  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  wood  screws,  part  of  which  improvements  is  applicable  to  the  arranging  and  feeding 
of  pins,  and  other  like  articles ;  and  also  improvements  in  assorting  screws,  pins,  and  other 
articles  of  various  sizes.    (Communication.)    April  30. 

George  Frederick  Muntz,  jun.,  of  Birmingham,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of 
metal  tubes.    May  3. 

William  Gillespie,  of  Torbane  Hill,  Linlithgow,  Scotland,  gentleman,  for  an  improved 
apparatus,  instrument,  or  means  for  ascertaining  or  setting  off  the  slope  or  level  of  drains, 
banks,  inclines,  or  works  of  any  description,  whether  natural  or  artificial,  or  under  land  or 
water.     May  5. 

Wiliiam  Thomas,  of  Exe  Island,  Devonshire,  engineer,  for  certain  improvements  in  the 
construction  of  apparatus  and  machinery  for  economising  fuel  in  the  generation  of  steam, 
and  in  machinery  for  propelling  on  land  or  water.    May  5. 

Julian  Bernard,  of  Guildford-street,  Russell-square,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  leather  or  dressed  skins,  of  materials  to  be  used  in  lieu 
thereof,  of  boots  and  shoes,  and  in  materials,  machinery,  and  apparatus  connected  with,  or 
to  be  employed  in  such  manufacture.    May  10. 


John  Campbell,  of  Bowfield,  Renfrew,  North  Britain,  bleacher,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  and  treatment  or  finishing  of  textile  fabrics  and  materials,  and  in  the  ma- 
chinery or  apparatus  used  therein.    May  10. 

Richard  Christopher  Mansell,  Ashford,  Kent,  for  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
railways,  in  railway  rolling  stock,  and  in  the  machinery  for  manufacturing  the  same. 
May  10. 

George  Leopold  Ludwig  Kufahl,  of  Christopher-street,  Finsbury-square,  London,  engi- 
neer, for  improvements  in  fire-arms.    May  1 1 . 

David  Dick,  of  Paisley,  Renfrew,  North  Britain,  machine  maker,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  and  treatment  or  finishing  of  textile  fabrics  and  materials.    May  11. 

Charles  Ewing,  of  Bodorgan,  Anglesea,  steward  and  gardener,  for  an  improved  method 
or  methods  of  construction,  applicable  to  architectural  and  horticultural  purposes. 
May  11. 

Anthony  Granara,  of  Leicester-place,  Leicester-square,  Middlesex,  hotel  keeper,  for  an 
improved  apparatus  for  lubricating  machinery.    May  14.    Four  months. 

Clemence  Augustus  Kurtz,  of  Manchester,  Lancaster,  manufacturing  chemist,  for  an 
improvement  in  all  preparations,  of  every  description,  of  madder  roots  and  ground  madder, 
in  and  from  whatever  country  the  same  are  produced;  also  in  munjeet,  in  the  root  and 
stem  from  whatever  country.    May  17. 

William  Watt,  of  Glasgow,  Lanark,  North  Britain,  manufacturing  chemist,  for  improve- 
ments in  the  treatment  and  preparation  of  flax  or  other  fibrous  substances.    May  17. 

Peter  Fairbairn,  of  Leeds,  York,  machinist,  and  Peter  Swires  Horsman,  of  Leeds  afore- 
said, flax-spinner,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  process  of  preparing  flax  and  hemp  for 
the  purposes  of  heckling ;  and  also  machinery  for  heckling  flax,  hemp,  china  grass,  and 
other  vegetable  fibrous  substances.    May  17.  ^^ 

William  Edward  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements 
in  the  manufacture  of  coke,  and  in  the  application  of  the  gaseous  products  arising  there- 
from to  useful  purposes.    May  19. 


LIST  OF  IRISH  PATENTS, 
From  3rd  of  Mai  to  the  17th  of  May,  1852. 

Joseph  Pimlott  Oates,  of  Lichfield,  Stafford,  surgeon,  for  certain  improvements  in  ma- 
chinery for  manufacturing  bricks,  tiles,  quarries,  drain  pipes,  and  such  other  articles  as 
are  or  may  be  made  of  clay  or  other  plastic  substances.     May  4. 

George  Torr,  of  the  chemical  works,  Frimley-lane,  Rotherhithe,  animal  charcoal  burner, 
for  improvements  in  the  burning  animal  charcoal.    May  17. 

James  Pillans  Wilson,  and  George  Fergusson  Wilson,  both  of  Wandsworth,  Surrey,  gen- 
tlemen, for  improvements  in  the  preparation  of  wool,  for  the  manufacture  of  woollen  and 
other  fabrics,  and  in  the  process  of  obtaining  materials  to  be  used  for  that  purpose.  (Being 
partly  a  communication.)    May  17. 


May  21, 

»  21, 

„  22, 

„  22, 

,,  24, 

»  25, 

,>  26, 

,,  26, 

„  26, 

»  27, 

»  28, 

„  28, 

„  28, 
1, 


June 


3262. 
3263 
3264 
3265 
3260 
3267 
3268 
3269; 

3270 
3271. 

3272. 
3273. 
3274 
3275 
3276. 
3277, 
3278. 
3279 
3280 
3281. 
3282. 
3283, 

3284, 
32S5, 
3286 
3287. 


7,  3288 


3289. 
3290 
3291. 


10,  3292, 


3293, 

3294, 

3295, 
3296, 

3297, 
3298, 
3299, 


14,  3300. 


3301. 
3302. 
3303. 
3304, 

3305. 
3306. 
3307, 
3308, 
3309, 
3310 
3311, 


DESIGNS  FOR  ARTICLES  OF  UTILITY, 
From  20th  of  Mat  to  the  23rd  of  June,  1852. 

J.  Wanthier,  Wilmington-square,  "  Portable  and  house  barometer." 

W.  C.  Cambridge,  Bristol,  "  Straw  shaker." 

R.  Mallet,  Dublin,  "  Iron  plate  for  roofs." 

C.  Lenny,  Croydon,  "  Carriage- wheel  plate." 
,  A.  J.  Schatt,  St.  James's,  "  Royal  Cambridge  valve  bugle." 

R.  W.  Winfield,  Birmingham,  "  Spring  letter  balance." 

i  W.  Quinton  and  Co.,  Birmingham,  "  Rule  joint." 

W.  Dray  and  Co.,  London-bridge,  "  Cradle  machine  for  washing  and  gold 
detecting." 

G.  Harriott,  North  Walsham,  "  Screw  clod  crusher." 

C.  Richards,  Birmingham,  "  Core  peg  for  Minie  rifle-bullet  moulds." 

W.  Welby,  Bermondsey,  "  Life  buoy." 

T.  F.  Griffiths,  Birmingham,  "  Letter-box." 

J  Tuke,  Doncaster,  "  Water-closet." 

Henry  Maling,  Home-office,  "  Form  of  rifling  for  fire-arms." 

L.  Stubbs  and  T.  Fleming,  Birmingham,  "  Nail  or  screw." 

Robert  Adams,  King  William-street,  "  Balls  or  projectiles." 

F.  Brampton,  Birmingham,  "Music  folio  or  leaf-holder." 

Wagstaff  and  Co.,  Mark-lane,  "  Portable  candle-lamp." 

T.  A.  Readwin,  Winchester-buildings,  "  Self-acting  currycomb." 

E.  Windsor,  Lille,  France,  "Gill-machinery." 

P.  Lawson  and  Son,  Edinburgh,  "  Box-edging  cutter." 

J.  J.  Ball,  Wenlock-road,  City-road,  Master  R.N.,  "Disengaging  apparatus 
for  lowering  boats  from  ships'  sides  at  sea." 

J.  Barnett,  Birmingham,  "Apparatus  for  heating  water." 

T.  Bland,  Birmingham,  "  Cover  for  vessels." 

W.  Smith,  Bucks,  "  Subsoil  plough  and  stirrer." 

W.  Dray  and  Co.,  Swan-lane,  Upper  Thames-street,  "  Chaff  and  litter-cut- 
ting machine  combined." 

J.  Tucker,  Charlton,  Kent,  and  J.  E.  Saunders,  Gracechurch-street,  "  In- 
flated water-proof  tent." 

W.  Bridson,  Liverpool,  "  Plate  and  dish  warmer  and  meat-cooler." 

T.  F.  Griffiths,  Birmingham.  "  Gold-washing  and  detecting  machine." 

J.  J.  Ball,  Wenlock-road,  City-read,  "  Disengaging  apparatus  for  lowering 
boats." 

J.  Cooper,  Towerhead,  near  Somerset,  "  Compound  geometric  and  spiral 
chuck  for  a  lathe." 

E.  Bull,  Halifax,  "  High-pressure  valve  or  stop-cock,  for  gas,  water,  or 
other  fluids." 

T.  andC.  Clark  and  Co.,  Wolverhampton,  "Apparatus  for  frying  and  boil- 
ing at  the  same  time." 

R.  Lancaster,  Bolton-le-Moors,  "Miners'  safety-lamp." 

M.  A.  Biggs  and  A.  P.  Collins,  Berkley-street,  Clerkenwell,    "Letter- 
spring." 

M.  A.  Biggs  and  A.  P.  Collins,  Berkley-street,  Clerkenwell,  "  Card-case." 

J.  T.  Champion,  Exeter,  "  Mould  for  casting  hollow  or  Minie  rifle-bullets." 

A.  Jackson,  Orpington,  Kent,  "  Tray  and  apparatus  for  a  tea  or  coffee- 
pot and  cups." 

Parker,  Field,  and  Son,  High  Holborn,  "  Spring-ramrod  to  be  attached  to, 
for  the  purpose  of  loading  single-barrel  revolving-chambered  pistols." 

C.  W.  Lancaster,  New  Bond-street,  "Gun- ball  patch." 

J.  Mather,  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  "  Bread  and  pastry  oven." 

Lennox  and  Jones,  Billiter-square,  "  Anchor." 

T.  Reid,  Monkton,  Ayrshire,  "Combined  double  mould-board  plough,  seed- 
sower,  and  manure  sowing-rutter." 

H.  Thomas,  Birmingham,  "  Pickaxe." 

H.  Thomas,  Birmingham,  "  Pickaxe." 

Hodges,  Brothers,  Noble-street,  "  Vest-front." 

A.  Suter,  Fenchurch-street,  "  Ventilating  wind-guard." 

S.  Rooke,  Birmingham,  "Tubular  oilcloth-cover  for  cornice-poles." 

J.  Southgate,  Watling-street,  "  Portmanteau." 

J.  Southgate,  Watling-street,  "  Expanding  portmanteau." 


li"    2 


AMI  S     IP  AT  1 H  T 


IE  IE  PIE  AM  W©    PS  ST© Ha 


THE     AETIZAN 


No.  VIII.—  Vol.  X.— AUGUST  1st,  1852. 


THE  EVENTS  OF  THE  MONTH. 

It  is  usually  understood  to  be  an  admitted  principle,  that  when  a 
railway  company  undertakes  to  convey  passengers,  they  are  bound  to 
use  every  known  means  which  will  conduce  to  their  safety.  It  follows, 
therefore,  if  an  accident  occurs,  with  loss  of  life,  which  it  can  be  shown 
would  have  been  prevented  by  the  use  of  any  machinery  in  which  the 
railwray  is  deficient,  that  the  responsible  persons — the  directors — are 
guilty  of  manslaughter,  inasmuch  as  they  have  neglected  to  take  all  the 
precautions  which  they  were  bound  to  do.  A  number  of  railway  accidents 
have  recently  taken  place,  in  which  the  want  of  any  adequate  control 
over  trains  in  motion  has  been  the  cause  of  death  and  severe  injury  to  the 
passengers.  Our  readers  will  ask,  whether  any  practical  plan  for  effect- 
ing this  object  has  ever  been  suggested  to  the  directors  of  these  railways, 
or  whether  they  have  ever  sought  for  any  such  plan  ?  We  reply,  that 
not  only  have  such  plans  been  suggested  and  tried,  but  they  have  been 
uniformly  set  aside ;  in  one  instance,  as  we  are  credibly  informed, 
because  the  engineer  of  the  line  expressed  his  opinion  that  such  a  plan 
would  tend  to  render  the  engine-drivers  careless. 

Let  us  see  how  these  things  happen.  Here  is  an  "  official  report  " 
(as  it  is  called  in  the  Times,  which  means,  we  suppose,  one  supplied  by 
the  company's  officers)  of  an  accident  on  the  South-Eastern  line : — 
"The  down  pick-up  train  arrived  at  Headcorn,  and  was  shunted  on  to 
the  up-line  of  rails,  in  the  usual  manner,  to  allow  the  mail  to  pass,  the 
danger  signals  being  exhibited,  and  proper  precautions  taken  to  stop  all 
trains  on  the  up-line.  While  the  pick-up  train  was  thus  waiting  on  the 
up-line,  the  Paris  tidal  train  from  Folkstone  came  on  at  its  ordinary 
speed,  the  driver  either  not  seeing,  or  disregarding  the  signals,  until 
within  too  short  a  distance  to  prevent  a  collision  with  the  stationary 
train,  into  which  it  ran  with  such  force,  as  to  knock  two  of  the  empty 
trucks  over  on  to  the  down-line,  just  in  front  of  the  mail  train,  which 
came  by  at  the  moment,  thus  causing  a  second  collision."  This  means, 
in  plain  English,  that  when  a  train  full  of  passengers  is  standing  at  a 
station,  and  another  train  is  meeting  it,  there  are  no  means  of  stopping 
that  approaching  train  except  by  exhibiting  a  signal,  which  the  engine- 
driver  may  or  may  not  see,  and  may  or  may  not  pay  attention  to.  It 
is  monstrous  to  call  this  protecting  the  lives  of  the  passengers.  The 
remedy  wanted,  as  we  have  more  than  once  explained,  is  an  appliance 
for  shutting  the  steam  off  an  engine  at  such  a  distance  from  the  station, 
that  the  heaviest  train  will  be  brought  up  in  time  to  prevent  a  collision ; 
and  this  mechanism  must  be  at  the  command  of  the  station-master,  so 
that,  by  merely  turning  a  handle,  he  can  stop  a  train  300  or  400 
yards  off.  Anything  short  of  this  is  a  mere  evasion  of  the  difficulty  ; 
and  until  such  a  system  be  adopted,  railway  directors  and  railway  en- 
gineers cannot  honestly  say  that  they  are  guiltless  of  the  blood  of  their 
fellow-creatures. 

The  proposition  of  the  Eastern  Steam  Navigation  Company,  pub- 
lished at  length  in  another  place,  has  excited  considerable  attention, 
from  the  boldness  of  the  project.    That  a  greater  speed  is  to  be  obtained 


by  a  given  proportion  of  power  to  tonnage  with  large  vessels,  than  with 
small  ones,  is  an  established  fact;  but  we  have  no  data,  except  perhaps 
from  some  of  the  largest  American  river  steamers,  which  combine  high 
speed  with  large  tonnage.  The  dimensions  mentioned  for  the  Eastern 
Company's  steamers  are  600  feet  long  and  60  feet  beam.  The  only  figures 
we  can  compare  with  this  are  those  of  the  Great  Britain,  which  is  28.9 
feet  keel  and  51  feet  beam,  or  5|  beams  in  length  ;  and  those  of  the 
Britannia  tube,  which  is  472  feet  long.  A  difficulty,  which  will  probably 
be  felt  with  such  large  vessels,  is  their  draft,  uhich  will  prevent  their 
taking  advantage  of  many  harbours  which  it  would  be  desirable  for 
them  to  enter ;  but  into  this  question,  as  well  as  that  of  their  propul- 
sion, it  is  premature  to  enter,  until  we  have  something  more  definite 
from  the  engineering  advisers  of  the  company.  We  think  that  too 
much  stress  has  been  laid  upon  the  advantage  of  carrying  coals  for  the 
whole  voyage ;  and,  as  it  is  a  question  of  figures,  we  will  endeavour  to 
supply  the  data.  Supposing  that  2,000  tons  of  coal  are  required  for 
the  whole  voyage,  at  lbs.  per  ton,  in  England,  that  gives  £\,5Q0.  But 
if  half  the  coal  were  taken  in  in  England,  and  the  other  half  at  the 
Cape,  at,d£2  per  ton,  we  have  1,000  tons  at  15s.,  and  1,000  at  £2,  or 
total,  £2J5Q  for  the  voyage  out.  Add  to  both  these  sums  ^4,000,  for 
the  voyage  home,  we  have  ^5,500  on  the  one  side,  and  ,£6,750  for  the 
the  other,  showing  a  saving  of  £1,250,  or  less  than  £20  per  cent. 
But  in  reality,  if  coals  could  be  got  for  nothing  in  England,  it  would 
pay  better  to  carry  goods  at  £6  per  ton  than  coals  at  ,£2.  No  doubt 
the  stopping  at  the  Cape  would  entail  some  delay  and  the  annoyance  of 
coaling ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  would  give  another  mail  port,  and 
the  mails  must  go  by  the  fastest  boats,  to  whatever  company  they  belong. 
If  we  are  indignant  at  the  indifference  of  our  own  railway  directors, 
what  must  we  say  to  the  accounts  which  reach  us  every  mail  of  the 
explosions  on  board  steamboats  in  the  United  States?  It  is  enough  to 
make  a  man's  blood  run  cold  to  hear  even  their  own  account  of  the  way 
things  are  managed.  The  following  paragraph  from  the  Madison  Courier 
tells  its  own  tale  : — "The  steamer  Redstone  came  in  last  night  with  some 
80  passengers  and  a  fair  freight-list.  The  Redstone  is  one  of  the  fast  ones, 
as  the  crack  steamer,  Buckeye,  found  out  yesterday,  after  lying  out  in 
the  river  to  wait  for  her.  The  Redstone  took  her  on  the  wing — passed 
her  under  weigh  easy.  Captain  Pate  is  very  much  elated — thinks  of 
making  a  fast  run  from  St.  Louis  to  Cincinnati."  After  this,  we  need  not 
be  surprised  at  the  dying  declaration  of  the  assistant-engineer,  Kyan. 
"  Himself  and  Buchanan,  first  engineer  of  the  boat,  were  on  watch. 
Some  time  before  reaching  port,  he  (Ryan)  tried  the  water  in  the  boilers, 
and  found  it  very  low,  and  called  to  Buchanan,  and  informed  him  of 
the  fact,  and  received  some  evasive  answer.  He  again  tried  the  water, 
and  again  called  to  Buchanan,  who  told  him  to  mind  his  own  business; 
that  there  was  water  enough  in  the  boilers.  Subsequently,  Buchanan 
remarked  that  the  boat  was  making  good  time,  and  he  would  take  her 
into  St.  Louis  '  kiting.'  This  was  perhaps  the  last  remark  made,  and 
when  the  boat  reached  the  wharf,  and  commenced  trying  to  effect  a 

22 


164 


Agricultural  Engineering. 


[August, 


landing,  Buchanan  turned  on  the  gauge-cock  (feed-cock  seems 
meant),  and  let  on  the  water.  The  instant  the  cold  water  came  in  con- 
tact with  the  heated  boilers,  now  nearly  dry,  the  explosion  took  place." 

The  law  appears  not  only  inefficient,  but  to  be  also  very  badly 
administered.  By  later  accounts,  a  petition  has  been  presented  to 
Congress  by  the  engineers  of  numerous  boats,  for  more  stringent  regu- 
lations. 

We  mav  here  also  mention,  that  the  bill  for  increasing  the  subsidy 
to  the  Collins  steamers  has  passed  the  legislature. 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING. 

EXHIBITION  OF  THE  ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY 
AT  LEWES. 

Those  who  charge  the  agricultural  world  with  apathy,  and  indif- 
ference to  improvement,  may  be  readily  answered  by  a  reference  to  the 
annual  exhibition  of  implements  and  stock  held  by  the  great  Agricul- 
tural Societies  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  as  well  as  those  more 
numerous  ones  depending  on  local  support.  The  annual  exhibition  of 
the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  at  Lewes,  in  Sussex,  has 
just  been  concluded,  and  we  hasten  to  present  our  readers  with  a  report 
of  the  improvements  in  the  mechanical  department,  which  are  neither 
few  nor  unimportant. 

The  portable  steam  engines  occupy  the  first  place,  and  it  is  in 
those  that  the  improvement  is  the  most  striking.  In  noticing  those 
in  the  Crystal  Palace,  we  censured  the  gingerbread  brass-work  which 
some  makers  appeared  to  think  indispensable  to  their  engines,  and 
we  are  glad  to  say  that  we  discovered  signs  of  some  improvement 
in  this  direction.  A  portable  engine  which  has  to  bear  exposure  to 
the  weather  is  the  better  for  the  absence  of  bright  work,  as  it  is 
rarely  kept  clean,  and  the  emery  generally  used  in  profusion  to  clear 
off  the  rust  not  unfrequently  insinuates  itself  into  the  bearings,  to 
their  manifest  detriment.  Mr.  Tuxford,  by  putting  a  vertical  engine  at 
the  smoke-box  end,  gets  it  completely  housed.  (For  engraving,  see 
Artizan,  1851,  p.  243.)  It  appears  to  us  that  it  would  be  expedient 
to  cover  up  the  cylinder  and  moving  parts,  in  all  portable  engines, 
which  might  be  done  at  a  trifling  expense  ;  and  would  not  only  keep 
out  rain,  dust,  &c,  but  also  serve  to  retain  the  heat. 

Only  a  few  makers  have  paid  especial  attention  to  the  latter  point, 
the  rest  being  content  with  clothing  the  cylinders.  Messrs.  Hornsby 
and  Son  place  the  cylinder  in  the  steam-chest,  over  the  furnace,  which 
they  state,  "  effects  a  great  saving  of  fuel,  which  is  an  important  con- 
sideration in  a  portable  engine;  it  also  does  away  with  condensation  in 
the  cylinder,  rendering  the  engine  less  liable  to  get  out  of  order,  like- 
wise the  management  less  troublesome,  having  no  condensed  water  in 
the  cylinder.  In  all  engines  with  the  cylinder  outside  the  boiler,  the 
water  in  the  cylinder,  pipes,  and  pump  (?)  in  the  winter  season  fre- 
quently becomes  frozen  ;  and  even  if  great  care  is  taken  by  the  person 
in  attendance  on  the  engine,  injury  is  often  done— and  if  not,  much 
time  is  lost.  This  is  an  evil  which  never  can  take  place  in  the  ex- 
hibitor's patent  engine."  Tuxford's  we  have  already  noticed.  Mr. 
Batley  places  the  cylinder  in  the  smoke-box. 

Messrs.  Barrett,  Exall,  and  Andrewes  also  place  the  cylinder  in  the 
smoke-box,  and,  in  addition,  bring  the  heated  air  and  smoke  from  the 
smoke-box,  back  through  a  casing  surrounding  the  barrel  of  the  boiler; 
an  arrangement  which  they  have  lately  patented.  This  plan,  undoubt- 
edly gives  a  greater  heating  surface,  and  also  serves  to  prevent  any 
sparks  issuing  from  the  chimney,  which  on  this  system  rises  from  near 
the  fire-box  end. 

The  grand  point,  however,  which  this  "  exhibition"  has  developed,  is 
the  extraordinary  economy  of  fuel  which  has  been  obtained  by  the  use 
of  expansion  gear  in  the  Messrs.  Hornsby's  engine,  and  in  that  of 


Messrs.  Barrett  and  Co.'s,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  table  of  their 

duty : — ■ 

TRIALS  OF  PORTABLE  ENGINES. 


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14 

The  power  of  each  engine  is  tested  by  a  friction-brake  forming  a 
dynamometer.  The  exhibitor  states  the  power  the  engine  is  guaranteed 
to  exert,  and  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  it  should  make,  and 
the  dynamometer  having  been  adjusted  accordingly,  the  consumption 
of  Welsh  coal  is  tested  for  (we  believe)  three  hours.  The  friction- 
brake  gives  the  net  power  exerted  by  the  engine,  and  therein  differs 
from  indicator  diagrams,  from  the  results  of  which  a  certain  allowance 
has  to  be  made  for  friction.  This  simplifies  matters,  but  we  think  that 
a  little  saving  of  trouble  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the  way  of 
attaining  greater  scientific  accuracy,  which  can  only  be  done  by  sepa- 
rating the  duty  of  the  boiler  from  that  of  the  engine.  Thus,  the  eva- 
porative power  of  the  boiler  should  first  be  tested,  by  boiling  off  as 
much  water  per,  hour  as  the  engine  usually  consumes.  This  would  give 
a  measure  of  the  comparative  value  of  large  or  small  tubes,  copper  or 
iron  fire-boxes,  &c.  The  engine  should  then  be  indicated  whilst  driving 
the  friction-brake,  and  the  difference  between  the  results  obtained  from 
the  indicator  and  the  brake  would  give  the  power  absorbed  in  the 
friction  of  the  moving  parts,  whilst  the  shape  of  the  indicator  diagrams 
would  show  whether  the  ports  and  slide  were  properly  proportioned. 
The  necessity  for  attending  to  these  points  is  evident,  when  it  is  consi- 
dered that  not  only  is  the  goodness  of  the  boiler  tested,  but  likewise  the 
skill  of  the  stoker.  On  such  apparently  slight  causes  do  such  things 
turn,  that  we  have  seen  a  material  difference  in  the  production  of  steam 
between  the  engine  standing  to  windward  or  to  leeward  of  the  barn. 

One  point  will  strike  those  accustomed  to  indicate  engines,  viz.,  the 
low  power  obtained  from  a  given  size  of  cylinder.  Thus,  take  the  best 
engine  with  7|-inch  cylinder,  the  net  average  pressure  on  the  piston 
throughout  the  stroke  will  scarcely  exceed  30  lbs.,  which  would  be  ob- 
tained by  cutting  off  60  lbs.  steam  at  \  ;  and  in  the  other  engines  not 
working  so  expansively,  and  having  even  larger  cylinders,  the  initial 
pressure  of  steam  must  be  considerably  less.  With  such  small  boilers 
there  would  appear  no  danger  in  using  steam  at  80  or  100  lbs.  on  the 
square  inch.  Steam  engines  are  usually  expected  to  work  up  to  much 
more  than  their  nominal  power,  and  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  can 
boast  of  being  the  first  to  set  the  example  of  compelling  engine-makers 
to  sell  engines  by  actual  horse-power. 

In  working  expansively,  there  is  some  advantage  in  keeping  the 
cylinder  hot  (as  is  done  in  Cornwall  with  a  steam  jacket),  and  this  is 
provided  for  in  the  engines  we  have  already  mentioned,  by  placing  the 
cylinders  in  the  boiler  or  smoke-box.  y 

The  expansion  valves  adopted  by  Messrs.  Hornsby  and  Messrs. 
Barrett  are  of  the  gridiron  form,  worked  by  a  separate  eccentric ;  a 
mode  which  is  illustrated,  together  with  Mr.  Atherton's  patent  method 

*  To  each  of  the  above  quantities  of  coal  used  in  getting  up  steam,  must  be  added  20  lbs. 
of  wood. 


1852.] 


Agricultural  Engineering. 


165 


of  varying  the  expansion,  at  p.  228,  vol.  1850.  In  Messrs.  Clayton  and 
Shuttleworth's  engine,  a  water  bridge  is  introduced  in  the  furnace,  run- 
ning longitudinally,  and  not  transversely,  as  usual.  Where  coal  and 
wood  are  used,  we  are  not  sure  whether  this  space  thus  abstracted  from 
the  fire-box  can  well  be  spared. 

Amongst  the  novelties  in  the  details  of  portable  engines,  we  may 
mention  a  very  excellent  contrivance  by  Messrs.  Ransomes  and  Sims, 
which  they  term  a  "  spherical  locking  carriage,"  and  which  will  be 
readily  understood  from  the  accompanying  sketch.  Fig.  1  is  a  trans- 
verse section  of  the  carriage  of  a  portable  engine,  and  fig.  2  is  a  plan 

Fig.  2. 


body  of  the  carriage.  In  the  ordinary  locking  plate,  where  the  faces 
are  flat,  the  parts  have  to  be  made  stronger,  and  there  is  a  great  deal 
of  friction,  which  in  the  case  of  a  heavy  machine  adds  considerably  to 
the  draught. 

Messrs.  Ransomes  and  Sims  also  exhibited  a  variety  of  small  fixed 
engines  of  excellent  design  and  workmanship,  consisting  of  a  horizontal 
engine,  in  which  the  cylinder  is  sunk  into  the  sole  plate,  which  is  of 
the  box  form,  and  gives  great  stability  to  the  engine.  Another,  of  the 
inverted  description,  in  which  the  cylinder  is  supported  by  four  columns 
of  double  T  section,  and  the  crank  shaft  is  carried  on  the  sole  plate 
below.  This  arrangement  also  gives  great  stability  and  takes  up  less 
room  in  length  than  the  horizontal  engine.  They  also  exhibited  a  very 
neat  horizontal  oscillating  engine  and  corn  mill  combined.  These 
engines  have  very  neat  stop  valves,  consisting  of  a  small  cylinder,  faced 
for  part  of  the  circumference  inside,  on  which  lies  a  valve,  forming,  as  it 
were,  a  portion  of  the  plug  of  an  ordinary  cock,  and  moved  in  like 
manner. 

Mr.  Batley's  engine  is  repre- 
sented in  the  accompanying  en- 
graving, fig.  3,  drawn  to  half-inch 
scale.  A  noticeable  peculiarity  is 
the  way  in  which  the  piston-rod 
cross-head  is  guided,  the  guide 
consisting  of  a  single  stout  rod, 
below  the  piston  rod,  the  cross- 
head  sliding  on  it,  and  being  fur- 
nished with  a  stuffing  box  con- 
taining hemp  packing.  The  stop 
valve  is  of  the  gridiron  form,  the 
pressure  tending  to  keep  it  tight, 
and  moved  by  a  lever  taking  hold 
of  the  slide.  This  engine  is  con- 
structed in  a  plain  but  substantial 
manner. 

Mr.  Batley  has  also  favoured  us 
with  a  sketch  of  his  fixed  horizon- 
tal engines,  shown  at  fig.  4.  The 
feed  pump,  it  will  be  seen,  is 
worked  off  the  piston  rod  cross- 
head.  The  slide  is  worked  from 
a  weigh-shaft,  and  is  easily  got  at. 
by  taking  off  the  slide-chest  cover, 
The  exhaust  is  led  through  a  belt, 
round,  and  below  the  cylinder, 
The  governor  is  attached  to  the 
throttle-valve  in  the  following 
manner  : — A  toothed  sector  is 
keyed  on  the  prolongation  of  the 
throttle-valve  spindle,  and  is 
moved  by  a  series  of  rings  turned 
out  of  the  sliding  collar  on  the 
governor  spindle ;  these  rings 
take  into  the  teeth  of  the  sector, 
and  communicate  their  motion  to 
the  throttle-valve,  whilst  their 
form  allows  the  collar  to  revolve 
freely. 

Messrs.  Barrett,  Exall,  and  An- 
drevves  exhibited  some  good  spe- 
cimens of  vertical  engines,  a  mo- 
dification of  that  known  as  Fair- 
bairn's  engine.  Messrs.  Barrett 
—    and  Co.  have,  however,    used    a 


166 


Agricultural  Engineering. 


[August, 


column  of  much  larger  diameter  than  usual,  for  supporting  the  crank- 
shaft, and  have  placed  the  slide  outside.  These  improvements  have  the 
effect  of  giving  more  stability  to  the  engine,  and  of  rendering  the  parts 
much  more  accessible  than  in  Mr.  Fairbairn's  engine.      The  crank  being 


Amongst  the  hydraulic  machinery,  we  have  noted  a  lift  for  wells, 
constructed  in  a  very  efficient  manner,  by  Messrs.  Tasker  and 
Fovvle  (of  the  Waterloo  Iron  Works,  near  Andover),  and  represented 
in  n<".  5.      It  has  received  the   silver  medal  both   at   Southampton 


Fig.  4. 


double,  no  outer  bearing  is  required,  and  the  fly-wheel  is  arranged  on 
one  side,  and  the  eccentrics  on  the  other.  A  gridiron  expansion  valve 
is  applied,  and  worked  by  an  additional  eccentric,  as  is  usually  practised. 
We  must  reserve  our  remarks  on  some  other  of  the  steam  engines 
until  our  next  number. 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  6. 


1852.] 


Agricultural  Engineering. 


167 


and  Lewes  shows.  Two  buckets,  holding  about  twelve  gallons  each, 
are  employed  in  balance,  the  chain  to  which  they  are  attached  being 
passed  over  a  pulley  worked  by  winch-handles,  through  the  inter- 
vention of  a  wheel  and  pinion.  When 
the  full  bucket  reaches  the  surface,  a  ring 
round  the  mouth  of  it  is  caught  by  an 
iron  hook,  which  tilts  the  bucket  over,  as 
shown  in  the  sketch,  and  empties  its 
contents  into  the  trough,  without  requir- 
ing the  men  to  move  from  the  handles. 
The  hooks  are  hung  on  centres  in  the 
trough,  so  that  they  fall  down  when  the 
bucket  is  lowered,  and  ensure  its  being 
caught  at  the  next  lift.  The  apparatus 
is  constructed  entirely  of  iron,  and  is 
self-contained,  on  an  iron  sole-plate. 
Those  purchasers  who  can  put  up  a 
wooden  framework  themselves,  may  save 
the  expense  of  the  iron  frame-work. 

A  contrivance,  which  has  been  patented 
some  time,  but  which  has  only  recently 
been  brought  before  the  public,  is  Urwin's 
Patent  Double-acting  Pump,  shown  at 
fig.  6,  drawn  to  a  scale  of  %  inch  to  a 
foot.  It  is  of  a  very  peculiar  construc- 
tion, and  its  power  appears  to  be  mea- 
sured by  its  keeping  the  water  in  motion 
when  once  started,  rather  than  by  the 
displacement  of  the  piston,  as  we  are 
accustomed  to  ca'culate  ordinary  pumps. 

The  plunger,  which  is  a  solid  packed  one,  is  moved  by  a  hand- 
wheel  and  crank.  There  is  only  one  suction-passage  in  the  middle 
of  the  barrel,  and  there  are  two  delivery  passages,  one  at  the  top 
and  the  other  at  the  bottom,  the  latter  being  carried  up  so  as  to 
bring  both  delivery  valves  on  one  face,  to  which  they  are  fastened  by 
thumb-screws,  as  shown  in  fig.  7,  which  is  a  transverse  section  across 
the  line  A  B,  supposing  the  delivery  cistern  to  be  removed.  The  supply 
rises  through  a  clack-valve,  fixed  in  a  syphon-pipe  leading  to  the  well. 
The  course  of  the  water  is  indicated  by  the  arrows.  If  we  suppose  the 
plunger  to  be  going  up,  it  is  obvious  that  a  partial  vacuum  will  be 
formed  under  it;  but  the  water  cannot  enter  the  barrel  until  the  edge  of 
the  pluDger  has  passed  the  suction  passage,  when  it  will  rush  in,  and, 
as  far  as  we  can  judge,  from  watching  the  action  of  the  pump,  the  mo- 
mentum of  the  entering  water  appears  to  carry  it  up  the  lower  delivery 
passage,  before  the  plunger  has  commenced  its  down-stroke.  The 
same  action  takes  place,  on  the  return  of  the  plunger,  which  forces  all 
the  water  below  it  up  the  delivery  passage,  whilst  the  barrel  fills  at  the 
top.  If  it  were  not  for  the  valve  in  the  suction-pipe,  it  would  appear 
as  if  a  portion  of  the  water  below  the  piston  would  escape  back  through 
the  suction-pipe ;  but,  nevertheless,  these  pumps  will  throw  a  large 
amount  of  water,  as  we  have  witnessed,  without  any  suction-valve. 
We  have  not  satisfied  ourselves  as  to  their  duty  by  critical  experiment, 
but  we  shall  probably  have  an  opportunity  of  doing  so,  when  we  will 
lay  the  result  before  our  readers.  The  advantage  claimed  is,  the  power 
of  pumping  water  containing  shavings,  or  grain,  or  tar,  starch-pulp, 
&c,  which  will  entirely  choke  ordinary  pumps.  The  position  of  the 
delivery  valves  affords  great  facilities  for  keeping  them  clear,  as  they 
can  be  got  at  in  an  instant.  When  the  pump  is  designed  to  act  as 
afire-engine,  an  air-vessel  is  fixed  on  the  top  of  the  delivery  cistern, 
and  the  hose  attached  to  the  nozzle. 

The  reaping  machines  came  out  in  full  force,  a  great  number  being 
exhibited.     Messrs.  Garrett    and    Sons  (of  Leiston  Works,  Suffolk), 


which  we  have  already  illustrated  (p.  248,  vol.  1851),  obtained  the  prize, 
having,  on  trial,  distanced  all  competitors.  Since  we  last  described  it, 
they  have  simplified  and  lightened  the  wooden  frame-work,  and  en- 


Fig.  8. 


Fig.  9. 

closed  it  in  a  case.  They  have  also  altered  the  shape  of  the  knives,  so 
as  to  give  them  a  scissors'  edge,  by  which  they  tend  to  sharpen  them- 
selves, and  cut  cleaner  than  before.  Provision  has  also  been  made  for 
raising  and  lowering  the  cutting  table,  without  stopping  the  machine, 
which,  on  uneven  ground  is  aD  important  advantage. 

The  most  original  idea,  however,  is  Mr.  Mason's  (of  Ipswich),  who  has 
boldly  adopted  the  principle  of  the  circular  saw.  Fig.  8  is  an  elevation,  and 
fig.  9  a  plan,  of  Mr.  Mason's  registered  reaping  machine.  It  is  drawn 
by  horses,  in  the  usual  method,  and  guided  like  a  plough,  by  a  man  at 
the  handles,  which  in  the  sketch  are  shown  broken  off,  to  save  length. 
a,  is  the  large  wheel,  which  takes  the  weight  of  the  machine,  and  its 
motion  is  communicated  by  the  spur  wheels  to  the  pinion,  c,  on  the 
spindle  of  which  are  fixed  three  chain-drums,  which,  by  means  of 
endless  chains,  give  motion  to  the  horizontal  circular  saws,  d,  d,  d,  shown 
dotted.  Under  the  table  of  the  machine,  a  comb,  e,  e,  is  provided,  to 
support  the  wheat-stalk  whilst  being  cut.  This  machine  has  only  just 
been  invented,  and  we  cannot  therefore  report  on  its  qualities. 

We  may  commend,  as  a  problem  to  our  ingenious  readers,  the  in- 
vention of  an  arrangement  for  collecting  and  binding  the  sheaves  as 
fast  as  the  wheat  is  delivered  by  the  machine.  It  is  rather  too  severe 
work,  at  present,  for  the  man  on  the  machine,  who  has  to  fork  a  rake- 
ful  of  wheat  over  the  tail  of  the  machine,  without  cessation  or  breath- 


Fig.  10. 


Fig.  II. 


16S 


Agricultural  Engineering. 


[August, 


iugtiine;  and  the  effect  on  ripe  wheat  is  prejudicial,  as  it  tends  to 
shake  the  grains  out  of  the  ears.  A  "  collector"  is  wanted,  and,  we 
hope,  will  be  forthcoming  before  the  season  is  over. 

Messrs.  E.  Hill  and  Co.  (of  Brierly  Hill  Works,  near  Dudley)  ex- 
hibited a  large  collection  of  wrought-iron  work,  such  as  fencing,  hurdles, 

_, 6  FEET 


gates,  rick-stands,  &c. ;  articles,  which  their  position,  in  the  centre  of  the 
iron  district,  enables  them  to  supply  on  such  terms,  as  to  lead  to  the  hope 
that  monstrous  hedges,  occupying  much  land, 
and  spoiling  more,  may  give  way  before  them. 
For  a  sheep  fence,  the  following  sizes  and  con- 
struction are  adopted  : — Height  above  ground, 
3  feet  4  inches;  depth  of  standards  below 
ground  13  inches,  having  a  double-pronged  foot, 
to  give  steadiment.  The  standards  are  3  feet 
apart,  with  five  rails — the  top  one  round,  f 
diameter,  in  15  feet  lengths,  and  secured  at 
every  fifth  standard  by  the  socket-joint,  fig.  10, 
which  passes  through  the  standard,  and  is  keyed 
on  each  side  to  the  rails.  The  lower  bars  are 
all  flat,  1  inch  by  i  inch,  placed  on  edge,  to  bear 
the  weight  of  trespassers.  These  are  also  in 
15  feet  lengths,  and  connected  in  the  standards 
by  lap-joints,  shown  in  fig.  11,  which  transmit 
any  thrust,  by  the  butt-end,  through  the  whole 
line  of  fence.  These  joints  have  the  conveni- 
ence of  admitting  of  one  or  more  pieces  being 
temporarily  removed  to  make  a  passage. 

The  sheep-feeding  hurdle,  fig.  12,  is  a  simple 
and  effective  contrivance  for  feeding  a  crop  off 
with  sheep,  as  they  are  prevented  treading  on 
and  spoiling  what  they  do  not  eat,  and  the 
hurdles  which  form  a  rack  for  them  to  eat 
through  are  readily  shifted  in  a  few  minutes 
by  a  boy.  From  their  angular  position,  they 
stand  with  great  firmness  on  the  softest 
ground. 

Fig.  13  is  a  self-shutting  gate,  with  a  rising 
hinge,  the  weight  of  the  gate  being  taken  by 
a  friction  roller  on  the  double  inclined  plane. 

Fig.  14  is  a  single-powered  granary  crane, 
with  brake  (drawn  to  ^-inch  scale),  intended  to 
lift  30  ewt. 

(To  be  continued.) 


For  the  best  paring  plough,  5?.— Mr.  Thomas  Glover. 

For  the  best  subsoil  pulveriser,  5/.— Messrs.  J.  Gray  and  Co. 

For  the  best  drill  for  general  purposes,  10/. — Messrs.  R.  Hornsby  and  Son. 

For  the  best  steerage  corn  and  turnip  drill,  107. — Messrs.  R.  Hornsby  and 
Son. 

For  the  best  drill  for  small  occupations,  5/. — Messrs.  R.  Garrett  and  Son. 

For  the  best  and  most  economical  small  occupation  seed  and  manure  drill 
for  flat  or  ridged  work,  5/. — Messrs.  R.  Garrett  and  Son. 

For  the  best  turnip  drill  on  the  flat,  10/.— Messrs.  R.  Hornsby  and  Son. 

For  the  best  turnip  drill  on  the  ridge,  10/.     Messrs.  R.  Hornsby  and  Son. 

For  the  best  drop  drill  for  depositing  seed  and  manure,  10/. — Messrs.  R. 
Garrett  and  Son. 

For  the  best  manure  distributor,  5/. — Messrs.  R.  Garrett  and  Son. 

For  the  best  portable  steam-engine,  not  exceeding  6-horse  power,  applicable 
to  thrashing  or  other  agricultural  purposes,  40/. — Messrs.  R.  Hornsby  and 
Son. 

For  the  second  best  ditto,  20/. — Messrs.  Barrett,  Exall,  and  Andrewes. 

For  the  best  fixed  steam-engine,  not  exceeding  8-horse  power,  applicable 
to  thrashing  or  other  agricultural  purposes,  20/. — Messrs.  Barrett,  Exall,  and 
Andrewes. 

For  the  second  best  ditto,  10/. — Messrs.  Ransome. 

For  the  best  portable  thrashing  machine,  not  exceeding  2-horse  power,  for 
small  occupations,  10/. — Messrs.  R.  Garrett  and  Son. 


THE  FOLLOWING  IS  THE  PRIZE  LIST 
OF  THE  ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL  SO- 
CIETY. 

For  the  plough  best  adapted  for  general  pur- 
poses, 7/.— Messrs.  Ransome  and  Co. 

For  the  plough  best  adapted  for  deep  ploughing, 
7/.— Mr.  William  Busby. 

For  the  best  one-way  or  turn-wrest  plough,  11— 
Messrs.  Ransome  and  Co. 


Fig.  u. 


1852.] 


Adams  s  Patent  Repeating  Pistol. 


169 


For  the  best  portable  thrashing  machine,  not  exceeding  6-horse  power,  for 
larger  occupations,  20/. — Messrs.  Garrett  and  Son. 

For  the  best  portable  thrashing  machine,  not  exceeding  6-horse  power,  with 
shaker  and  riddle,  to  be  driven  by  steam,  20/.— Messrs.  Clayton  and  Co. 

For  the  best  fixed  thrashing  machine,  not  exeeeding  6-horse  power,  with 
straw-shaker,  riddle,  and  winnower,  that  will  best  prepare  the  corn  for  the 
finishing  dressing  machine,  to  be  driven  by  steam,  20/.— Messrs.  Garrett  and 
Son. 

For  the  best  corn  dressing  machine,  10/.— Messrs.  Hornsby  and  Son. 

For  the  best  grinding  mill  for  breaking  agricultural  produce  into  fine  meal, 
10/.— Mr.  Hunvood. 

For  the  best  linseed  and  com  crusher,  5/.  —Mr.  Stanley. 

For  the  best  chaff  cutter,  to  be  worked  by  horse  or  steam-power,  10/. — 
Messrs.  Richmond  and  Chandler. 

For  the  best  chaff  cutter,  to  be  worked  by  hand  power,  5/. — Mr.  Cornes. 

For  the  best  turnip  cutter,  5/. — Mr.  Samuelson. 

For  the  best  oil-cake  breaker  for  every  variety  of  cake,  5/.— Mr.  Hornsby. 

For  the  best  one-horse  cart  for  general  purposes,  10/. — Mr.  William  Busby. 

For  the  best  light  waggon  for  general  purposes,  equal  merit,  Mr.  Crosskill 
and  Mr.  W.  Ball. 

For  the  best  machine  for  making  draining  tiles  or  pipes  for  agriculture,  20/. 
—Mr.  T.  Scragg. 

For  the  best  instruments  for  hand  use  in  drainage,  3/. — Messrs.  Mapplebeck 
and  Lowe. 

For  the  best  heavy  harrow,  5/. — Mr.  W.  Williams. 

For  the  best  light  harrow,  5/. — Messrs.  J.  and  F.  Howard. 

For  the  best  cultivator,  grubber,  or  scarifier,  10/. — Messrs.  Eansome  &  Co. 

For  the  best  pair-horse  scarifier,  5/. — Mr.  Charles  Hart. 

For  the  best  horseshoe  on  the  flat,  10/. — Messrs.  Garrett  and  Son. 

For  the  best  horseshoe  on  the  ridge,  5/. — Messrs.  J.  and  F.  Howard. 

For  the  best  horse  rake,  5/. — Messrs.  J.  and  F.  Howard. 

For  the  best  horse  dibbler  or  seed  depositor,  not  being  a  drill,  10/. 

For  the  best  gorse  bruiser,  5/. — Messrs.  Barrett,  Exall,  and  Andrewes. 

For  the  best  and  most  economical  steaming  apparatus  for  general  purposes, 
5/.— Mr.  W.  P.  Stanley. 

For  the  best  dynamometer,  especially  applicable  to  the  traction  of  ploughs, 
5/.— -Mr.  Bentall. 

Reaping  machine,  silver  medal. — Messrs.  R.  Garrett  and  Son. 

Improvement  in  plough  wheels,  silver  medal. — Messrs  J.  and  F.  Howard. 

Well  machinery,  silver  medal. — Messrs.  Tasker  and  Fowle. 

Digging  forks  and  farm  tools,  silver  medal. — Messrs.  Burgess  and  Key. 

Patent  double  mill  for  hand  power,  silver  medal. — Messrs.  Ransome  &  Co. 


ADAMS'S  PATENT  REPEATING  PISTOL. 

(Illustrated  by  Plate  14.) 

As  we  have  already  described  Col.  Colt's  pistol,  so  we  now  proceed 
to  put  our  readers  in  possession  of  both  sides  of  the  question,  by  exhi- 
biting the  English  variety,  which  has  peculiar  merits  of  its  own.  It  is 
the  invention  of  Mr.  Adams,  of  the  firm  of  Deaue,  Adams,  and  Deane, 
and  is  to  be  chiefly  commended  for  the  solidity  of  its  construction,  which 
gives  greater  strength,  with  less  weight,  than  any  other  variety  which  we 
have  examined.  It  does  not  require  cocking,  as  the  pulling  the  trigger 
raises  the  hammer ;  and  upon  this  point  the  advocates  on  either  side 
join  issue.  For  hand-to-hand  combat,  where  great  delicacy  of  aim  is  not 
required,  the  advantage  of  rapid  firing  is  said  to  be  of  infinitely  greater 
importance  than  the  occasional  use  of  the  pistol  for  long  shots.  From 
a  trial  of  both  Colt's  and  Adams's,  we  must  confess  that  the  former 
feels  more  to  be  depended  on  for  a  long  shot,  as  the  trigger  is  touched 
only  at  the  moment  of  getting  the  sight.  And  yet,  to  show  how  much 
depends  on  practice,  we  saw,  during  some  trials  of  rifles  at  Lord  Rane- 
lagh's,  four  shots  out  of  five  put  into  a  target,  three  feet  diameter,  at 
100  yards,  from  one  of  Adams's  pistols  !  So  much  for  knowing  hotv  to 
handle  your  "  shooting-iron."  So  evenly  balanced  are  the  merits  of 
the  two  plans,  in  our  humble  opinion,  that  when  we  design  a  novelty 
for  our  own  use,  it  shall  be  made  capable  of  being  used  either  way  ; 
and  this  is  the  only  method  we  see  of  escaping  from  the  dilemma.  But, 
as  our  readers  will  probably  prefer  our  description  to  our  theory,  we 
will  proceed  to  analyse  Mr.  Adams's  patent  pistol. 

Fig.  1  is  an  end  elevation,  and  fig.  2  is  a  side  elevation,  of  the  pistol, 
half  size.  Fig.  3  is  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  same,  full  size,  a  portion 
of  the  barrel  being  broken  off.  Fig.  4  is  an  end  elevation  of  the  trig- 
ger and  the  hammer-lifter.    Figs.  5  and  6  (also  full  size)  are  front  and 


back  elevations  of  the  revolving  chamber.  The  barrel,  a,  it  will  be  ob- 
served, is  forged  in  a  piece  with  the  frame,  b  b,  to  which  it  is  connected 
at  top  by  the  piece,  c.  The  pin,  d,  is'fitted  into  the  stock,  and  is  held 
in  its  position  by  a  spring-catch  taking  into  the  notch,  e,  one  side  of 
which  is  bevelled,  to  allow  the  pin  to  be  withdrawn  when  sufficient  force 
is  applied.  A  similar  notch,  e',  prevents  the  pin  being  entirely  with- 
drawn, unless  the  spring  is  held  back,  thus  preventing  the  pin  being 
accidentally  lost.  On  this  pin  revolves  the  chamber,  g,  which  contains 
five  charges,  as  shown  in  fig.  5.  At  the  back  of  the  chamber  is  fixed 
the  ratchet,  h,  which  is  put  on  with  two  screws,  as  shown  in  fig.  6,  so 
as  to  admit  of  its  being  readily  renewed,  when  worn. 

We  have  already  said  that  the  hammer  is  lifted  by  pulling  the  trigger, 
and  this  is  effected  in  the  following  manner  -.—  The  hammer,  k,  moves 
upon  the  pin,  i,  and  is  pressed  down  on  the  nipple  by  the  spring,  /,  to  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  swivel  or  link  from  the  pin,  o.  The  trigger,  m,  moves 
on  the  pin,  n,  and  is  kept  in  position  by  the  pressure  of  the  spring,^?. 
To  the  back  centre  of  the  trigger,  r,  are  attached  the  hammer-lifter,  s, 
and  the  ratchet-pall,  t.  The  point  of  the  hammer-lifter,  s,  takes  into 
a  notch  cut  in  the  hammer,  so  that,  as  the  trigger  is  pulled,  the  ham- 
mer is  raised,  until,  as  shown  in  fig.  3,  the  rounding  portion  of  the 
hammer,  acting  like  a  cam,  forces  the  lifter,  s,  out  of  the  notch,  and 
allows  the  hammer  to  descend  on  the  nipple  and  explode  the  percussion- 
cap.  In  fig.  3,  the  hammer  is  shown  just  at  the  moment  of  its  escape 
and  descent;  in  fig.  2,  the  hammer  is  shown  down  on  the  nipple. 
When  the  finger  is  taken  from  the  trigger,  the  end,  r,  and  the  lifter,  s, 
descend,  and  the  latter  again  slips  into  the  notch  ready  for  the  next 
shot.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  the  lifter,  s,  requires  to  be  kept  in 
contact  with  the  hammer,  or  else  its  action  could  not  be  relied  on. 
This  is  ingeniously  effected  thus  :  at  the  back  of  the  ratchet-pall,  f,  is  a 
small,  flat  spring,  the  upper_end  of  which  is  attached  to  the  pall,  whilst 
the  lower  end  acts  upon  the  lifter,  s,  as  shown  in  fig.  4.  As  the  lifter, 
s,  turns  on  the  centre,  r,  the  pressure  has  to  be  applied  below  the 
centre,  to  press  the  upper  end  in  the  right  direction,  and  the  lifter,  s, 
is  prolonged  below  the  centre  for  that  purpose. 

The  rotation  of  the  chamber  is  a  very  simple  matter.  The  pall,  t, 
when  the  trigger  is  pulled,  acting  on  the  ratchet,  causes  the  chamber 
to  revolve  in  one  direction,  whilst,  at  the  moment  of  the  release  and 
descent  of  the  hammer,  the  projecting  tooth,  x,  of  the  trigger,  acts  as 
a  stop,  and  prevents  the  movement  of  the  chamber  in  the  opposite 
direction.  The  notches,  z,  z,  z,  z,  z,  shown  in  fig.  6,  permit  the  cham- 
ber to  revolve  until  the  stop-piece  left  at  the  end  of  each  notch  comes 
in  contact  with  the  tooth,  x. 

In  order  to  load  the  chambers,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  revolve 
free  of  the  stop.  This  is  effected  by  a  stop,  which  keeps  the  hammer 
slightly  raised.  A  spring,  y,  is  fixed  at  the  side  of  the  lock  (see  figs.  1 
and  2),  which  has  a  pin  (y,  fig.  3)  attached  to  the  end  of  it.  The  ham- 
mer is  raised  slightly  by  pulling  the  trigger,  and  the  spring,  y,  pushed 
in,  which,  by  a  notch  cut  in  it,  engages  the  hammer,  and  prevents  it 
descending  on  the  nipple.  The  chamber  can  then  be  loaded  in  the  ordi- 
nary way  ;  and  when  the  trigger  is  pulled,  the  spring,  y,  is  released,  and 
flies  back  without  any  further  trouble. 

Figs.  7  and  8  are  an  elevation  and  plan  of  the  bullet-mould,  half  size. 
The  bullets  are  cast  with  a  small  tang  upon  them,  which  serves  to  fix  a 
wad  by.  In  loading,  therefore,  no  ramrod  is  used,  but  the  bullets  are 
pushed  in  with  the  finger.  The  aperture  of  the  barrel  is  slightly  tapered 
outwards  at  the  chambered  end,  to  admit  of  the  bullet  entering  it,  when 
fired,  more  readily.  The  barrel  is,  of  course,  rifled,  but  the  rifling  is 
the  reverse  of  the  old-fashioned  method,  consisting  of  three  feathers 
(to  use  an  engineering  term),  and  not  grooves.  This,  in  principle,  is 
the  same  thing,  the  difference  being,  that  the  grooves  are  very  wide  in 
this  pistol. 

We  take  this  opportunity  of  also  noticing  a  very  simple  and  ingenious 


170 


Reed's  Iron  Block  Chairs. 


[August, 


musket-lock,  invented  by  Messrs.  Deane,  Adams,  and  Deane,  shown  in 
figs.  9  and  10,  half  size.  There  is  only  one  spring,  a  a,  the  tendency 
of  both  arms  of  which  is  to  rise  ;  the  upper  arm  has  a  projecting  tooth, 
b,  which  throws  over  the  hammerj  c,  while  the  lower  arm  is  furnished 
with  the  notches  which  hold  the  hammer  at  half  or  full-cock.  In  the 
engraving,  it  is  shown  at  half-cock.  The  projecting  pin,  d,  is  taken 
hold  of  by  the  trigger,  in  the  usual  way,  and  is  pulled  down  when  the 
hammer  is  to  be  released. 

We  have  already  given  diagrams,  and  discussed  the  merits  of  the 
principal  bullets  which  have  been  designed  to  facilitate  the  loading  of 
rifles ;  and,  as  far  as  can  be  learnt,  none  of  them  appear  to  be  free 
from  defect.  The  great  defect  of  the  Delvigne  or  Minie  ball  {ante  p. 
76)  seems  to  be,  that  the  wrought-iron  cup  is  liable  to  be  driven 
through  the  ball,  leaving  an  annular  ring  of  lead  in  the  barrel — an 
accident  which  puts  the  soldier  hors  de  combat.  To  remove  this  objec- 
tion, Messrs.  Deane,  Adams,  and  Deane  have  devised  and  registered  a 
new  form  of  ball,  shown  in  section  in  fig.  11,  and  in  external  view  in 
fig.  12,  full  size.  It  consists  of  two  pieces,  forming  an  interior  and 
exterior  cone,  which  being  forced  together  by  the  explosion,  causes  the 
outer  cone  to  expand,  and  fill  the  groove  of  the  rifle.  What,  however, 
is  of  equal  importance,  at  the  present  time,  is  its  applicability  to  the 
ordinary  musket,  as  the  annihilation  of  the  windage  will  improve  the 
powers  of  that  "  queen  of  weapons  "  in  a  very  great  degree.  The  ring 
turned  out  of  the  outer  cone  is  for  the  purpose  of  attaching  the  cartridge 
by.  To  show  how  these  shot  behave,  when  fired,  we  have  engraved, 
figs.  13  and  14,  the  same  shot  when  fired  at  an  iron  target.  The  iden- 
tical bullet  here  sketched  was  fired  from  a  rifle,  with  only  one-eighth 
of  a  drachm  of  powder,  against  an  iron  target,  at  37  yards  distance. 
This  distance  is  very  short,  and  was  only  tried  as  an  experiment ;  but 
the  charge  of  powder  is  an  equally  homoeopathic  dose.  To  test  its 
penetrating  power,  a  similar  bullet,  with  the  same  charge  and  distance, 
went  through  3  inches  of  deal  and  a  wooden  powder-barrel  filled  with 
gravel.  Further  experiments  are  in  progress  with  these  shot,  which  we 
shall  be  able  to  lay  before  our  readers  as  they  occur. 

REED'S  IRON  BLOCK  CHAIRS. 

In  discussing  the  merits  of  the  various  modern  forms  of  permanent 
ways  (p.  147,  vol.  1851),  we  omitted  to  notice  Mr.  Reed's  patent  chairs, 
a  fact  to  which  we  are  obliged  to  him  for  calling  our  attention.  The 
date  of  Mr.  Reed's  patent,  16th  October,  1845,  appears  to  justify  his 
claim  to  the  invention  of  the  cast-iron  permanent  way.  The  following 
description  is  communicated  to  us  by  the  inventor. 


Explanation.— The  base  is  22  by  20  inches,  and  $  of  an  inch  thick. 
The  turned-up  margin  is  |-  high  and  thick.  The  boss  which  carries  the 
chair  is  hollow,  and  the  sides  f  thick.     The  bottom  plate  of  the  chair 


is  |  inch  thick.  The  side  brackets  are  f  thick,  and  the  brackets  to 
carry  the  rail,  A  A,  are  h  inch  thick.  The  rail  which  the  Newcastle  and 
Carlisle  Railway  Company  are  now  (March,  1852)  using  in  connection 
with  these  blocks,  weighs  76'J  lbs.  to  the  yard.  The  weight  of  this 
block  is  80  lbs.,  and  the  joint  block  86  lbs.  The  extent  of  bearing  for 
the  rail  (in  this  case)  is  20  inches,  which  admits  of  the  blocks  being 
laid  4  feet  apart,  centre  and  centre,  leaving  unsupported  between  them 
28  inches,  to  compare  with  33  inches,  the  length  unsupported  by  the 
old  method,  3  feet  apart.  This  gives  1,980  intermediate  blocks  to  the 
mile  of  railway,  and  660  joint  blocks.  The  former  weighing  141  tons 
8  cwt.  2  qrs.  8  lbs.  ;  and  the  latter  50  tons  13  cwt.  2  qrs.  4  lbs. 
Together  192  tons  8  cwt.  0  qrs.  12  lbs. 

These  blocks  are  laid  4  feet  apart  from  centre  to  centre,  on  the  New- 
castle-upon-Tyne and  Carlisle  Railway  (the  stone  blocks  and  wood 
sleepers  are  invariably  three  feet  apart),  which  deviation  from  the 
common  practice,  the  increased  bearance  for  the  rail,  renders  available 
21  inches  in  the  place  of  4  inches,  which  leaves  the  unsupported  portion 
of  the  rail,  27  inches  between  the  blocks,  to  compare  with  32  inches 
of  non-support  in  the  other  mode  of  laying.  The  nearer  the  blocks  are 
placed  to  each  other,  the  less  will  be  the  portion  of  the  unsupported  rail. 
This  arrangement  is  one  of  the  peculiar  advantages  connected  with  the 
block  chair,  by  which  the  substitution  of  three  blocks  in  place  of  four 
secures  also  an  increased  strength  to  the  rail  of  one-sixth. 

The  block  chairs  are  so  much  more  leadily  laid  down,  that  it  has  been 
practically  ascertained  the  plate-layers  with  greater  ease  get  over  more 
than  double  the  work,  i.e.,  they  lay  80  of  those  blocks,  or  107  yards 
of  single  rail,  in  the  same  time  that  40  stone  blocks  can  be  laid  down, 
which  extend  over  40  yards  only. 

The  blocks  are  immoveable  by  the  running  of  trains,  requiring  no  tie- 
bars  to  preserve  the  parallelism  of  the  rails,  though  provision  is  made 
for  them,  if  required ;  they  need  little  or  no  after  attention,  but  when 
that  is  called  for,  the  raising  or  shifting  is  very  easily  and  rapidly 
effected. 

From  the  entirety  of  the  block  and  chair  the  dis-unity  of  parts  is 
obviated ;  and  in  consequence  of  the  extraordinary  smoothness  with 
which  the  trains  pass  over  them,  bearing  on  the  rails  is  prevented ;  and 
as  there  is  no  possibility  of  the  separation  of  the  chair  from  the  block, 
the  hazard  to  which  trains  are  constantly  and  fearfully  exposed  is  re- 
moved, and  no  wood  pins  and  iron  spikes  or  screw  bolts  being  needed, 
there  is  less  liability  to  failure  by  the  corrosion  and  decay  of  such 
adjuncts. 

Stone  blocks  are  liable  to  frequent  breakage  by  driving  down  wood 
pins  in  the  first  instance,  as  well  as  from  the  expansion  of  the  pins 
afterwards.  Injurious  results  very  often  happen  from  frosts  separating 
the  stone  blocks.  Wood  sleepers  are  even  more  objectionable,  from 
being  subject  to  rapid  decay.  These  several  consequences  greatly 
endanger  the  running  of  the  trains,  besides  causing  frequent  delavs 
whilst  the  resulting  repairs  thereby  required  are  in  progress,  which  entail 
a  never-ceasing  outlay  on  the  railway.  These  casualties  are  in  no 
respect  consequent  to  the  iron  block  chairs  ;  besides  which,  a  further 
and  no  inconsiderable  saving  to  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  rolling  stock 
may  be  reckoned  upon,  from  the  easy  running  of  the  carriages  over 
ways  laid  with  them,  which  has  been  so  obvious  as  to  cause  general 
remark. 

And  finally,  it  may  be  observed,  that  the  durability  and  economy 
of  the  iron  block  chairs  over  those  of  stone  blocks  and  wood  sleepers 
is  unquestionable.  Their  weight  is  arbitrary,  but  they  may  be  safely 
adopted  as  low  as  80  or  84  lbs.  The  general  cost  connected  therewith 
is  less  than  that  of  either  stone  block  or  wood  sleepers,  whilst  the  per- 
manent advantage  is  incalculable,  and  whenever  they  are  no  longer 
wanted,  their  marketable  value  as  old  metal  will  be  one-half  the  original 
cost,  or  possibly  more. 


1852.] 


Cation  and  its  Manufacturing  Mechanism. 


171 


COTTON  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURING  MECHANISM, 
By  Robert  Scott  Burn,  M.E.,  M.S. A. 

(Continued  from  page  146.) 

In  plate  13  we  have  given  a  longitudinal  section  of  Mason's  double 
beater  lap  machine  ;  at  page  144  we  give  a  description  of  its  arrange- 
ments and  action  ;  we  now  add  the  reference  letters,  by  which  this  will 
be  still  further  elucidated.  The  rollers,  1,  2,3  (in  the  machine  there 
are  four  sets  of  lap  rollers,  but  the  limits  of  the  sheet  only  permitted 
three  to  be  shown),  represented  by  the  dotted  circles,  are  taken,  filled 
from  the  lap  machine,  and  placed  in  the  slotted  bearings,  as  in  the 
drawing.  By  this  arrangement,  different  qualities  of  cotton  may  be 
passed  through  the  machine,  each  roller  having  a  different  supply  from 
its  neighbour.  The  periphery  of  the  "  lap "  always  rests  on  the 
endless  apron,  f  g,  revolving  on  the  rollers,  s  s,  by  which  the  cotton  is 
carried  forwards  to  the  feed  rollers,  a  a  j  in  passing  from  between 
which  it  is  struck  by  the  beater-bars,  b  b,  tb.3  heavy  impurities  falling 
through  the  circular  grating  shown  in  the  drawing;  the  tufts  of  cotton 
thereafter  pass  up  the  inclined  plane,  c,  likewise  grated,  between  the 
perforated  revolving  cages,  d  d ;  these  are  partially  exhausted  of  air, 
by  means  of  the  fanners,  e  e  j  by  this  means  a  large  portion  of  the  im- 
purities are  withdrawn  from  the  cotton  as  it  passes  between  them.  The 
cotton  is  next  passed  over  the  intermediate  rollers,  where  it  is  formed 
into  a  species  of  lap,  which  is  passed  to  the  feed  rollers,/;  in  passing 
between  which  it  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  second  beater,/;  it  is 
then  passed  up  the  incline,  g,  between  the  second  revolving  cages,  h  h, 
and  finally  between  the  series  of  calendering  rollers,  n,  o  o,  known  as 
"  Mason's  Patent  Condenser."  This  arrangement  causes  a  very  large 
quantity  of  cotton  to  be  wound  round  the  lap  roller,  which  is  placed  in 
the  slotted  bearing  at  p. 

1  The  carding-engine,  of  which  we  give  a  section  in  plate  13  (longi- 
tudinal), is  for  medium  numbers  of  yarn.  The  lap  roller  from  the 
"  blower"  (of  which  we  give  a  section  in  plate  13)  is  placed  at  a  a  j  the 
lap  is  unwound  from  this  ;  taken  up  by  the  feed  roller,  b  b  j  from  thence 
taken  by  the  licker-in,  c  c,  and  delivered  to  the  main  cylinder,  d  d; 
from  this  it  is  taken  off  by  the  cylinder,  e  e ;  from  this  it  is  taken 
by  /,  and  re-delivered  to  the  main  cylinder,  d  d  •  in  like  manner 
the  cotton  is  continually  taken  from  and  delivered  to  the  card  on 
the  main  cylinder  by  the  strippers  and  rollers,  g,  h,  i,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q, 
r,  sj  being  finally  taken  from  the  main  cylinder  by  the  doffer  card 
cylinder,  t  tj  from  this  it  is  stripped  by  the  doffer,  v',  which  has  a 
quick  up  and  down  motion  given  to  it,  by  means  of  the  crank,  v,  and 
shaft.  The  cotton,  after  passing  from  the  doffer-knife,  is  taken  through 
a  trumpet-mouth,  x,  passed  between  calender  rollers  down  the  tube  of 
the  presser  plate,  and  finally  coiled  in  the  interior  of  the  revolving 
can,  2.  A  A  is  the  framing,  and  B  B  the  outer  casing  enclosing  the 
carding  cylinders. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  carding  engines  in  use ;  these  are  "  breakers" 
and  "  finishers."  In  the  former,  the  fleece,  when  stripped  off  the 
doffer  cylinder  by  the  comb,  is  passed  round  the  periphery  of  a  roller. 
This  roller  is  taken  to  the  finisher  carding  engine,  through  which  it  is 
passed,    and  finally  delivered  to   cans.     Mr.  Mason  has  patented   a 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


method  of  feeding  carding  engines,  which  is  possessed  of  considerable 


advantages.  In  fig.  1  we  give  a  diagram  of  this  simple  but  ingenious 
contrivance.  As  the  lap  is  taken  from  the  roller  it  is  passed  to  the 
card  roller,  b,  over  the  edge  of  the  curved  plate,  c,  and  from  which  it 
is  taken  up  by  the  "  licker-in,"  a  a.  The  advantage  derived  from  the 
use  of  this  plan  consists  in  the  fibres  of  the  cotton  being  held  so  much 
closer  to  the  teeth  of  the  "  licker-in"  whilst  being  operated  upon.  In 
the  ordinary  machine,  the  distance  of  the  "  licker-in"  from  the  nip  of 
the  two  feed  rollers  is  at  least  1^  inch,  while,  by  the  arrangement 
now  under  consideration,  the  distance  need  not  exceed  a  quarter  of  an 
inch.  The  fibres  are  thus  taken  hold  of  at  both  ends,  and  as  each  end 
is  held  by  a  card  and  not  by  pressure,  the  staple  is  not  injured,  but 
combed  and  pulled  through  the  wire.  The  same  arrangement  is  applied 
to  the  "  double  beater  lap  machine,"  of  which  we  have  given  a  sec- 
tion. The  cotton  fed  by  this  means  is  found  to  be  better  cleaned 
than  by  ordinary  methods,  and  a  quantity  of  light  leaf  got  out,  ordi- 
narily by  other  plans  left  in. 

We  have  now  to  notice  the  methods  adopted  for  coiling  the  slivers 
in  the  cans.  It  is  evident  that  if  the  slivers  were  passed  into  the  cans, 
and  allowed  to  be  placed  in  it  just  as  might  happen,  a  very  short  length 
only  of  sliver  could  find  room  in  each  can.  In  the  machine  of  which  we 
have  given  drawings,  the  coiling  of  the  sliver  in  the  can  is  effected  in 
the  following  manner  :  The  sliver  delivered  to  the  calendering  rollers 
is  passed  down  the  tube  of  the  pressing  wheel,  to  which  a  horizontal 
circular  motion  is  given ;  this  consequently  delivers  the  sliver  to  the 
can  placed  beneath  it,  in  a  circular  direction,  as  a  a,  fig.  2 ;  the  pressing 
wheel,  b,  is  placed  eccentric  to  the  can,  a  a,  so  that  the  sliver  is  placed 
in  a  circular  coil  in  the  latter;  a  slow  rotatory  movement  is  given  to 
the  can  itself.  By  this  double  movement,  the  sliver  is  laid  in  the  form 
of  a  continuous  coil  within  it,  and  by  this  means  a  great  length  of  coil  is 
compressed  in  the  interior  of  the  can. 

To  effect  this  desideratum  of  having  a  considerable  length  of  sliver  in 
the  can,  the  contrivance  known  as  the 
"plunger" is  also  used.  We  give  a  sketch  of 
this  in  fig.  3,  where  b  b  is  part  of  the  card- 
ing engine  gearing ;  d  d,  a  wheel  receiving 
motion  from  the  wheel  b  b ;  a  stud,  <?,  is 
placed  eccentric  to  the  centre  of  this  wheel, 
ddj  a  band,//,  passes  over  the  pulley  g, 
in  the  standard,  h  h ;  to  the  end  of  //  a 
hollow  metallic  plunger  is  attached.  This 
works  up  and  down  within  the  can,  m,  the 
plunger  receiving  an  alternate  motion  by 
means  of  the  band,/  and  eccentric  stud,  e  e. 
The  patent  contrivances  for  effecting 
Fig.  3.  the    object    now    under    consideration    are 

very  numerous  ;  we  purpose  to  notice  one  by  Mr.  James  Ilill, 
of  Staleybridge.  Above  the  can  for  receiving  the  slivers,  a  flat  plate 
is  placed ;  this  supports  the  bearings  in  which  two  delivery  or 
calendering  rollers  revolve.  These  are  so  placed,  that  the  sliver 
is  laid  in  the  can  in  the  direction  of  its  semi-diameter,  from  the 
periphery  to  the  centre,  and  vice  versd,  alter- 
nately ;  this  is  effected  by  the  arrangement 
in  fig.  4,  where  a  a  is  the  can,  b  c  the 
roller.  As  the  sliver  is  passed  from  b  to  c,  it 
will  be  laid  in  the  can  from  its  periphery  to 
its  centre,  and  while  passing  from  c  to  b, 
from  its  centre  to  the  periphery  and  so  on; 
the  movement  of  the  sliver  from  end  to 
end  of  the  roller  is  produced  by  passing  it 
through  a  guide  or  mouth-piece,  which  has 
an  alternate  movement  given  to  it  by  a 
cam  moving  the  bar  on  which  it  is  fixed.     A  variable  rotatory  move- 

23 


172 


The  Screiv  and  Paddles  Combined. 


[August, 


:_ 


Fig.  5. 


raent  is  given  to  the  can  as  follows  :  A  vertical  driving  shaft,  a,  fig.  5, 
which  gives  motion  to  the  cam  for  moving  the 
guide-piece,  delivering  the  slivers  to  the  drawing 
rollers,  b  c,  fig.  4,  has  a  crank,  b,  fixed  on  it  near 
its  lower  extremity  ;  this  crank  has  a  small  pin,  c, 
which  is  inserted  in  a  radial  slot  made  in  the  face 
of  a  horizontal  toothed  wheel,  d.  The  centre  of 
motion  of  the  wheel  d  is  eccentric  to  that  of  the 
vertical  shaft  a;  this  arrangement  is  shown  in  the 
plan,  fig.  6,  where  d  d  is  the  horizontal  wheel,  a  the 
vertical  shaft,  e  the  crank,  with  pin  moving  in  the 
radial  slot  d  d,  the  centre  of  which  is  at  e.  In  the 
diagram,  fig.  6,  the  crank  pin,  c,  is  in  the  position  at  which  it  is  nearest 
to  the  centre  of  the  wheel,  d  ;  the  crank,  b,  dri- 
ving the  wheel,  d,  the  latter  will  be  moving  at  its 
slowest  speed.  In  the  diagram,  fig.  5,  the  crank 
pin  is  at  the  point  furthest  from  the  centre  of  the 
wheel,  d,  and,  consequently,  the  latter  is  at  its 
quickest  speed.  The  amount  of  variation  is  thus 
made  dependent  upon  the  degree  of  eccentricity 
the  wheel,  d,  has  to  the  vertical  shaft,  a.  The  can 
in  which  the  slivers  are  coiled  rests  upon  a  plate,  the  circumference 
of  which  is  toothed  and  gears  into  the  wheel  d  d ;  the  can,  in  this 
manner,  partakes  of  the  variable  motion  of  the  wheel,  d  d.  By  this 
arrangement,  the  sliver  is  first  laid  loosely  in  the  can,  and  afterwards 
compressed.  The  method  patented  by  Messrs.  Lakin  and  Rhodes,  of 
Ardwick,  near  Manchester,  is  deserving  of  notice ;  its  principle  of 
arrangement  is  shown  in  fig.  7-  a  a,  the  delivery  or  calendering 
rollers;  the  slivers  are  delivered  to  the  trumpet-mouthed  guide- 
piece,  b  b  ;  this  oscillates  on  a  stud  near  the  top,  and  a  reciprocating 
motion  is  given  to  it  by  the  connecting  rod  or  lever,  d,  one  end  of 
which  moves  on  a  centre  at  c,  and  on  the  other  at  the  stud,  placed 
in  the  face  of  the  wheel,  e,  eccentric  to  its  centre  of  motion.  The 
sliver  is  laid  in  regular  layers  in  the  can  placed  beneath  it,  alternately 
from  g  to/,  and  vice  versa j  the  can  moving  on  a  small  railway,  in  a 
direction  parallel  to  the  drawing  rollers,  lays  the  sliver  side  by  side. 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8. 


We  have  now  to  notice  the  machine  next  in  sequence ;  this  is  the 
"  drawing  frame."  The  operation  to  be  effected  by  this  machine  is  the 
still  further  parallelisation  of  the  fibres.  This  is  done  by  drawing  out  or 
lengthening  the  slivers  to  a  state  of  considerable  tenuity ;  they  are  then 
doubled,  that  is,  several  slivers  put  together,  drawn  through  a  trumpet 
mouth,  and  passed  through  drawing  rollers.  The  rationale  of  the 
drawing  process  may  be  described  by  the  aid  of  the  diagram  in  fio-.  8. 
Suppose  two  sets  of  rollers,  a  a,b  b,  revolve  at  the  same  speed;  a 
sliver,  e,  passed  between  them  would  be  equally  pulled  through,  that  is, 
it  would  pass  from  the  last  pair  of  rollers  at  the  same  velocity  as  it 
entered  the  first  pair ;  but  if  the  pair  a  a  revolved  twice  as  fast  as  b  b, 
it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  the  result  would  be  the  elongating  of  the  sliver 
somewhere  between  the  two  pairs;  inasmuch  as  the  last  pair  taking  in 
twice  as  much  sliver  as  the  first,  and  these  latter  only  delivering  half 
as  much  as  can  be  passed  through  b  b,  the  necessary  consequence  is 
that  the  sliver  is  pulled  out  or  lengthened  just  in  proportion  to  the 
difference  between  the  speed  of  the  two  pairs  of  rollers.     In  the  draw- 


ing frames  in  use  there  are  three  pairs  of  rollers,  but  the  drawing  out 
of  the  fibres  is  produced  by  the  first  and  last  pair.  The  distance  between 
the  rollers  is  regulated  according  to  the  fineness  of  the  staple  of  the 
cotton  operated  on.  The  front  rollers  are  generally  fixed,  the  others 
revolving  in  moveable  bearings.  The  drawing  process  is  one  of  great 
importance  in  the  cotton  manufacture  ;  in  fact,  the  correctness  of  the 
after-processes  depend  altogether  upon  the  manner  in  which  the  draw- 
ing is  effected.  The  slivers,  as  they  come  from  the  carding  engine,  are 
comparatively  irregular  in  their  fineness ;  that  is,  two  different  and 
equal  lengths  may  contain  different  quantities  of  cotton  ;  again,  the 
parallelisation  is  very  defective  in  some  instances  ;  thus,  a  card  tooth 
may  catch  a  fibre  by  the  middle  and  bend  it  up  or  double  it.  Several 
slivers  from  the  finisher  carding  engine  are  passed  through  the  draw- 
ing rollers,  generally  eight ;  these  are  delivered  in  the  form  of  a  sliver, 
having  the  quantity  of  eight  carding  slivers  in  it,  of  the  same  density  as 
each  of  them  separately,  thus  increasing  eight-fold  the  chances  of 
uniformity  in  the  sliver.  Four  of  these  slivers  are  again  passed  through 
the  drawing  rollers,  and  delivered  in  the  form  of  a  single  sliver,  the 
chances  of  uniformity  being  thirty-two- fold.  This  "  doubling,"  as  it  is 
termed,  in  fine  counts,  is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent;  in  some  instances 
it  is  repeated  till  the  fibres  have  been  laid  parallel  to  one  another 
nearly  100,000  times. 

In  the  plates  accompanying  this  series  of  papers  we  shall  give 
drawings  of  this  machine. 

(To  be  continued.) 

THE  SCREW  AND  PADDLES  COMBINED.* 
By  J.  Bourne,  C.E. 

I  am  not  aware  that  there  are  any  vessels  in  actual  existence  which 
are  propelled  by  the  conjoint  action  of  paddles  and  a  screw,  but  some 
years  ago  I  proposed  the  establishment  of  vessels  of  this  kind,  under 
circumstances  which  it  will  require  a  slight  digression  to  recite. 

The  Peninsular  Steam  Packet  Company,  of  which  the  Peninsular 
and  Oriental  Steam  Packet  Company  is  a  subsequent  extension,  was 
established  by  my  father,  the  late  Captain  Bourne,  who  advanced  more 
than  half  the  capital  necessary  for  the  establishment  of  the  company 
himself,  while  the  residue  was  chiefly  contributed  by  his  brothers 
and  other  members  of  his  family.  The  Tagus,  Braganza,  and  other 
original  vessels  of  the  company  were  constructed  under  my  direction, 
and  they  were  generally  considered  to  be  the  best  vessels  of  their  time; 
but  for  many  years  I  have  ceased  to  have  any  further  connection  with 
the  company  than  is  implied  in  an  interest  in  its  success,  and  a  desire 
to  see  it  prosper.  For  some  years  past,  however,  its  original  reputation 
has  been  on  the  decline ;  the  original  vessels  had  become  old  and  slow, 
and  some  of  them  had  been  lost,  while  the  new  vessels  which  had  been 
added  to  the  company's  fleet,  instead  of  being  better  than  the  old, 
were  in  most  cases  worse,  so  that  the  prestige  with  which  the  company 
started  was  no  longer  maintained. 

The  result  of  this  state  of  things  was,  that  various  proposals  for  esta- 
blishing a  rival  company  were  entertained ;  and  it  became  obvious  to 
me  that,  if  a  rival  company  were  established,  one  of  two  consequences 
would  ensue — either  the  new  company  would  get  the  mails  to  carry, 
or  if  the  old  company  succeeded  in  retaining  them,  it  would  only  be 
after  such  a  keen  competition,  and  on  such  stringent  conditions,  that 
the  service  would  hardly  repay  any  contractor.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, I  communicated  with  my  father,  who  was  then  still  living,  and 
with  some  of  the  other  directors  of  the  company,  pointing  out  the 
course  which  it  appeared  to  me  ought  to  be  pursued  under  the  cir- 
cumstances related;  and  my  recommendations  were  to  the  following 
effect. 


*  From  Treatise  on  the  Screw  Propeller,  by  J.  Bourne. 


185i>.] 


The  Screw  and  Paddles  Combined. 


1/3 


It  was  quite  clear  that  the  very  general  dissatisfaction  which  had 
been  expressed  at  the  want  of  power  and  speed  in  the  company's  vessels 
was  not  unfounded.  Here  was  a  line,  confessedly  the  most  important 
of  all  our  lines  of  postal  communication,  on  which  the  vessels  built 
ten  or  twelve  years  before  were  still  the  best,  the  more  recent  vessels 
being,  for  the  most  part,  exceedingly  slow  and  inefficient,  when  com- 
pared with  other  successful  vessels  of  recent  construction.  It  was 
quite  indispensable,  therefore,  in  order  to  meet  the  just  expectations  of 
the  public,  that  vessels  capable  of  maintaining  a  higher  rate  of  speed 
should  be  introduced ;  and  as  the  introduction  of  such  vessels  by  some 
party  or  other  was  inevitable,  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  postpone  the 
improvement  until  the  attempts  of  rival  parties  had  been  so  far 
organised,  that  competition  could  no  longer  be  averted  by  any  expedient 
of  amelioration.  All  this  was  very  clear;  but  the  question  at  once 
arose,  what  was  to  be  done  with  the  existing  vessels?  Attempts  had 
been  made  to  accelerate  some  of  them  by  the  application  of  feathering 
wheels,  but  with  very  inadequate  results;  and  all  attempts  at  petty  im- 
provement appeared  to  me  not  merely  futile,  but  injudicious,  as  such 
attempts  involved  a  considerable  expense,  and  practically  left  the 
vessels  still  unequal  to  the  exigencies  of  their  vocation.  Now,  seeing 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  sell  the  existing  vessels  without  immense 
sacrifice,  and  that  it  would  be  equally  impossible  to  retain  them,  unless 
a  radical  change  in  their  efficiency  could  be  effected;  and  seeing,  too, 
that  the  usual  means  of  acceleration  had  been  tried,  at  a  heavy  expense, 
but  without  any  material  benefit,  it  occurred  to  me  that,  upon  the 
whole,  the  most  judicious  course  would  be  to  introduce  into  each 
vessel  a  separate  engine,  which  would  drive  a  screw,  working  in  the 
stern  of  the  vessel,  in  aid  of  the  paddles ;  and  by  this  arrangement  it  was 
obvious  that  any  increase  of  power  and  speed  might  be  given  to  the 
existing  vessels  that  the  exigencies  of  the  case  required.  I  recom- 
mended, therefore,  that  one  of  the  smaller  vessels  of  the  company,  the 
Madrid,  for  example,  should  have  a  screw  fitted  at  the  stern,  to  aid 
the  operation  of  the  engines  ;  and  I  found  that  a  pair  of  screw  engines, 
of  the  same  power  as  the  existing  paddle  engines,  of  140  horses  power, 
could  be  supplied  for  about  £800 ;  the  screw  engines  being  light  and 
cheap,  as  they  would  be  without  air-pumps  and  condensers,  and  would 
be  connected  immediately  with  the  screw-shaft.  If  the  result  answered 
the  expectations  formed  of  it,  a  similar  arrangement  could,  it  was  ob- 
vious, be  introduced  into  the  larger  vessels  without  any  very  great 
expense,  and  those  vessels  would  thus  be  enabled  to  maintain  a  rate  of 
speed  exceeding  anything  then  existing  in  ocean  steam  navigation,  and 
the  dilemma  in  which  the  company  stood  of  having  to  discard  their 
present  vessels,  or  lose  the  mail  contract,  would  be  dissolved. 

This  suggestion  has  met  with  the  same  reception  and  the  same  fate  as 
that  which  I  had  previously  made  for  the  better  ventilation  of  the  vessels. 
At  first  it  was  looked  upon  in  the  light  of  a  great  deliverance;  but  it  has 
since  been  suffered  to  languish  and  die  out,  my  father's  advanced  age, 
and  subsequent  illness  and  death,  having  prevented  him  from  taking 
those  active  steps  for  its  furtherance  which  otherwise  he  would  have  felt 
called  on  to  pursue.  The  mechanical  part  of  the  question  was  referred 
to  Mr.  Penn  for  his  opinion,  whose  views  completely  coincided  with  my 
own,  the  only  difference  being,  that  he  stated  them  with  greater  clearness 
and  force  than  I  should  have  been  able  to  do.  Other  leading  engineers 
to  whom  the  proposed  arrangement  has  since  been  mentioned  concur 
in  the  conclusions  at  which  I  had  arrived.  As  every  one  of  ordinary 
engineering  attainments  will  be  able  to  form  a  judgment  for  himself  upon 
this  subject,  I  shall  here  recount  the  nature  of  the  intended  arrange- 
ments, and  the  extent  of  the  benefit  which,  according  to  my  estimate, 
would  have  been  obtained. 

I  have  already  mentioned,  that  if  the  power  of  any  given  vessel  be 
doubled,  her  speed  will  be  increased  nearly  in  the  proportion  of  the 
cube-root  of  1  to  the  cube-root  of  2.     A  vessel,  therefore,  which  main- 


tains a  speed  of  10  knots  with  any  given  power,  will  maintain  a  speed 
of  about  12£  knots  with  twice  the  power;  and  I  proposed  that  the 
power  of  all  the  Company's  vessels  running  on  important  lines  should 
be  doubled  wherever  the  usual  speed  did  not  exceed  10  knots  an  hour. 
Now  this  duplicature  of  the  power  I  proposed  to  accomplish  without 
touching  the  existing  engines  at  all,  and,  as  I  have  already  mentioned, 
I  proposed  to  apply  a  screw  in  the  stern  of  the  vessel,  which  was  to  be 
driven  by  separate  direct-acting  engines  of  its  own.  The  screw  engines 
would  not  have  had  either  air-pumps  or  condensers ;  but  the  steam  from 
the  boilers  were  to  enter  the  screw  engines  first,  and  after  having  given 
motion  to  them,  would  have  passed  into  the  paddle  engines,  where  it 
would  have  been  condensed  in  the  usual  manner.  By  this  arrangement, 
the  steam  would  have  been  used  twice  over,  and  twice  the  amount  of 
engine  power  would  have  been  exerted  in  the  hour,  without  any  increase 
in  the  consumption  of  coal.  To  enable  these  arrangements  to  be  carried 
into  effect,  it  would  be  necessary  to  work  with  a  higher  pressure  of  steam 
than  has  heretofore  been  employed  in  these  vessels ;  and  I  proposed  to 
use  a  pressure  of  about  251bs.  on  the  square  inch,  which  was  about  three 
times  the  pressure  then  employed.  To  enable  this  pressure  to  be  used 
with  perfect  safety,  I  proposed  that  the  boilers  should  be  circular — such  as 
Mr.  Penn  has  since  put  into  the  Hydra,  which  may  be  worked  up  to  30  or 
401bs.  on  the  square  inch,  if  required.  It  would,  of  course,  be  impossible 
to  put  any  such  pressure  as  I  proposed  to  use  upon  the  existing  paddle 
engines,  as  it  would  have  broken  them  down  ;  but  the  steam  was  to  act, 
in  the  first  instance,  upon  the  pistons  of  the  screw  engines,  after  having 
given  motion  to  which,  it  would  pass  into  the  paddle  engines,  and  be 
there  condensed  in  the  usual  manner.  There  is,  therefore,  only  the 
same  quantity  of  steam  to  be  generated  under  the  new  arrangement  as 
under  the  old,  and  it  would  be  generated,  of  course,  with  the  same 
quantity  of  coal :  but  after  having  been  employed  in  the  cylinders  of  the 
screw  engines,  and  been  there  expanded  down  to  that  point  of  elasticity 
with  which  the  paddle  engines  at  present  work,  it  was  to  be  conducted 
into  the  paddle  engines,  and  to  work  them  in  the  same  way  as  if  steam 
of  that  elasticity  had  come  direct  from  the  boiler.  The  proposed  ar- 
rangement, therefore,  is  analogous  to  that  of  a  Woolf's  engine ;  but  as  the 
engines  employed  to  drive  the  screw  would  work  at  a  high  velocity,  they 
would  be  smaller  than  the  high-pressure  cylinders  of  a  Woolf's  engine, 
in  the  proportion  of  their  increased  speed. 

It  will  be  obvious,  from  the  exposition  I  have  given  in  the  foregoing 
pages  of  the  mode  of  action  of  the  screw  in  the  water,  that  a  screw  acting 
in  aid  of  paddles  would  work  far  more  efficiently  than  if  it  were  employed 
alone  to  propel  a  vessel;  for,  as  the  vessel  is  at  all  times  moving  through 
the  water  from  the  action  of  the  paddles,  the  screw  will  always  have  a 
column  of  water  of  a  considerable  length  to  act  upon  at  each  revolu- 
tion, and  the  slip  will  be  diminished  in  consequence.  And  as,  by  the 
operation  of  the  paddles,  the  action  of  the  screw  is  amended,  so  will 
the  action  of  paddles  be  amended  by  the  action  of  the  screw.  For, 
since  the  vessel  will  pass  faster  the  water  when  an  auxiliary  screw  is 
added,  the  paddles  will  gear  into  a  greater  length  of  water  in  a  given 
time,  which,  as  it  will  possess  more  inertia  without  any  more  pressure 
being  employed  to  move  it,  will  be  operative,  to  a  corresponding  ex- 
tent, in  reducing  the  slip  of  the  wheel.  In  fact,  both  propellers  will 
act  constantly  under  the  same  favourable  circumstances  as  if  the  vessel 
were  always  sailing  with  a  fair  wind  ;  for  the  screw  is  virtually  u  fair 
wind  to  the  paddles,  and  the  paddles  are  a  fair  wind  for  the  screw. 

It  will  be  further  obvious,  that  by  adding  to  a  paddle  vessel  screw  en- 
gines of  the  same  power  as  the  paddle  engines,  the  total  power  of  the  ves- 
sel will  be  somewhat  more  than  doubled ;  for,  when  the  speed  is  increased 
from  10  to  12§  knots,  the  speed  of  the  paddle  engines  will  be  increased 
also,  so  that  they  will  give  out  a  fourth  more  power  than  before  ;  and 
the  increased  speed  of  vessel  due  to  this  small  increase  of  power  will, 
in  its  turn,  somewhat  increase  the  speed  and  power  of  the  screw  en- 


174 


The  Screw  and  Paddles  Combined. 


[August, 


sines.  But  this  increase  of  the  power  I  have  not  thought  it  necessary 
to  reckon,  seeino-  that  it  would  only  be  obtained  with  an  increased  con- 
sumption of  fuel,  and  that  the  speed  of  the  vessel  will  not  increase  quite 
so  rapidly  as  the  cube-root  of  the  augmented  power.  Now,  if  the  speed 
of  the  vessel  be  increased  one-fourth,  and  the  consumption  of  fuel,  per 
hour,  only  remains  the  same,  it  is  clear  that  the  vessel  will  require  one- 
f  jurth  less  fuel  for  the  accomplishment  of  a  given  voyage.  Instead, 
therefore,  of  the  vessels  employed  upon  the  Indian  line  having  to  carry 
about  GOO  tons  of  coal,  they  would  only  require  450  tons  for  the  per- 
formance of  the  same  voyage  under  the  proposed  arrangement,  and  the 
weio-ht  thus  saved  would  fully  compensate  for  the  extra  weight  of  the 
screw  engines  and  screw. 

From  these  considerations  it  appears,  beyond  doubt,  that,  by  the 
proposed  mode  of  acceleration,  about  one-fourth  more  speed  would 
have  been  obtained  with  a  smaller  consumption  of  fuel,  and  without 
any  increased  weight  in  the  vessel.  The  only  topic  remaining  for  con- 
sideration is,  whether  boilers  using  such  a  pressure  as  25  or  30  lbs. 
would  be  quite  safe  in  steam-vessels,  seeing  that  the  boilers  of  steam- 
vessels  sometimes  get  incrusted  with  salt,  when,  possibly,  the  furnaces 
may  get  red-hot.  Now,  it  is  quite  clear  that  any  boiler  which  is  suf- 
fered to  get  red-hot,  from  whatever  cause,  will  be  productive  of  danger; 
but  such  an  occurrence  is  a  very  rare  one ;  and  I  consider  that  the 
risk  of  salting  may  be  obviated  by  an  expedient  mentioned  to  me  by 
Mr.  Penn,  as  a  suggestion  of  Mr.  Spiller's,  and  which  appears  to  me 
to  afford  a  perfect  security  against  the  danger.  This  expedient  consists 
in  the  application  of  a  feed-pump,  which  is  purposely  made  too  large  to 
supply  the  quantity  of  water  requisite  for  the  generation  of  the  steam, 
and  which  is  not  provided  with  any  means  of  shutting  off  the  water,  or 
allowing  the  surplus  to  escape.  It  will  follow,  consequently,  that  a 
good  deal  more  water  will  be  sent  into  the  boiler  than  what  can  be 
raised  into  steam,  and  the  surplus  must  be  blown  out  by  the  engineer; 
or  a  self-acting  float  may  be  applied  to  the  boiler,  to  permit  its  escape 
when  the  level  of  the  water  rises  above  a  given  point.  With  this  sim- 
ple provision  it  will  be  impossible  that  the  flues  of  the  boiler  can  ever 
become  incrusted  to  an  inconvenient  extent,  whether  the  boiler  is  leaky 
or  not;  and  any  objection  based  upon  the  supposition  of  such  a  possi- 
bility must  of  course  disappear  when  the  possibility  itself  no  longer 
exists.  The  question,  however,  is  not  so  much  whether  boilers  with 
a  pressure  of  25  or  30  lbs.  may  be  made  as  safe  as  boilers  of  a  much 
lower  pressure,  but  whether  they  may  be  made  as  safe  as  boilers  with 
nearly  the  same  internal  pressure,  but  which  are  by  no  means  adapted 
to  sustain  it.  In  modern  sea-going  steam-vessels,  20  lbs.  on  the  square 
inch  is  a  frequent  pressure ;  and  in  a  few  instances  the  pressure  is  as 
high  as  25  lbs..  These  boilers,  nevertheless,  have  flat  sides,  and  de- 
p(  ml  for  their  strength  upon  stays,  which  after  some  time  corrode,  and 
may  even  be  eaten  through,  leaving  the  boiler  in  a  very  unsafe  state. 
The  pressure,  indeed,  is  always  reduced  in  these  vessels,  as  the  boiler 
gets  into  a  state  of  dilapidation ;  but  such  an  adjustment  rests  the 
responsibility  of  the  safety  of  the  boiler  upon  the  engineer,  and  is  a 
practice  likely  to  lead  to  accidents.  Instead,  therefore,  of  loading  the 
boiler  at  the  first  to  its  maximum  strength,  and  gradually  reducing  the 
pressure  as  it  gets  into  disrepair,  it  appears  to  me  to  be  by  much  the 
safest  course  to  make  the  boiler  of  such  a  construction,  at  the  outset, 
as  to  enable  it,  without  the  aid  of  stays,  to  withstand  a  very  much 
higher  pressure  than  is  put  upon  it ;  and  it  will  then  continue  to  be  safe 
even  when  old  and  worn.  This,  accordingly,  is  the  course  which  I 
proposed  to  pursue,  and  it  still  appears  to  me  to  be  the  most  eligible 
that  could  be  adopted. 

Such,  then,  were  my  recommendations  to  the  Peninsular  and  Ori- 
ental Company,  while  there  was  yet  time  to  avert  the  injurious  conse- 
quences which  have  since  ensued.  After  great  vacillation  and  delay, 
they  were  eventually  neglected.      A  rival  company  was  formed,  which 


competed  with  them  for  the  conveyance  of  the  mails,  and  the  result  is, 
that,  instead  of  19s.  lOd.  per  mile,  which  they  formerly  obtained  for 
carrying  the  mails  from  Calcutta  to  Suez,  they  now  only  get  6s.  A\d. 
per  mile.  At  the  same  time,  an  increased  rate  of  speed  has  to  be  main- 
tained, which  is  of  course  tantamount  to  a  further  reduction  of  the 
payment.  In  fact,  their  position  upon  the  Red  Sea  line  is  now  this, 
that  they  would  be  better  without  the  mails  than  with  them,  as  the  mere 
expense  of  the  increased  quantity  of  fuel  necessary  to  realise  the  in- 
creased speed  which  they  have  undertaken  to  maintain  will  swallow  up 
the  whole  of  the  Government  subvention.  To  increase  the  speed  of  a 
vessel  from  8  to  10  knots,  it  is  necessary  that  the  engine-power  should 
be  doubled ;  and  under  any  other  arrangement  than  what  I  suggested, 
the  consumption  of  fuel  will  be  increased  in  about  the  same  proportion 
as  the  increased  power.  Now,  taking  the  average  cost  of  coals  on  the 
Red  Sea  line  at  50s.  per  ton,  including  labour  and  waste,  and  the 
average  consumption  per  hour  at  30  cwt.  in  the  existing  vessels, 
there  will  be  about  three  tons  per  hour  burned  with  engines 
of  double  the  power.  The  cost  of  fuel  will  therefore  be  at  the 
rate  of  £7  10s.  per  hour,  or  15s.  per  knot,  supposing  the  power  to 
be  doubled,  as  will  be  necessary  to  realise  a  minimum  speed  of  10  knots. 
This  is  between  6s.  or  7s.  more  than  the  present  cost  of  fuel  per  mile, 
so  that  the  whole  sum  given  by  government  will,  on  this  line,  barely 
cover  the  additional  outlay  for  the  fuel  necessary  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  increased  speed.  But  the  increased  cost  of  fuel  is  only  a  part  of 
the  new  expenses  which  must  be  incurred  to  realise  this  increased  speed, 
since  it  can  only  be  given  by  new  vessels.  It  is  a  condition  of  the  new 
contract,  that  the  vessels,  before  they  are  accepted  for  the  service,  shall 
be  able  to  accomplish  a  speed  of  12  knots,  at  the  measured  mile,  when 
sunk  to  the  load-water  line.  This  appears  to  me  a  very  proper  condi- 
tion, as  it  insures  the  services  of  vessels  of  an  efficient  character,  instead 
of  leaving  a  constant  loophole  for  inefficiency  by  casting  the  blame  of 
delays  upon  the  weather  instead  of  upon  the  ship.  Of  the  whole  of 
the  Peninsular  Company's  fleet  of  thirty  ships,  it  is,  however,  doubtful 
if  there  is  a  single  one  capable  of  satisfying  this  condition.  Here  then, 
notwithstanding  the  large  expense  incurred  for  repairs  and  microscopic 
ameliorations  —  the  Bentinck  alone  having  cost  from  ^55,000  to 
j€40,000  in  this  way,  and  most  of  the  other  large  vessels  similar  sums, 
being,  in  fact,  more  than  could  be  got  for  them  if  they  came  to  be  sold 
—there  remains  the  same  inability  as  before  to  realise  the  speed  neces- 
sary for  the  proper  performance  of  the  mail  service  and  new  vessels 
must,  after  all,  be  built.  What  then  is  to  be  done  with  the  old?  Upon 
lines  where  a  high  rate  of  speed  is  not  required,  they  are  incapable  of 
maintaining  a  competition  with  screw  vessels.  Upon  lines  where  a  high 
rate  of  speed  is  required,  they  are  unable  to  achieve  it.  If  sold,  they 
will  bring  very  little,  for  no  one  stands  in  need  of  such  vessels.  If  re- 
tained, they  will  be  only  so  much  lumber,  representing  a  large  capital, 
but  of  little  actual  worth.  Even  these,  however,  are  no  longer  the 
most  momentous  topics  for  consideration.  To  achieve  the  higher  speed 
necessary  under  the  new  contract  for  the  conveyance  of  the  mails, 
vessels  of  greater  power  must  be  employed,  and  while  the  receipts  are 
diminished  and  the  expenses  increased,  a  dividend  must,  at  the  same 
time,  be  paid  upon  a  larger  capital.  The  average  duration  of  the  Red 
Sea  passage  by  the  company's  vessels,  for  12  months  ending  1851,  was 
from  Calcutta  to  Suez  28  days,  and  from  Suez  to  Calcutta  24  days,  includ- 
ing days  of  arrival  and  departure,  and  stoppages  at  Madras,  Galle,  and 
Aden.  The  average  time  both  ways  will  therefore  be  about  26  days  ; 
and  allowing  4  days  for  the  stoppages  at  Madras,  Galle,  and  Aden,  and 
for  the  unconsumed  portion  of  the  days  of  arrival  and  departure,  which 
will  be  about  the  proper  allowance,  we  shall  have  22  days  for  the  dura- 
tion of  the  voyage  under  steam.  The  distanae  from  Calcutta  to  Suez 
is  4,757  knots,  which  gives  an  average  speed  of  9  knots  an  hour.  Now, 
vessels   maintaining  an  average   speed  of    9  knots  will    be    able   to 


18-52.] 


The  Screw  and  Paddles  Combined. 


175 


engage  to  give  a  contract  speed  of  8  knots  with  a  tolerably  fair  assur- 
ance of  being  able  to  keep  their  time,  though  it  would  be  desirable  that 
j  the  difference  between  the  average  and  contract  speeds  should  be  greater 
than  this.  The  contract  speed  being,  in  point  of  fact,  the  minimum 
speed,  except  where  some  very  unusual  circumstances  of  retardation 
occur,  it  is  clear  that  the  average  speed  must,  in  all  cases,  considerably 
exceed  it,  else  the  vessel  will  be  perpetually  behind  her  time ;  and  on 
any  line  exposed  to  vicissitudes  of  wind  and  sea,  the  difference  of  a  knot 
an  hour  between  the  mean  and  contract  speeds  is  the  least  that  can  be 
safely  allowed ;  and  if  the  contract  speed  be  increased  to  10  knots, 
then  the  average  speed  must  be  at  least  11  knots  an  hour.  If,  then,  it 
be  the  fact,  that  on  the  Red  Sea  line  the  increase  of  the  contract  speed 
from  8  knots  to  10  knots  involves  an  increased  expense  for  coals  which 
consumes  the  whole  of  the  government  contribution,  so  that  the  exist- 
ing vessels  could  realise  the  same  profits  at  their  present  speed  without 
that  contribution,  as  vessels  of  the  power  necessary  for  the  attainment 
of  the  increased  speed  with  that  contribution,  then  it  is  clear  that  screw 
vessels  with  auxiliary  power  will  realise  larger  profits  still,  and  that  such 
vessels,  if  set  upon  this  line,  will,  in  point  of  fact,  be  much  more  profit- 
able without  a  contribution  of  6s.  4\d.  per  mile  than  vessels  requiring 
to  maintain  an  average  speed  of  11  knots  an  hour,  can  be  with 
that  contribution.  Passengers,  indeed,  will,  other  things  being  equal, 
prefer  swift  vessels  to  slow  ones;  but  if  screw  vessels  on  the  Red 
Sea  were  to  work  in  conjunction  with  the  vessels  of  the  Austrian  Lloyd's 
from  Alexandria  to  Trieste,  passengers  would  be  able  to  proceed  by 
this  line  from  Calcutta  to  England  in  about  the  same  time  as  if  they 
proceeded  in  the  vessels  of  the  Peninsular  Company  from  Calcutta  to 
Southampton.  What  was  lost  in  time  on  one  side  of  Suez  would  be 
gained  upon  the  other  side,  so  that  the  total  duration  of  the  voyage 
would  be  much  the  same  in  both  cases.  The  expense  of  the  voyage, 
however,  would  be  much  less  by  the  screw  vessels ;  and  those  vessels, 
moreover,  would  be  able  to  carry  cargo,  whereas,  in  the  vessels  of  the 
Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company  at  present  plying  between  Calcutta 
and  Suez,  about  80  or  100  tons  of  cargo  is  all  that  can  be  conveyed. 
Heretofore,  indeed,  it  has  been  supposed  that  screw  vessels  could  not 
ply  advantageously  in  the  Red  Sea,  which  is  a  narrow  tract  of  water, 
with  the  wind  blowing  down  it  for  11  months  of  the  year;  and  with  the 
inability  to  tack,  and  with  these  winds  necessarily  ahead  in  one  direc- 
tion, it  was  concluded  that,  of  this  sea  at  least,  paddle-vessels  would 
retain  the  monopoly.  In  the  permanency  of  any  such  impediments, 
however,  I  never  had  the  least  faith  ;  for,  although  heretofore  screw 
vessels  have  been  unable  to  proceed  head  to  wind  without  a  most  ex- 
travagant expenditure  of  fuel,  or,  if  of  small  power,  have  been  unable, 
under  such  circumstances,  to  proceed  at  all,  I  have  always  been  confi- 
dent that  this  defect  would  be  corrected ;  and  in  the  foregoing  pages  the 
means  for  accomplishing  this  correction  have  been  pointed  out.  Hence- 
forward, the  Red  Sea  may  be  navigated  by  screw  vessels  with  the  same 
facility  as  the  Mediterranean,  and  such  vessels  will  certainly  supersede 
paddle  vessels  in  all  cases  in  which  the  paddle  vessels  are  not  supported 
by  a  Government  contribution  sufficient  in  amount  to  cover  the  in- 
creased expense  incident  to  their  employment.  A  contract  which  en- 
gages to  give  a  high  rate  of  speed  for  a  small  rate  of  mileage,  is  an 
encumbrance  rather  than  a  benefit ;  and  whereas  heretofore  the  terms 
of  the  contract  for  the  conveyance  of  the  Indian  mails  gave  the  Penin- 
sular and  Oriental  Company  a  virtual  monopoly  of  the  eastern  seas,  the 
conditions  are  now  so  completely  changed,  that  any  new  party  could 
compete  with  them  on  at  least  equal  terms.  I  cannot  come  to  any 
other  conclusion  than  that  this  consequence  would  have  been  in  a  great 
measure  averted,  if  my  recommendation  for  the  acceleration  of  their 
vessels  had  been  adopted  at  the  time  it  was  given  ;  and  if  this  be  so, 
any  one  who  has  prevented  its  adoption,  without  the  realisation  by  any 
Other  or  better  means  of  the  benefits  it  promised,  has  certainly  incurred 


a  grave  responsibility,  and  has  disentitled  himself  to  confidence  in  his 
future  representations.  It  is  in  vain  to  contend  with  physical  fact ;  for, 
although  it  may  apparently  be  stifled  for  the  moment,  it  will  at  length 
manifest  its  existence  by  the  consequences  which  it  entails.  Some  of 
the  consequences  of  this  fatal  error  are  visible  already  ;  others  I  fore- 
see, but  I  will  leave  their  revelation  to  time. 

These  comments  have  extended  themselves  to  such  a  length,  that 
the  remarks  I  have  to  offer  respecting  the  comparative  advantages  which 
vessels  propelled  both  by  the  screw  and  by  paddles  would  offer  re- 
latively with  those  presented  by  vessels  propelled  by  either  screw  or 
paddles  alone,  must  be  dispatched  very  summarily.  It  is  only  in  the 
case  of  vessels  intended  to  maintain  a  high  rate  of  speed,  upon  voyages 
of  considerable  length,  that  I  would  propose  to  employ  both  the  screw 
and  paddles ;  but  in  those  cases  the  combination  has  very  obvious  ad- 
vantages, if  the  comparison  be  made  with  that  measure  of  efficiency 
which  screw  and  paddle  vessels  have  heretofore  respectively  attained. 
Paddle-vessels,  when  deeply,  are  unable  to  exert  their  power  with  good 
effect ;  wdiereas,  under  those  circumstances,  the  screw  acts  in  its  best 
manner.  On  the  other  hand,  a  screw-vessel  set  to  encounter  a  head- 
wind wastes  much  of  the  engine-power  in  slip  ;  and  the  performance 
would  be  improved,  under  such  circumstances,  if  half  the  power  were 
withdrawn  to  work  paddles,  since  not  only  would  the  paddles  act  in 
such  a  case  with  great  efficiency,  but  the  advance  they  would  give  to 
the  vessel  would  enable  the  screw  to  act  with  greater  efficiency  also,  as 
it  would  be  perpetually  coming  into  a  fresh  body  of  water,  whereby  the 
slip  would  be  reduced.  A  vessel,  therefore,  propelled  by  paddle  engines 
of  500  horse  power,  and  by  screw  engines  of  500  horse  power,  would 
be  more  efficient,  when  deep,  than  the  same  vessel  propelled  by 
engines  of  1000  horse  power  driving  paddles;  and  more  efficient,  when 
set  to  encounter  head  winds  than  the  same  vessel  propelled  by  engines 
of  1000  horse  power  driving  a  screw.  In  fact,  by  the  proposed  com- 
bination, a  higher  average  measure  of  efficiency  would  be  attained,  and 
in  so  far  as  the  screw  engines  would  be  lighter  and  more  compact 
than  paddle  engines  of  the  same  power,  a  further  benefit  to  that  extent 
would  be  obtained  also.  The  paddles,  moreover,  would  not  require  to 
be  of  such  inconvenient  dimensions  as  if  the  whole  power  had  to  be 
transmitted  through  them,  and  yet  a  very  effective  hold  of  the  water 
would  be  obtained.  Should  either  the  paddles  or  the  screw  be  deranged 
by  any  accident  and  be  unable  to  work,  the  vessel  would  still  be  able  to 
proceed  by  the  remaining  instrument  of  propulsion,  at  a  diminished 
rate  of  speed.  Upon  the  whole,  therefore,  I  am  of  opinion  that 
vessels  constructed  on  this  plan  will  be  better  than  if  propelled  solely 
by  paddles,  and  they  will  be  better  also  than  vessels  propelled  solely 
by  the  screw,  if  the  mode  of  applying  the  screw  be  the  same  as  that 
which  has  been  heretofore  in  use;  but  they  will  not  be  better  than 
vessels  propelled  solely  by  the  screw,  if  the  screw  b3  applied  in  the 
manner  I  have  recommended,  so  as  to  enable  screw  vessels  to  proceed 
in  an  efficient  manner  against  a  head  wind.  It  is  mainly,  however,  as 
a  means  of  accelerating  the  speed  of  existing  paddle  vessels  that 
the  plan  is  to  be  recommended,  and  I  do  not  know  of  any  mode 
by  which  an  effectual  measure  of  acceleration  can  be  ensured  with  sj 
small  a  disturbance  of  the  existing  mechanism,  and  at  so  small  an 
expense.  In  reflecting  upon  the  various  means  of  accelerating  ves- 
sels, when  I  first  entered  upon  the  consideration  of  this  subject,  other 
modes,  as  may  be  supposed,  suggested  themselves  of  accomplishing 
the  same  object.  One  of  these  modes  was  the  use  of  feathering 
wheels,  and  the  reduction  of  the  diameter  of  the  wheels,  so 
that  a  higher  velocity  of  the  engine  would  be  obtained.  But  this 
expedient,  it  was  obvious,  would  only  fall  into  the  category  of  petty 
ameliorations,  since  it  would  be  impossible  to  reduce  the  diameter  of 
the  wheel  very  much  in  vessels  of  a  varying  immersion  without  intro- 
ducing other  evils;  and  it  did  not  appear  advisable,  moreover,  to  in- 


176 


Griffiths  Patent  Screw  Propeller 


[August, 


crease  the  speed  of  the  engines  very  much  beyond  that  at  which  they 
then  worked,  as  many  of  the  arrangements  were  not  suited  to  a  high 
velocity.  Another  idea  was  to  interpose  gearing  between  the  engine 
and  the  paddles;  but  this  expedient  had  much  the  same  objections  as 
the  preceding  ;  and  if  either  of  these  plans  could  have  been  carried  into 
effect,  it  would  have  been  necessary  to  increase  the  area  of  the  floats  in 
the  proportion  of  the  increase  of  power,  else  the  slip  would  have  been 
augmented.  In  both  of  these  plans,  moreover,  the  consumption  of  fuel 
would  have  risen  in  the  same  proportion  in  which  the  power  was  in- 
creased ;  whereas,  by  the  application  of  an  auxiliary  screw  in  the  manner 
I  contemplated,  the  increase  of  the  power  would  not  have  occasioned 
any  increase  in  the  consumption  of  fuel  per  mile,  but  would  have  been 
less  than  before.  In  all  cases,  therefore,  in  which  it  is  desirable  to  in- 
crease largely  the  speed  of  a  paddle  vessel,  that  object  will,  in  my 
judgment,  be  best  attained  by  the  introduction  of  an  auxiliary  screw 
worked  by  direct-acting  engines,  which  receive  steam  of  a  considerable 
pressure  from  boilers  of  appropriate  construction,  and  transmit  the 
steam  in  an  expanded  state  to  the  paddle  engines,  to  be  there  con- 
densed in  the  usual  manner. 

DEFECTS  OF  ROTARY  ENGINES. 

A  correspondent,  who  appears  very  sanguine  that  he  has  solved 
the  problem  of  a  perfect  rotary  engine,  has  requested  us  to  state  what 
are  the  defects  which  have  prevented  the  attainment  of  success  in  all 
previous  attempts.  The  leading  defect  is  easily  shown  in  the  following 
way : — Lay  two  penny  pieces  on  each  other.  Let  one  represent  the 
end  of  the  revolving  drum,  and  the  other  the  end  of  the  case  or  cylinder. 
It  is  obvious,  by  turning  one  round,  that  any  point  at  the  circumference 
travels  at  a  greater  speed  than  any  other  point  between  it  and  the 
centre,  and  the  wear  is  therefore  unequal,  being  greatest  on  those 
points  moving  the  fastest.  It  is  easy  to  say  that  this  may  be  obviated 
by  elastic  packing  ;  but  in  practice  we  have  never  seen  it  done  satis- 
factorily. By  means  of  end  plates,  the  points  of  bearing  may  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  circumference,  and  they  would  resemble  the  piston  of  an 
ordinary  reciprocating  engine,  which  should  revolve  on  its  centre.  But 
the  high  rate  of  velocity  would  make  the  wear  very  great.  If  our  cor- 
respondent has  overcome  this  difficulty,  he  has  made  an  important  step 
in  advance.  We  may  refer  him  to  our  remarks  on  Borrie's  engine  and 
a  varietv  of  others,  at  p.  167,  vol.  1844,  and  on  Davies',  at  p.  115,  vol. 
1849. 

GRLFFITLIS'  PATENT   SCREW  PROPELLER. 

The  screw  propeller  has  now  become  so  important  a  feature  in  steam 
navigation,  that  I  have  thought  it  a  subject  of  sufficient  interest  to 
induce  me  to  bring  under  the  consideration  of  the  public  some  most 
important  experiments  made  under  my  own  directions  upon  a  new 
propeller  (Griffiths'  patent),  which  is,  in  its  form  and  general  principles, 
diametrically  opposite  to  the  screws  adopted  by  the  Government,  and 
by  all  the  marine  engineers  of  the  present  day. 

The  screws  generally  used  are  formed  of  two  blades  continued  down 
to  the  shaft,  the  boss  or  centre  being  reduced  to  the  smallest  possible 
size  consistent  with  strength.  The  Government,  by  their  elaborate 
experiments  with  the  Rattler,  Minx,  &c,  appear  to  have  deter- 
mined thus  far  the  general  outline  principles  for  constructing  the 
screw ;  but  the  correct  pitch,  diameter,  and  length,  as  well  as  the  num- 
ber of  blades  necessary  for  obtaining  the  best  results,  are  still  matters 
upon  which  scarcely  two  engineers  agree ;  and  the  equally  important 
point,  the  correct  speed  to  drive  the  screws,  is  still  a  greater  matter  of 
doubt ;  and  notwithstanding  the  great  labour  and  expense  that  has 
been  bestowed  on  the  subject  by  many  engineers  of  eminence,  to  whom 
we  are  indebted  for  bringing  the  subject  to  its  present  state  of  prac- 
tical utility,  yet  there  appear  no  fixed  and  certain  rules  arrived  at  for 
constructing  the  screws,  and  determining  the  speed  at  which  they 
shall  be  driven  to  produce  a  given  result.  On  reference  to  Mi". 
Murray's  valuable  work  on  Steam  Vessels  and  the  Screw,  table  7, 


pp.  209,  210,  it  will  be  found,  on  comparing  the  various  vessels  in  Her 
Majesty's  navy,  that  the  most  singular  instances  occur  in  the  com- 
parative proportions  of  screws,  as  well  as  the  speeds  expected  from  the 
engines  with  the  actual  revolutions  obtained  on  trial. 

In  the  year  1849,  Mr.  Griffiths  explained  to  me  his  then  crude 
notions  for  removing  the  defects  of  the  ordinary  screw.  The  idea  was 
so  original,  and  appeared  to  me  so  correct,  that  I  at  once  instituted 
a,  series  of  experiments,  which  proved  to  me  the  great  importance  of 
the  invention,  and  induced  me  to  make  further  experiments,  which  I 
believe  will  have  removed  the  uncertainty  and  objections  which  sur- 
round the  ordinary  screw,  thus  rendering  its  future  application  and 
results  as  certain  as  the  paddle-wheel. 


<SV2.. 


The  drawing  represents  one  of  Griffiths'  propellers,  which  was  made 
at  my  factory,  for  the  Ranger,  a  vessel  of  297  tons,  by  Miller,  Raven- 
hill,  and  Co.  Cylinders,  27  inches  diameter,  2  feet  stroke ;  revolu- 
tion of  engines,  with  ordinary  screw,  60  per  minute ;  multiple  of 
gearing,  2^  to  1.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  form  of  this  propeller  is 
opposed  to  all  the  received  notions  of  a  correct  screw  propeller.  The 
first  leading  feature  is,  that,  instead  of  continuing  the  blades  down  to 
the  shaft,  and  keeping  the  centre  boss  as  small  as  possible,  one-third 
of  the  entire  diameter  is  fitted  up  as  a  sphere.  In  the  experiments 
which  Mr.  Griffiths  aud  myself  made,  we  ascertained  that  the  centre 
part  of  the  blades  of  the  ordinary  screws  absorbed  20  per  cent,  of  the 
power,  without  having  any  propelling  effect,  in  consequence  of  that 
part  of  the  blades  (particularly  in  coarse  pitched  screws)  being  nearly 
in  a  line  with  the  shaft,  the  effect  being,  when  working,  to  hurl  the 
water  off,  by  its  flapping  and  centrifugal  action,  at  right  angles  to  the 
shaft,  and  seriously  disturbing  the  more  solid  water  upon  which  the 
more  effective  portion  of  the  screw  should  act.  The  great  vibration 
at  the  stern  of  all  screw  vessels  arises  from  this  flapping  action  of  the 
flatter  portion  of  the  blades  in  their  downward  course,  strikino-  the 
denser  water  below  them,  which,  affording  a  greater  resistance  than 
the  water  above  the  blade,  in  its  upward  course,  produces  this  evil 
vibration,  at  an  enormous  sacrifice  of  power.  The  effect  of  this  de- 
structive action  can  be  appreciated  by  the  fact,  that  screw  vessels,  if 
trimmed,  say  2  inches  by  the  stern,  when  under  canvas  or  at  anchor, 
will  suddenly  be  2  inches  down  by  the  head  the  moment  the  engines 
are  set  to  work.  In  point  of  fact,  a  large  amount  of  engine-power  is 
exerted  in  lifting  the  stern  of  the  ship  out  of  the  water  by  the  action 
of  the  flat  part  of  the  screw-blades,  as  described. 

The  ball  shown  in  the  drawing  is  made  to  cover  this  destructive 
portion  of  the  screw-blades,  or  is  rather  substituted  for  the  central 
third  portion  of  the  screw.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  power  required 
to  revolve  this  in  the  water  at  a  great  velocity  is  insignificant  com- 
pared with  driving  two  or  three  comparatively  flat  blades  of  same 
diameter,  which  may  be  fairly  compared  to  the  centre  of  a  centrifugal 
pump.  That  there  can  be  no  tendency  to  vibrate  the  stern  of  the  ves- 
sel, is  obvious  ;  nor  does  the  trim  of  the  vessel  alter  in  the  least  degree 
when  under  the  action  of  the  patent  propeller.  Moreover,  from  the 
water  not  being  violently  agitated  by  the  centrifugal  action,  the  cffec- 


1852.] 


Griffiths'  Patent  Screw  Propeller. 


177 


\  tive  part  of  the  propeller's  blades  is  screwing  in  stiller  and  more 
solid  water,  producing  a  better  result,  and  with  a  considerable  less 
amount  of  slip.  The  water  leaves  the  propeller  in  a  direct  line  with 
the  vessel,  and  without  the  commotion  resulting  from  the  ordinary 
screw.  The  strength  of  the  screw  is  much  increased  by  this  form, 
which  also  affords  great  facility  for  replacing  the  blades,  in  case  of 
accident,  to  which  screw-vessels,  in  channel  and  river  navigation,  are 
peculiarly  liable. 

The  second  important  feature  is  the  form  of  the  blades,  which, 
instead  of  being  larger  at  the  extremities,  are  precisely  the  reverse. 
The  best  form  I  have  found  to  be,  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  the  full 
diameter  of  the  sphere  at  the  root,  and  tapering  to  §  of  this  size  at 
the  periphery,  at  which  part  they  are  about  3  only  of  the  size  of  the 
ordinary  screw ;  and  with  these  proportions,  so  complete  is  the  hold 
this  propeller  has  upon  the  water,  that  I  have  had,  in  practice,  even 
to  reduce  the  diameter  considerably  below  the  ordinary  screw. 

The  water  which  follows  the  wake  of  the  ship,  and  what  the  sailors 
call  the  "dead  v>ater,'"  may  be  compared  to  the  eddies  below  the  piers 
of  a  bridge  through  which  a  rapid  tide  runs,  and  where,  as  every 
one  knows,  the  water  is  "  dead,"  or  in  a  state  of  rest,  the  more 
so  at  the  very  centre  of  the  pier.  In  a  precisely  similar  condition  is 
the  dead  water  of  a  vessel,  the  water  being  most  solid  towards  the 
centre,  and  gradually  becoming  less  so,  until  mixed  in  the  current 
running  beyond  the  width  of  the  ship.  It  must  be  obvious  that  the 
nearer  the  work  can  be  applied  to  the  screw -shaft  the  better  mechani- 
cal result  will  be  obtained.  The  arrangement  of  the  blades  of  the 
patent  propeller  (as  shown  in  the  sketch)  has  been  so  contrived,  that 
their  broad  part  is  made  at  the  ball,  so  that  advantage  is  taken  of  the 
central  solid  dead  water  just  described,  to  obtain  the  utmost  duty  from 
the  propeller-blade  at  its  root,  or  as  near  the  screw-shaft  as  the  central 
ball  will  admit.  The  blades  are  reduced  towards  the  periphery,  to 
meet  the  difference  of  velocity  they  travel  through  the  water.  So 
effective  is  the  hold  of  these  blades  upon  the  water,  from  the  causes 
described,  that  I  have  found,  in  practice,  the  speed  of  the  propellers 
can  be  reduced,  with  the  greatest  advantage,  one-third  below  the 
velocity  found  necessary  for  the  ordinary  screw — a  fact  which  every 
engineer  will  admit  to  be  of  great  value,  seeing  the  many  mechanical 
difficulties  which  present  themselves  in  obtaining  the  speed  hitherto 
considered  necessary  (see  table  of  experiments). 

The  screw  has  hitherto  almost  entirely  been  applied  as  auxiliary 
power,  and,  where  large  power  has  been  employed,  has  never  yet  been 
made  to  equal  the  speed  of  the  paddle-wheel.  The  imperfections  of 
the  screw  appear  hitherto  to  have  placed  a  limit  on  the  speed  it  was 
possible  to  obtain. 

In  those  vessels  where  a  large  amount  of  engine-power  was  applied, 
no  adequate  increased  speed  was  obtained ;  and  in  the  case  of  the 
Rifleman  and  others,  which  were  altered,  and  the  engine-power  abso- 
lutely reduced  one-half,  as  good  a  result  was  obtained  as  with  the 
larger  power,  showing  that,  beyond  a  given  power,  the  water  is 
screwed  through  the  screw,  instead  of  the  vessel  being  screwed 
through  the  water.  This  action  takes  place  in  all  screw-vessels  to 
a  most  serious  degree,  when  going  head  to  wind,  or  in  towing,  when 
the  engines  make  their  full  number  of  revolutions ;  but  have  little 
effect  in  propelling  the  ship.  The  perfect  hold  that  Griffiths'  pro- 
peller has  also,  under  such  circumstances,  upon  the  water,  bids  fair 
entirely  to  remove  these  difficulties,  and  will  tend  greatly  to  increase 
the  value  of  the  screw  as  a  propeller. 

The  patent  propeller  was  appplied  to  a  tug-boat— the  Lady  Emily, 
12  horse-power,  diameter  of  screw,  3  feet  8  inches— on  the  Kennet 
and  Avon  Canal,  under  the  direction  of  Capt.  Morrice,  R.1ST.,  the  ma- 
nager, and  the  results  showed  that  with  one  barge  laden  with  60  tons 
she  went  from  Bath  to  Bristol,  deducting  stoppages  going  through 


locks,  in  2f  hours,  the  distance  being  18  miles.  As  other  barges  were 
added,  the  speed  was  reduced,  and  the  engines  were  pulled  up  in  exact 
proportion  to  the  reduction  of  speed.  The  revolutions  of  the  pro- 
pellers, without  any  barge  in  tow,  were  210  per  minute;  with  a 
60-tons  loaded  barge,  reduced  to  180;  with  two  barges,  to  160  revo- 
lutions per  minute. 

The  question  of  the  pitch  of  the  screw  appears  hitherto  to  have 
baffled  all  those  who  have  experimented  upon  it ;  the  ordinary  theory 
being,  that  an  increasing  of  the  screw's  pitch  should  either  pull  up  the 
engines,  or  increase  the  speed  of  vessel  in  proportion  to  such  increase 
of  pitch,  which  all  the  practice  hitherto  has  proved  not  to  he  the  case, 
and  consequently  the  screws  have  been  made  without  any  power  of 
altering  the  pitch,  to  meet  the  variations  of  winds  and  currents  to 
which  all  sea-going  vessels  are  subject,  and  they  have  been  thus  de- 
prived of  what  would  appear  the  most  valuable  feature  of  the  screw, 
viz.,  its  power  of  adapting  its  pitch  to  meet  every  contingency.  On 
reference  to  the  tables  of  experiments,  it  will  be  seen  that  with  the 
new  propeller  the  engineer  can  control  the  speed  of  his  engines  at 
pleasure,  by  increasing  or  diminishing  the  pitch  of  the  blades,  so  that, 
in  a  fair  wind,  the  full  power  of  the  engines  may  be  exerted  in  effec- 
tively propelling  the  vessel,  instead  of  consuming  fuel  in  driving  round 
the  engines  (with  a  fine  pitched  screw)  to  no  purpose,  and  again,  in 
going  head  to  wind,  by  diminishing  the  pitch,  the  engines  can  be  made 
to  give  out  their  utmost  duty  with  a  certainty  of  effectually  propelling 
the  vessel.  The  large  central  ball  affords  the  opportunity  of  con- 
structing a  most  simple  and  effective  arrangement  for  altering  the 
pitch  of  the  blades,  and  feathering  them  parallel  to  the  shaft  when 
not  required  for  propelling.  The  captain  or  engineer  of  the  vessel 
can  alter  the  pitch  at  pleasure,  without  even  stopping  the  engines, 
the  speed  of  which  is,  by  means  of  this  apparatus,  as  completely  under 
control  as  with  a  throttle  valve. 

A  most  serious  disadvantage,  hitherto,  of  the  screw  as  a  propeller, 
compared  to  the  paddle-wheel,  has  been  the  great  difficulty  of  going 
astern,  and  many  serious  accidents  have  happened  to  screw  vessels  in 
crowded  navigations  from  it  being  out  of  the  power  of  the  captains, 
when  in  difficulty,  to  go  quickly  astern.  So  soon  as  stern  way  is 
obtained,  screw  vessels  will  not  steer,  and  become  unmanageable. 
During  the  experiments  in  the  Ranger,  with  Griffiths'  propeller, 
the  vessel  was  frequently  stopped,  when  at  full  speed,  the  engines  re- 
versed, and  the  vessel  brought  quickly  astern  nearly  as  quickly  as  a 
paddle  vessel,  and  a  run  was  made  above  a  mile  astern,  full  speed, 
between  Woolwich  and  Erith,  steering  among  the  various  craft  as 
easily  as  when  going  ahead.  This  fact  gives  further  convincing  proof 
of  the  complete  power  which  this  propeller  gives  the  captain  over  his 
vessel.  This  power  of  going  astern  will  be  of  enormous  value  to 
vessels  of  war  in  manoeuvring  "in  an  engagement,  which  they  do  not 
now  possess. 

It  will  be  seen,  by  the  accompanying  table  of  trials  made  upon  the  ' 
Eagle,  that  as  the  pitch  was  increased,  so  was  the  engine  brought 
up  in  her  speed.  The  comparative  slip  between  the  new  screw  and 
the  old  one,  at  same  pitch,  7'6,  is  272  yards  per  mile  with  the  former, 
against  665  yards  with  the  latter;  the  gain  with  the  same  pitch  being 
an  increased  speed  of  \  mile,  with  27  revolutions  per  minute  less  of 
the  engines,  making  16  per  cent,  less  consumption  of  power  and  coals. 
At  the  9  ft.  6  in.,  the  increased  speed  is  fths  of  a  mile  per  hour,  with 
35  revolutions  per  minute  less  of  engine,  making  a  saving  of  22  per 
cent.  The  table  also  contains  trials  of  the  lluvzcr,  300  tons,  in 
London,  and  the  Weaver,  at  Liverpool,  the  whole  of  the  experiments 
illustrating  the  foregoing  arguments. 

GEORGE  I1INTON  BOVILL. 

19,  Aechuecii  Lane, 
London,  29th  June,  1852. 


178 


Griffiths  Patent  Screw  Propeller. 


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1852.] 


Notes  by  a  Practical  Chemist. 


179 


NOTES   BY   A   PRACTICAL   CHEMIST. 


Estimation  of  the  Free  Acids  in  the  Juices  of  Fruits. — 
M.  Graeger  mixes  the  juices  under  examination  with  neutral  tartrate  of 
potassa,  and  calculates  the  amount  of  free  acid  from  the  quantity  of 
bitartrate  which  separates.  To  determine  the  amount  of  free  tartaric 
acid  in  a  juice,  a  second  portion  is  divided  into  two  equal  parts ;  the 
one  is  neutralised  by  potassa,  and  the  other  half  of  the  juice  now  added, 
and  the  amount  of  acid  calculated  from  the  quantity  of  precipitated 
bitartrate  of  potassa. 

Colouring  Matter  of  Saffron. — M.  Quadrat  prepares  the 
colouring  matter  of  saffron  as  follows  : — The  saffron  is  exhausted  with 
ether,  and  then  extracted  with  boiling  water  ;  the  clear  aqueous  solution 
is  precipitated  with  basic  acetate  of  lead ;  the  red  precipitate  which 
forms  is  washed  in  water;  suspended  in  water;  and  then  decomposed  by 
a  current  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  well  washed.  The  colouring 
matter  is  then  extracted  from  the  precipitate  by  boiling  alcohol,  the 
alcoholic  solution  evaporated  to  dryness  in  the  water-bath ;  the  residue 
treated  with  water,  and  the  aqueous  solution  evaporated  to  dryness. 
The  colouring  matter  forms  an  aurora-red,  inodorous  powder,  which 
dissolves  in  water  with  a  yellow  colour.  A  trace  of  alkali  increases  its 
solubility  in  a  high  degree.  It  is  freely  soluble  in  alcohol,  sparingly  in 
ether.  It  is  decomposed  by  strong  mineral  acids  and  concentrated 
alkalies.  Its  formula  is  C20  H"  O".  "With  salts  of  copper  it  gives  a 
green,  with  lime  or  baryta-water,  a  yellow,  precipitate. 

On  the  Sulphur  in  Cast  Irons. — M.  Janoyer,  after  a  variety 
of  experiments,  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
metal  as  free  as  possible  from  sulphur,  it  is  necessary  that  the  slags 
should  contain  the  maximum  amount  of  lime.  The  working  of  the 
furnace  should  be  as  hot  as  possible,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  isolation 
of  the  graphite,  and  consequently  the  formation  of  the  sulphuret,  of 
carbon,  which  serves  to  transfer  the  sulphur  from  the  metal  to  the  slag. 
A  considerable  improvement  has  recently  been  effected  in  the  working 
of  blast  furnaces,  by  washing  the  coals,  which  removes  a  great  portion 
of  the  pyrites,  and  also  by  getting  rid  of  the  earthy  matters,  increases 
the  heating  power  of  the  coal. 

On  Dyeing  with  Sandal-wood. — In  order  to  dye  as  fine  a  red 
with  sandal-wood  as  with  madder,  M.  Wimmer  first  exhausts  the  wood 
with  boiling  water.  He  then  treats  it  with  a  cold  filtered  solution  of 
chloride  of  lime  as  long  as  this  becomes  coloured,  and  washes  it  per- 
fectly with  pure  water.  From  the  wood  thus  prepared,  the  red  colour- 
ing matter  is  extracted  by  a  hot,  but  not  boiling,  solution  of  soda,  the 
wood  being  tied  up  in  a  linen  bag,  and  the  kettle  covered  with  a  well- 
fitting  lid.  The  extract  should  have  a  deep  red  colour,  inclining  to 
violet.  Cottons,  linens,  and  woollens  are  prepared  with  acid  mordants, 
and  dyed  in  the  usual  manner.  The  author  obtained  a  beautiful  scarlet 
by  treating  the  stuffs  alternately  with  a  mordant  of  chloride  of  zinc, 
and  the  above  bath.  The  colours  are  durable  and  particularly  useful 
in  saving  cochineal,  as  stuffs  which  are  to  be  dyed  with  the  latter  may 
previously  receive  a  ground  of  sandal-wood. 

Process  for  Detection  of  Fluorine  in  presence  of 
Silica. — This  process  depends  on  the  principle,  that  when  a  fluoride, 
combined  or  mixed  with  silica,  is  treated  with  oil  of  vitriol,  the 
fluorine  and  silicon  are  evolved  in  combination  as  fluoride  of  silicon. 
It  is  applicable  to  all  silicated  fluorides  which  yield  this  gas.  It  applies 
also  to  compounds  containing  mere  traces  of  fluorides,  but  free  from 
silica,  which  are  brought  within  the  compass  of  the  process  by  the  ad- 
dition of  silica,  so  as  to  admit  of  their  being  treated  in  large  quantity 
with  oil  of  vitriol  in  glass  vessels.  The  fluoride  of  silicon  set  free,  in 
either  case,  is  conveyed  by  a  bent  tube  into  water.  The  resulting  solu- 
tion, containing  some  gelatinous  silica,  is  super-saturated  with  ammonia 
and  evaporated  to  dryness,  during  which  process  the  fluoride  of  silicon 


and  ammonia  is  resolved  into  insoluble  silica  and  fluoride  of  ammonium, 
which  is  dissolved  out  by  digesting  water  on  the  evaporated  residue. 
The  solution  is  then  evaporated  to  dryness  and  heated  with  oil  of  vitriol 
in  a  platinum  crucible  covered  by  a  piece  of  waxed  glass. 

Detection  of  Minute  Traces  of  Copper.— Mr.  R.  Warring- 
ton adds  ferrocyanide  of  potassium  to  the  solution  to  be  tested,  to 
which  excess  of  ammonia  has  previously  been  added.  The  ferrocyanide 
of  copper  is  held  in  solution  by  the  ammonia,  and  is  afterwards  de- 
posited from  the  filtrate  as  the  ammonia  is  allowed  to  evaporate. 

ANSWERS    TO    CORRESPONDENTS. 

"  F.  M."— We  do  not  think  that  any  printed  instructions  without 
the  aid  of  a  practical  man  would  qualify  you  to  commence  the  manu- 
facture of  fire-works.  It  is,  you  will  remember,  a  dangerous  business, 
and  one  where  the  object  attained  scarcely  warrants  that  danger. 

"  Norwich." — Sir  H.  Davy  made  various  attempts  to  decompose 
some  of  the  bodies  we  generally  consider  as  elementary ;  but  without 
any  decisive  result.  S. 


THE  YORKSHIRE  UNION  OF  MECHANICS'  INSTITUTES. 

The  Annual  meeting  of  this  important  Union  of  Mechanics'  Insti- 
tutes took  place  at  Skipton  on  the  2nd  instant,  Edward  Baiues,  Esq., 
the  president,  in  the  chair.  The  chairman  congratulated  the  delegates 
and  others  present,  on  the  arrival  of  their  fifteenth  anniversary.  They 
now  represented  124  institutions  in  the  county  of  York,  numbering 
collectively  20,000  members.  We  regret  that  we  can  only  find  room 
for  the  heads  of  the  proceedings. 

Mr.  Hole  then  read  an  elaborate  report,  which  entered  fully  into  a  variety 
of  matters  connected  with  the  past  working,  the  design,  and  the  influence  of 
the  Mechanics'  Institutes  of  Yorkshire.  The  following  are  the  introductory 
and  statistical  facts  given  in  the  report : — 

The  Committee  of  the  Yorkshire  Union  of  Mechanics'  Institutes,  on  this, 
the  fifteenth  annual  meeting  of  the  Union,  have  great  pleasure  in  reporting 
the  general  continued  welfare  of  the  Yorkshire  Institutes.  In  the  income, 
the  number  of  books  in  the  libraries,  and  the  circulation  of  those  books — 
all  important  signs  of  success — there  has  been  a  gratifying  increase.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  an  element  of  prosperity  at  least  as  important  as  any — 
the  number  participating  in  those  benefits,  the  increase  has  been  very  small. 
The  following  table  will  show  the  aggregate  condition  of  the  Yorkshire 
Union: — 

1851.  1852.       Increase. 

Total  number  of  institutes  in  the 

Union    117     ..  124     ..         7 

Total  number  in  94  institutes 
Ditto    estimated    from    last 

year's  report  in  16  do. 

19,043     .. 

(13  institutes  without  reports  or 

estimates) 
Total  income  of  103  institutes  . .  . .       £8,452     . . 

Number  of  volumes  reported  in 

libraries  of  113  institutes,  for 

1852 ••        95,529     .. 

Circulation  of  books  in  113  insti- 
tutes   ••      388,202     .. 

Number  of  books  added  during 

the  past  year  to  the  libraries 

of  113  institutes ..         6,667     .. 

Returns   from   73   institutions,  of 

periodicals   —  weekly    1S8, 

monthly   539,   quarterly   08, 

newspapers  416    >•  ••  •• 

Number  of  paid  lectures  in  35 

institutes  ••  14*     •• 

Ditto  unpaid  do.  in  70  do .  •  463 

24 


180 


The  Yorkshire  Union  of  Mechanics  Institutes. 


[August, 


The  next  tabic  will  show  the  comparative  progress  made  during  the  past 
year: — 


1851. 

1852. 

Increase. 

Designation. 

Nos. 

Per  cent. 

Males  in  79  institutes 
Females  in  60  do. 
Income  of  75  do. 
Books  in     79  do. 
Issues  in      75  do. 

Lectures  in  75  do. 

14,181 

1,327 

£6,814 

72,722 
309,316 

644 

14,429 

1,452 

£7,195 

78,357 

327,548 

617 

348         2-4 

125          9-4 

£381          5-6 

5,635         7-7 

18,232          5-9 

Decrease. 

27         4'2 

The  comparatively  small  increase  in  numbers  made  during  the  past  year, 
compared  with  the  increase  in  the  previous  year,  may  be  in  part  attributable 
to  the  attractions  of  the  Great  Exhibition,  as  alleged  in  one  or  two  of  the 
reports.    It  is  to  be  feared,  however,  that  it  is  more  owing  to  the  want  of 
adequate  encouragement  and  support  on  the  part  of  those  for  whose  benefit 
these  institutions  exist.     Very  much  remains  to  be  done  in  rendering  the 
institutes  better  known  and  more  useful. 

During  the  past  year,  your  agent  and  lecturer,  Mr.  T.  J.  Pcarsall,  has  paid 
131  visits  to  the  institutes,  of  which  there  were — 

Lectures        . .  . .  . .  . .  . .         . .  56 

Soirees,  &c.  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .         . .  28 

Conferences  with  Committees,  &c.  ..         ..         ..47 

131 
In  addition  to  the  above,  lectures  were  arranged  for  with  nine  institutes,  but 
not  delivered,  owing  to  a  change  of  dates  ;  nine  institutes  declined  receiving 
visits  or  lectures,  and  nine  never  replied  at  all,  although,  in  some  instances, 
circulars  were  sent  three  or  four  times.  Prom  the  impossibility  of  arranging 
his  engagements,  much  time  has  been  lost  to  your  agent,  and  a  considerable 
increase  in  his  travelling  expenses  has  been  incurred  through  neglect  of  this 
description— a  neglect  to  be  regretted  not  only  on  this  account,  but  also  as 
indicating  a  want  of  punctual  business  habits,  that  primary  condition  of  the 
success  of  our  institutes.  Several  of  the  reports  name  the  advantages  they 
have  derived  from  Mr.  Pearsall's  visits,  and  your  committee  hope  that  he 
will  continue  to  use  his  best  exertions  to  render  his  visits  useful  and  accept- 
able to  the  institutes. 

The  report  next  noticed  the  very  important  subject  of  investing  the  insti- 
tutes with  efficient  powers  of  self-regulation  and  security  of  property ;  point- 
ing out  that  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  doing  this  by  a  trust  deed  were 
very  serious,  these  difficulties  applying  in  a  measure  to  buildings  and  fixed 
property,  but  in  a  much  greater  degree  to  books  and  moveable  property. 
These  difficulties  appeared  to  the  committee  so  great  as  to  render  further 
advice  necessary,  and  they  accordingly  consulted  Robert  Hall,  Esq.,  the 
recorder  of  Doncaster,  who  concludes  an  elaborate  opinion  on  the  whole 
subject  by  the  following  sentence:— "  I  consider  that  the  assistance  of  the 
legislature  is  necessary  to  secure  any  approximation  to  uniformity  of  organi- 
sation, and,  at  least  as  regards  most  existing  institutions,  to  have  the  power 
of  suing  or  prosecuting  members,  and  to  give  power  of  self-regulation  and 
modification  on  many  points,  such  as  the  ultimate  application  of  the  fund, 
without  having  recourse  to  the  Court  of  Chancery."  Under  these  circum- 
stances, the  committee  believe  an  application  to  the  legislature  to  be  the  only- 
safe  and  prudent  course,  the  object  being  to  secure  for  these  institutions 
better  means  of  self-government  and  self-protection  than  they  at  present 
possess. 

Reference  was  made  to  the  conference  of  delegates  of  Mechanics'  Institutes, 
lately  held  in  London  at  the  Society  of  Arts,  and  hopes  were  entertained 
that  good  would  result  from  it  in  various  ways,  at  the  same  time  that  the 
independence  of  the  institutes  should  be  preserved.  Difficulties  were  not 
overlooked,  and  caution  in  proceeding  was  recommended.  The  report 
further  stated,  that  a  new  edition  of  a  catalogue  of  books  suitable  for 
Mechanics'  Institutes,  is  being  arranged  by  Mr.  Traice,  of  Leeds,  who  is 
peculiarly  qualified  for  the  task.  As  to  lectures,  there  had  been  such  a  paucity 
of  engagements  offered  to  paid  lecturers,  that  the  committee  had  discontinued 
the  plan  of  sending  out  half-yearly  lists,  but  it  stated  that  gentlemen  had 
been  applied  to,  to  form  a  literary  corps  for  their  respective  neighbourhoods, 


professional  men  being  particularly  qualified  to  engage  in  such  a  work,  as 
well  as  all  who  had  a  favourite  object  of  study;  The  report  then  noticed  the 
recreation  department  as  a  desirable  adjunct  to  Mechanics'  Institutes  in  a 
subordinate  sphere  ;  the  encouragement  of  more  social  intercourse,  music, 
and  similar  resources,  were  strongly  recommended  as  proper  and  genial  to 
introduce  into  the  more  serious  pursuits  of  the  institutes.  Good  business 
arrangements,  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  institutions,  were  strongly  re- 
commended. The  rates  of  subscriptions  of  members  of  institutes  during  the 
summer  was  another  topic  referred  to,  the  position  of  the  societies  being 
comparatively  weak  when  the  subscriptions  were  continuous  through  the 
yea)-,  but  were  still  worse  when  intermitted.  Visiting  of  members  was 
instanced  as  very  efficacious  in  some  districts.  Preliminary  savings'  banks 
were  mentioned  as  increasing.  Garden  allotments  were  recommended  as 
useful,  but  might  prove  to  attract  from  the  proper  work  of  an  educational 
institution.  The  erection  of  a  new  Mechanics'  Institute  at  Gomersal,  at  a 
cost  of  £2,000,  was  noticed  with  great  commendation.  After  referring  to 
several  other  topics  of  interest,  the  report  concluded  with  a  strong  recom- 
mendation of  the  objects  of  educational  societies,  such  as  Mechanics'  Insti- 
tutes, as  tending  to  instruct  and  elevate  all  classes. 

The  report  having  been  received  and  adopted,  it  was  moved  and  seconded, 
and  carried  unanimously — 

"  That  in  the  opinion  of  this  meeting  the  existing  law  does  not  adequately 
secure  the  property  of  Mechanics'  Institutions,  or  afford  means  of  carrying 
their  rules  for  self-government  into  effect,  in  so  simple  and  inexpensive  a 
manner  as  the  nature  of  such  institutions  renders  necessary. 

"  That  it  appears  to  this  meeting  highly  desirable  that  Mechanics'  Institu- 
tions throughout  the  kingdom  should  unite  in  an  early  application  to  Parlia- 
ment for  an  act  to  secure  the  property  and  enforce  the  rules  of  such  institu- 
tions, and  that  the  Central  Committee  of  this  Union  be  requested  to  invite 
the  co-operation  of  the  other  institutions  of  the  kingdom  in  application  to 
Parliament  for  that  purpose,  and,  in  behalf  of  this  Union,  to  join  any  other 
institutions  in  making  and  proceeding  with  an  application  to  Parliament 
accordingly." 

The  next  resolution  was  in  accordance  with  numerous  petitions  which 
have  been  presented  to  Parliament — 

"  That  it  is  most  desirable  that  Mechanics'  Institutions  should  become  de- 
positories of  collections  of  the  valuable  reports  and  papers  printed  from  time 
to  time  by  order  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  that  the  institutions  of 
Yorkshire  be  recommended  to  petition  for  the  presentation  of  such  reports 
and  papers,  free  of  all  pecuniary  charge." 

Mr.  T.  Wilson,  of  Leeds,  introduced  the  next  resolution,  referring  to  the 
proposed  connection  of  Mechanics'  Institutes  with  the  Society  of  Arts.  From 
the  reports  given  in  the  public  papers  of  the  meeting  held  in  London  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  the  object  was  to  form  some  central  body 
which  might  act  upon,  and  be  acted  upon  by,  the  Mechanics'  Institutions. 
This  was  what  was  done  in  the  Lyceum  system  in  America.  The  subject 
was  not  a  new  one,  for  when  the  Union  met  at  Bradford,  a  committee  was 
appointed  to  consider  it,  but  he  was  sorry  it  produced  no  fruit  then.  He 
had  read  the  proceedings  of  the  recent  meetings  in  London,  and  regretted 
to  find  that  the  resolutions  were  so  general  in  their  nature;  there  was  nothing- 
practical  which  could  lead  them  to  see  what  were  the  views  of  the  parties  at 
the  head  of  the  movement,  or  whether  they  understood  the  wants  of  the 
parties  they  wished  to  benefit.  If  they  had  nob  the  necessary  information, 
he  hoped  they  would  call  to  their  councils  those  who  had  the  management 
of  these  institutions,  and  the  result  would  be  beneficial  in  promoting  the 
object  they  had  at  heart.  In  conclusion,  he  moved  a  resolution,  stating  that 
the  meeting  regarded  the  movement  in  London  with  interest,  and  recom- 
mended it  to  the  careful  attention  of  the  committee,  but  deemed  it  in  the 
highest  degree  desirable  to  maintain  the  Yorkshire  Union  in  full  efficiency 
(cheers). 

Mr.  Norman,  of  Ripon,  in  seconding  the  resolution,  said  he  had  for  some 
years  been  of  opinion  that  some  such  association  in  London  was  necessary  to 
act  on  the  country  institutions.  He  thought  the  Society  of  Arts,  of  all  others, 
the  most  likely  to  bring  their  efforts  to  bear  in  this  matter.  They  wanted  to 
act  on  the  public  mind,  and  there  wanted  some  focus  or  instrumentality  by" 
which  their  objects  could  be  carried  out.  It  was  a  matter  of  regret  that  a 
more  definite  plan  had  not  been  marked  out,  but  he  understood  from  Mr. 
Williamson,  of  Kipon,  that  there  were  somo  impediments  in  the  way  of  work- 


1852.] 


Eastern  Steam  Navigation  Company. 


181 


ing  out  the  objects  they  had  in  view.  Many  of  the  institutions  were  too  poor 
to  pay  the  annual  contribution  required,  bat  he  hoped  the  committee  would 
be  able  to  suggest  some  plan  by  which  this  proposed  central  organisation 
could  be  carried  out.  Perhaps  the  better  way  would  be  for  the  local  unions 
to  be  the  medium  of  communication  with  the  central  authority,  leaving  the 
county  institutions  to  pay  their  contributions  into  their  own  local  union 
(hear,  hear). 

The  chairman  said,  having,  on  behalf  of  the  Yorkshire  Union,  attended 
the  meeting  in  London,  he  could  assure  them  that  nothing  could  be  more 
gratifying  than  the  tone  and  temper  of  that  meeting.  Men  of  all  parties, 
and  of  the  highest  influence  and  attainments,  were  there,  and  both  the  Marquis 
of  Lansdowne,  who  presided,  and  Mr.  Harry  Chester,  in  the  most  decided 
manner,  expressed  a  wish  that  nothing  should  be  done  to  interfere  in  any 
way  with  the  independent  action  of  Mechanics'  Institutions  (hear,  hear).  The 
object  the  Society  of  Arts  had  in  view  was  very  much  what  the  Yorkshire 
Union  had  in  view — to  cheapen  lectures  to  all  Mechanics'  Institutes  ;  and  to 
do  this  by  a  geographical  and  chronological  plan,  so  that  the  expenses  might 
be  reduced  to  the  smallest  amount.  But  they  were  aware  what  great  diffi- 
culty the  Union  had  experienced  in  the  practical  working  out  of  their  plan  ; 
and,  as  regarded  professional  lecturers,  they  had  found  it  a  failure.  He 
wished  the  Society  of  Arts  might  succeed  in  their  object.  After  pointing  out 
several  reasons  which  made  him  doubt  the  success  of  the  effort — such  as  the 
want  of  taste  for  scientific  lectures,  the  poverty  of  many  of  the  institutions, 
&c,  the  chairman  said,  the  larger  institutions,  such  as  those  at  Leeds,  Man- 
chester, and  Bristol,  might  contribute,  and  thus  connect  themselves  with  the 
society,  and  the  smaller  institutions  might  be  benefited  by  the  cheapening  of 
scientific  works,  such  as  producing  a  copy  of  Euclid  for  Is.  In  boxes  of 
colours  and  mathematical  instruments,  the  society  has  done  this.  As,  how- 
ever, the  plan  of  the  society  was  not  yet  mature,  they  might,  in  the  words  of 
the  resolution,  remit  this  matter  to  the  committee. 

A  dinner  and  soiree  followed,  at  the  latter  of  which  Sir  Charles  Wood 
took  the  chair.  The  following  resolutions  were  passed,  after  admirable 
speeches  from  the  leading  men  present: — 

"  That  the  mechanical  and  chemical  processes  so  largely  employed  not 
only  in  the  arts  but  in  agriculture  also,  render  an  acquaintance  with  the 
principles  of  these  sciences  necessary  alike  to  the  manufacturing  labourer 
and  the  husbandman,  and  that  due  provision  for  their  teaching  should  be 
made  in  all  educational  institutions  intended  for  the  benefit  of  those  classes. 

"  That  a  great  portion  of  the  working  classes  are  either  imperfectly  edu- 
cated, or  without  the  means,  at  their  own  homes,  of  maintaining  and  ex- 
tending the  knowledge  they  may  have  acquired,  and  that  Mechanics'  Institu- 
tions are  eminently  qualified  by  their  elementry  classes  to  provide  instruction 
for  the  former,  and  by  their  lectures  and  libraries  to  supply  ample  stores  of 
information  for  the  latter. 

"  That  the  power  of  perceiving,  and  the  skill  to  produce,  beauty  of  form 
and  harmony  of  colour,  are  not  only  necessary  to  the  successful  discharge  of 
the  duties  of  the  artizan  and  decorative  manufacturer,  but  powerfully  tend  to 
elevate  and  to  refine  the  mind,  and  that  no  education  which  overlooks  so  im- 
portant a  department  can  be  adequate  to  the  wants  of  the  great  body  of  the 
people." 

EASTERN  STEAM  NAVIGATION  COMPANY. 
An  adjourned  extraordinary  general  meeting  of  this  company  was  held 
on  the  12th  instant,  Mr.  G.  T.  Braine  in  the  chair.     The  Secretary,  Mr. 
Yates,  read  the  report,  of  which  the  following  is  an  abstract: — 

The  objections  discovered,  on  examination  of  these  plans,  let!  the  way  to  the  consideration 
of  a  third  plan,  submitted  to  your  directors,  which  should  comprise  the  elements  of  high 
speed  without  the  Inconvenience  and  great  expense  inevitably  attending  the  overland  route. 
It  was  suggested  to  your  directors,  that  steam-vessels  of  the  great  power  which  modern 
science  renders  attainable,  might  be  despatched  by  way  of  the  Cape,  so  as  to  accomplish 
the  distance  between  England  and  Calcutta  in  the  same  or  less  time  than  the  present  tran- 
sit by  Southampton  and  the  Desert,  and  with  great  increase  of  comfort  and  economy  to  the 
passengers.  For  this  purpose,  it  would  only  be  necessary  that  vessels  should  be  employed 
possessing  the  speed  of  15  or  16  knots  an  hour.  It  appeared  that  15  knots  an  hour  would 
accomplish  the  distance  to  Calcutta  in  32  days,  16  knots  in  30  days,  and  17  knots  in  28  days. 
Vessels  of  this  class  could  therefore  be  prudently  calculated  on  to  perform  the  entire  dis- 
tance ia  30  to  32  days,  provided  only  they  were  not  obliged  to  stop  and  coal  by  the  way. 
The  next  question  was,  whether  a  vessel  could  be  constructed  of  power  and  capacity  to  per- 
form the  voyage  to  Calcutta  without  stopping  to  coal  by  the  way.  On  this  point  the  whole 
question  hinged.  The  power  of  carrying  coal  for  the  whole  voyage  involves  the  ditferencc 
of  12s.  to  13s.  per  ton  in  comparison  with  a  cost  of  40s.  to  45s.  per  ton  ;  which  latter  is  the 
average  of  the  cost  of  coal  per  ton  throughout  the  overland  route.  The  consumption  of  coal 
is  known  to  be  the  great  element  of  cost  in  steam  navigation  ;  and  if  this  could  be  reduced 
by  two-thirds,  it  was  obvious  that  great  corresponding  increase  of  speed  and  power  might 
he  obtained  not  only  at  no  increase,  but  at  an  actual  diminution  of  expense. 

In  accomplishing  this  object,  increased  size  in  the  vessel  was  a  necessary  ingredient,  and 
with  it  an  ability  to  provide  accommodation  for  passengers  and  goods  of  the  description 


allnded  to.  It  is  a  principle  in  ship-building  now  ascertained,  that  in  proportion  as  the 
vessel  is  increased  in  size,  her  disposable  capacity  for  passengers  and  cargo  increases  in  a 
higher  ratio ;  thus,  a  vessel  which  could  carry  her  coals  for  the  voyage  to  Calcutta  would 
necessarily  possess  the  capacity  to  convey  a  largely-increased  number  of  passengers  and  a 
large  quantity  of  measurement  goods.  It  is  equally  matter  of  experience,  that  the  speed 
attainable  by  large  vessels  is  greater  in  proportion  to  their  power  than  with  smaller  vessels  ■ 

it  wnc  plpnr.  thprpfm-o    tliof  emnh  r.m. *    ■!' —  —  ....«..... : _  .  * 


engineers  in  this  country,  Mr.  Brunei  is  known  to  have  dedicated  the  most  time  and  atten- 
tion to  the  improvement  of  ocean  steam  navigation,  and  the  construction  of  vessels  for  that 
purpose.  The  "  Great  Western,"  the  first  vessel  which  was  built  expressly  to  carrv  her 
own  coal  from  England  to  America,  owed  her  existence  to  him;  and  the  present  scheme  is 
only  a  development  of  the  same  principle.  Mr.  Brunei  has  satisfied  your  directors  of  the 
practicability  of  building  and  running  such  vessels  with  advantage,  and  his  views  are  borne 
out  by  the  opinions  of  other  eminent  engineers  and  ship-builders.  The  mechanical  diffi- 
culties being  thus  solved,  the  question  remained  for  the  consideration  of  your  directors, 
whether  passengers  and  freight  existed  in  a  sufficient  number  and  quantitv  to  make  the 
employment  of  such  vessels  a  matter  of  profit.  On  this  point  (possessing  amo'ng  themselves 
considerable  knowledge  and  extensive  experience  of  the  trade  with  India)  your  directors  had 
less  difficulty  in  arriving  at  a  conclusion.  Alter  deliberation  and  inquiry,  they  are  satisfied 
that  vessels  of  the  class  referred  to,  making  one  voyage  out  and  home  every  two  months, 
would  find  a  sufficient  amount  of  passengers  and  manufactured  goods  to  yield  a  very  large 
return,  and  that  that  return  would  be  subject  to  fewer  contingencies]  and  less  drawbacks 
than  in  the  case  of  vessels  running  under  contract,  as  to  their  structure,  and  as  to  the 
time  of  departure  and  arrival.  In  their  calculations  on  these  points,  your  directors 
have  estimated  freight  at  that  now  paid  to  sailing-vessels,  and  passage-money  at  about  half 
the  cost  now  paid  by  the  overland  route,  while  they  have  allowed  for  the  passengers  luxu- 
rious and  roomy  cabins,  with  ah-  and  comfort,  and  accommodation  on  a  scale  hitherto  wholly 
unattainable.  For  these  arrangements,  about  one-half  of  the  total  capital  will  be  required, 
and  there  will  be  ample  provision  for  the  future  extension  of  the  operations  of  the  Company! 
Upon  a  mature  consideration  of  the  whole  subject,  your  directors  have  come  to  the  conclu- 
sion of  recommending  to  you  to  proceed  with  the  proposed  plan  of  building  steam-vessels 
capable  of  effecting  the  views  above  expressed  on  the  principle  of  carrying  their  own  coal 
for  their  voyage  to  Calcutta.  Your  directors  have  to  express  their  regret  at  the  retirement 
of  their  chairman,  B.  W.  Crawford,  Esq.,  and  of  Joseph  Edlmann,  Esq.,  Robert  Brooks,  Esq., 
Thomas  Holroyd,  Esq.,  and  John  Scott,  Esq.  Your  directors  are,  however,  able  to  add,  that 
the  retirement  of  these  gentlemen  proceeds  from  personal  considerations.  The  names  of 
the  undermentioned  gentlemen  will  be  proposed  to  you  to  fill  up  the  places  of  those  directors 
who  have  retired  ;  and  it  will  also  be  a  part  of  the  duty  of  your  directors  to  recommend  to 
you  to  increase  the  number  of  directors,  under  the  powers  contained  in  the  deed  of  settle- 
ment for  that  purpose,  from  twelve  to  eighteen  :  Henry  Thomas  Hope,  Esq.,  M.P.,  of  116, 
Piccadilly;  Christopher  Rice  Mansel  Talbot,  Esq.,  M.P.,  of  3,  Cavendish-sqnare ;  Philip 
William  Skynner  Miles,  Esq.,  M. P.,  of  44,  iJelgrave-square ;  Samuel  Baker,  Esq.,  of  147, 
Leadenhall-street ;  Richard  Potter,  Esq.,  of  Gloucester. 

The  directors  remaining  are— the  Hon.  F.  H.  F.  Berkeley,  M.P. ;  George  Thomas  Braine. 
Esq. ;  James  St.  George  Burke,  Esq. ;  Robert  James  Roy  Campbell,  Esq. ;  Harry  George 
Gordon,  Esq. ;   William  Henry  Goschen,  Esq. ;  John  Edward  Stephens,  Esq. 

The  new  contract  with  the  P.  and  O.  Company  still  leaves  the  communi- 
cation with  India  imperfect.  The  time  to  Calcutta  will  be  at  least  35  days; 
the  vessels  are  crowded,  and  have  no  means  of  carrying  light  manufactured 
goods  and  parcels,  which  are  offered,  although  the  rates  are  almost  prohibi- 
tory. The  line  which  the  directors  originally  proposed,  via  Trieste,  appeared 
ineligible  without  a  government  subsidy,  as  it  is  merely  a  competing  line 
with  the  P.  and  O.  Company,  and  a  line  via  the  Cape,  if  with  ordinary 
vessels,  would  be  merely  a  duplicate  of  that  of  the  General  Screw  Company. 

In  reply  to  questions,  Mr.  Brunei  stated,  that  it  was  not  intended  to  have 
any  coaling  station,  unless  under  extraordinary  circumstances,  as  the  high 
price  of  freight  or  other  special  reasons  should  render  it  necessary.  One 
main  feature  of  the  plan  was  to  purchase  the  coal  at  the  low  price  at  which 
it  could  be  had  only  in  this  county,  and  that  each  vessel  should  carry  suffi- 
cient for  the  whole  voyage.  He  had  no  doubt  that  a  speed  of  15  knots  as 
the  lowest  average  might  be  maintained.  The  vessels  it  was  proposed  to 
build  would  be  constructed  principally  of  iron.  Of  course  every  known  im- 
provement would  be  adopted  in  the  machinery.  They  would  be  very  large, 
and  would  carry  probably  3,000  to  4,000  tons  of  coal  each,  besides  having 
ample  stowage  for  cargo  and  the  most  extensive  accommodation  for  pas- 
sengers. They  would  be  propelled  by  paddles  and  the  screw  together, 
which  would  give  them  the  power  of  three  distinct  and  separate  engines, 
and  thus  provide  for  all  contingencies. 

Mr.  Scott  Russell  remarked  that  there  were  steam -vessels  now  doing  18 
miles  an  hour  regularly,  and  instanced  the  Holyhead  boats,  and  it  was  well 
known  amongst  ship-builders  now  that  it  was  much  easier  to  get  a  high  rate 
of  speed  in  large  than  in  small  vessels.  Length  meant  speed — and  not  only 
that,  but  speed  and  cargo  room,  and  easy-going  combined.  The  old  rule  of 
ship-building  was  3  beams  for  the  length,  they  then  increased  them  to  4  and 
5,  and  the  American  clippers  were  merely  the  old  English  and  American 
ships  built  rather  sharper  and  in  the  proportion  of  6  beams  to  the  length. 
He  had  built  a  small  vessel  in  the  proportion  of  12  beams  to  the  length, 
which  had  made  lSe-  miles  an  hour  in  still  water,  and  in  a  voyage  to  Ham- 
burgh and  back,  in  very  rough  weather,  had  not  shipped  a  drop  of  water,  and 
had  gone  so  easy  through  the  sea  that  no  one  was  ill  on  board,  though  se- 
veral were  subject  to  sea-sickness.  He  did  not  mean  to  recommend  that  pro- 
portion for  the  Calcutta  vessels,  but  what  lie  recommended  was,  that  they 
should  be  long  enough  to  secure  speed,  capacity,  and  ease,  and  to  tarry 
sufficient  coal  without  interfering  with  the  other  requirements. 

Resolutions  were  passed,  authorising  the  board  to  carry  out  this  scheme, 
Mr.  Martin  remarking  that  the  company  had  already  done  the  state  some 
service  by  saving  them  £70,000  per  annum  on  the  existing  India  mails.  Mr. 
Crawford,  the  late  chairman,  stated  that  their  arrangement  with  the  Austrian 
Lloyd's  would,  in  all  probability,  have  been  carried  out,  had  not  one  of  their 
own  proprietors,  who  was  in  the  confidence  of  the  directors,  gone  behind 
their  backs  and  opened  a  negotiation  between  the  Austrian  Lloyd's  and 
Peninsular  and  Oriental. 


182 


Dimensions  of  Steamers. 


[August, 


SHIPBUILDING  ON  THE  CLYDE. 

GLASGOW,   1852. 

MESSRS.    ROBERT   BARCLAY   AND   CURLE,   SHIP- 
BUILDERS,   FINNIESTON, 

Launched  from  their  building-yard,  on  the  9th 
of  February,  the  (timber)  sailing-ship,  City  of 
Edinburgh,  tor  the  Glasgow  and  Calcutta  monthly 
line  of  packet-ships,  owned  by  Messrs.  George 
Smith  and  Sons,  merchants,  Glasgow.  Classed  13 
years,  A  1;  flush  on  deck;  full  female  figure-head; 
"launching  draft  of  water,  forward  7  feet  3  inches, 
and  9  feet  8  inches  aft. 

Dimensions.  ft.   tenths. 

Length  on  deck         139     0 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships     . .          . .         26     1 
Depth  of  hold,  do 20     1 

Tonnage.  Tons. 

Begister  598-$5 

Do.  (Act  for  foreign  vessels)  . .         560}i$ 

They  launched,  on  the  9th  of  March,  the  iron 
sloop,  Hunter  (of  Greenock),  for  the  coasting  trade, 
round-sterned  and  clinch-built  vessel;  frames,  2| 
x  2|  x  §  inches,  and  18  inches  apart ;  stem,  4^  x 
finches;  keel  and  stern-post,  4  x  finches;  light 
draft  of  water  (mean),  2  feet  10  inches;  loaded 
with  75  tons  of  cargo,  6  feet  6  inches  forward,  and 
7  feet  aft. 

Dimensions.  ft.   tenths. 

Length  on  deck        . .  . .         . .         56       7 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships  ..         ..  15       1 

Depth  of  hold,  do . .  6       1 

Tonnage.  Tons. 

Register         43$3 


They  also  launched,  on  the  1st  of  May,  a  beau- 
tiful clipper-built  ship,  Jacatra  (of  Glasgow). 
Flush  on  deck;  classed  33  years,  A  1;  with  a  full 
male  figure-head  ;  owned  by  Duncan  M'Gregor, 
Esq.,  and  the  commander  of  the  vessel,  Captain 
Thomas  Aiton;  to  be  employed  in  the  Clyde  and 
Java  trade  ;  sailed  in  the  end  of  June  for  Batavia 
and  Sourabaya. 

Dimensions.  ft.   tenths. 

Length  on  deck  121     5 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships     . .  . .         22     9 

Depth  of  hold,  do 16     5 

Tonnage         348T'j3j  tons. 

They  have  upon  the  stocks,  and  in  frame,  a  tim- 
ber-ship, to  class  13  years,  A  1.  Flush  on  deck; 
for  the  Glasgow  and  Calcutta  monthly  line  of 
packets  (same  owners  as  the  City  of  Edinburgh") 
and  will  be  named  the  City  of  Benares. 

Dimensions. 
Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake 
Breadth  of  beam 

Depth  of  hold     . .         

Tonnage  . . 

CESSN0CK-  BANK  (GLASGOW). 

Messrs.  James  and  George  Thomson,  engineers 
and  iron  ship-builders,  launched  from  their  build- 
ing-yard, on  the  19th  of  March,  an  iron  paddle- 
wheel  [steam-tender,  named  the  Jackal,  the  pro- 
perty of  the  British  and  North  American  Royal 
Mail  Steam  Navigation  Company,  built  with  the 
double  bow,  having  Mr.  John  Laird's  patent 
double  rudder,  &c.  ;  is  fitted  by  the  builders 
with  one  tubular  boiler,  and  registers  111  ^tons 
(exclusive  of  the  engine-room)  ;  having  2  masts  ; 
1  deck.  Sailed  from  Glasgow  for  Liverpool  on  the 
14th  of  April,  under  the  command  of  Mr.  Archi- 
bald White,  where  the  engines,  &c.,  are  to  be  re- 
ceived and  put  on  board. 

On  the  1st  of  May  was  launched  an  iron  paddle- 
wheel  steamer,  named  the  Venus,  the  property  of 
the  Large  Steamboat  Company,  having  1  steeple- 
engine  and  2  tubular  boilers,  and  2  funnels.  Has 
capital  accommodation  for  passengers.  Commenced 
to  ply  in  June  ;  trial-trip,  17th  of  June  ;  sails  fast. 


ft. 

in. 

162 

0 

30 

0 

21 

0 

703S  tons. 

On  the  29th  of  May  there  was  launched  the  iron 
paddle-wheel  steamer,  Mountaineer,  the  property 
of  the  West  Highland  Steam  Navigation  Com- 
pany ;  is  a  beautiful  model,  and  fitted  by  the 
builders  with  1  steeple-engine  and  2  tubular  boilers, 
and  2  funnels  ;  and  is  also  fitted  with  Morgan's 
patent  feathering  paddle-wheels,  and  is  tastefully 
fitted  up  for  passengers.  She  is  plying  as  consort  to 
Pioneer,  between  Glasgow  and  Ardrishaig.  These 
are  the  first  three  vessels  launched  by  the  firm  since 
they  commenced  building  for  themselves. 

They  have  also  upon  the  stocks,  ready  to  launch, 
a  paddle-wheel  steamer,  a  large  screw-steamer  in 
frame,  also  the  keels  of  two  other  screw-steamers 
laid  down. 

KELVIN-HAUGH. 

Messrs.  Alexander  Stephen  and  Sons,  ship- 
builders, have  on  the  stocks  a  ship  (building  under 
a  shed),  to  class  14  years,  A  1,  having  a  poop,  56 
feet  long  and  6  feet  6  inches  in  height,  with  a  top- 
gallant forecastle ;  nearly  ready  to  launch;  intended 
for  the  East  Indies,  China,  or  Australian  trades. 

Dimensions.  ft.      in. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake    ..  ..      155     0 

Breadth  of  beam  (extreme)       . .  . .        30     0 

Depth  of  hold 19     0 

Tonnage,  O.M 655§3  tons. 

Do.,  N.M.,  about  . .  . .  700      „ 

Will  carry  about  900  tons  dead  weight  of  cargo. 


Also  upon  the  stocks,  and  plated,  an  iron  clipper- 
ship  for  the  Clyde  and  Australian  trade  ;  owners, 
Messrs.  Potter,  Wilson,  and  Co.,  merchants,  Glas- 
gow ;  has  a  round  stern  ;  will  carry  about  2,000 
tons  measurement  goods,  or  about  1,400  tons  dead 
weight ;  having  a  poop  and  top-gallant  forecastle, 
and  is  to  be  named  the  Typhoon. 

Dimensions.  ft.      in. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake    ..  ..      198     5 

Breadth  of  beam  32     0 

Depth  of  hold 20    0 

Length  of  poop,  about   ..  ..  ..       76     0 

Tonnage,  O.M 976|,  tons. 

Do.,  N.M.,  about  ..  ..  1,100       „ 

Stem  tapering  from  10  inches,  at  keel,  to  7  inches 
at  deck  x  3  inches;  stern-post,  10  x  4  inches  ; 
keel,  9  x  3  inches  ;  plates  of  keeC  -|sth  of  an  inch; 
ditto  at  gunwale,  |  of  an  inch  ;  frames,  5  X  3  X 
§  inches,  and  15  inches  apart.  She  will  befitted 
up  with  every  improvement  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  passengers. 

govan,  1852. 
Mr.  Robert  Napier,  engineer  and  iron  ship- 
builder, launched  from  his  building-yard,  in  Feb- 
ruary, a  beautiful  iron  sailing-brig,  flush  on  deck, 
having  a  round  stern,  and  clinch-built  ;  clipper 
bow  ;  a  shield  figure-head  ;  for  the  West  India 
trade  ;  will  carry  about  280-34  tons  of  cargo  ;  is 
owned  by  John  Young,  Esq.,  merchant,  Glasgow. 

Dimensions.  ft.    tenths. 

Length  on  deck  ..  ..  ..        100     6 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships    ..  ..  21     0 

Depth  of  hold,  do 12     4 

Tonnage  183-[|;tons. 

There  was  also  launched  from  this  yard,  on  the 
7th  of  May,  a  beautiful  iron  pleasure-yacht,  fully 
rigged,  the  property  of  the  builder. 

They  have  also  in  frame  two  screw-steamers. 

FAIRLIE. 

Messrs.  Fyfc  and  Sons  launched  the  present  year 

a  very  beautifully-modelled  pleasure-yacht,  named 

the  Walrus  (of  Dublin),  rigged  2-masted  schooner, 

owned  by  E.  J.  Buller,  Esq.,  of  Belvadare,  Dublin. 

Dimensions.  ft.   tenths. 

Length  on  deck        417 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships  ..  ..  11      3 

Depth  of  hold,  do 6      8 

Tonnage.  Tons. 

Register        ..        ..         ..         ..  is-^ 

a  •  •  .  •  ■'"loo 


DUMBARTON. 

Messrs.  Denny  and  Rankin,  shipbuilders,  launch- 
ed from  their  yard  the  ship  St.  Lawrence,  for  the 
Liverpool  and  Montreal  trade.      The  property  of 
Messrs.  James  and  Alexander  Allan,  merchants, 
Glasgow.    Has  a  full  female  figure-head;  flush  on 
deck,  with  round-house. 

Dimensions.  ft.   tenths. 

Length  on  deck. .  . .  . .  . .      133     5 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships       . .         . .       26     4 

"Depth  of  hold,         do.  ..  ..       19     3 

Tonnage.  Tons. 

Register 578^ 

Will  carry  about  794  tons  of  cargo. 

CART8DYKE    (  GREENOCK). 

Messrs.  William  Simons  and  Co.  have  launched 
from  their  building-yard  a  very  handsomely- 
modelled  ship,  named  the  William  Connall,  for  the 
Glasgow  and  Calcutta  monthly  line  of  packet  ships, 
having  a  bust  male  figure  head  ;  flush  on  deck, 
classed  13  years,  A  1. 

Dimensions.  ft.   tenths. 

Length  on  deck 148     3 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships      . .  . .       26    3} 

Depth  of  hold,         do.  ..  ..        19     5 

Tonnage.  Tons. 


Register . 


596^ 


Sailed  for  Calcutta  from  Glasgow,  April  20th. 

Also,  from  their  yard  this  year,  the  barque  Innel- 
lan  (of  Greenock),  for  the  Clyde,  Ceylon,  and  Ma- 
dras trade  ;  classed  8  years ;    owned  by  Messrs. 
M'Millan  and  others;  commander,  Mr.  Clark.     A 
bust  female  figure  head ;  flush  on  deck. 

Dimensions.  ft.   tenths. 

Length  on  deck . .  ..  ..         ..       97     0 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships       ..  ..       22     8 

Depth  of  hold,         do.  ..  ..       16     6 

Tonnage.  Tons. 

Register 287-^ 

These  will  be  the  last  two  sailing  vessels  built  by 
this  firm  in  this  place,  they  having  taken  a  building- 
yard  at  White  Inch  (Glasgow),  for  the  purpose  of 
building  both  iron  and  timber  vessels. 

THE   NEW    IRON    STEAJTER,  "  GLASGOW   CITIZEN." 

Built  and  fitted  by  Mr.  John  Barr,  engineer  and  iron  ship- 
builder, Glasgow,  1852. 

Dimensions. 
Length  on  deck 
Breadth  on  do.,  amidships     . . 

Depth  of  hold,  do 

Length  of  quarter-deck 
Breadth  of  do. 
Depth  of  do. 
Length  of  engine-space 

Tonnage.  Tons. 

Hull 159$ 

Quarter-deck  ..  ..  ..         ..  3-^j 


ft.    tenths 

156 

9 

16 

1 

8 

2 

42 

0 

13 

2 

0 

6 

40 

0 

Total 
Contents  of  engine-space 

Register 


162f& 


One  steeple-engine  (on  the  4-piston-rod  patent 
principle  of  Mr.  David  Napier)  of  63  horse  (nomi- 
nal) power;  diameter  of  cylinder,  44|  inches  x  3  feet 
6  inches  length  of  stroke;  diameter  of  air-pump, 
25  inches  x  1  foot  9  inches  length  of  stroke.  Over- 
hung paddle-wheels:  diameter,  extreme,  16  feet  7i 
inches  ;  ditto  effective,  16  feet  ^  inch.  Has  16 
floats,  o  feet  10  inches  x  1  foot  2  inches  ;  3  floats 
in  the  water,  at  the  average  draft  of  3  feet  6J  inches 
forward,  and  3  feet  9|  inches  aft.  Two  cylindrical 
return-flue  boilers,  6  feet  9  inches  x  19  feet  6  inches, 
with  4  cylindrical  return- flues,  15  inches  x  -  feet. 
Two  furnaces  in  each  boiler:  length,  5  feet  9  inches; 
breadth  2  feet  9  inches  ;  depth,  3  feet  6  inches. 
Steam-chest,  6  feet  6  inches  x  3  feet  6  inches;  aver- 
age steam-pressure,  16  lbs.  per  square  inch.  Con- 
sumes 12  cwt.  of  coals  per  hour,  and  averages  from 
36  to  37  revolutions  per  minute. 


1852.] 


Dimensions  of  Steamers. 


183 


Stem  and  stern-post,  4X1  inch  ;  keel,  3  x  ■} 
inches  ;  frames,  2£  x  2£  x  ^  inches,  and  2  feet  6 
inches  apart;  keel-plates,  -^  of  an  inch  ;  gunwale- 
plates,  ^  of  an  inch.  Has  a  very  comfortable  steer- 
age, 27  feet  9  inches  long;  mean  breadth,  7  feet  2 
inches,  and  6  feet  8  inches  in  height.  The  fore 
cabin  is  14  feet  6  inches  square,  and  6  feet  6  inches 
high,  and  neatly  finished.  The  steward's  bar  is 
very  large,  and  fitted  with  all  necessary  conveni- 
ences, &c.  The  after-cabin  is  painted,  oak  and 
gold  on  the  walls,  and  the  roof  white,  the  seats 
being  covered  with  crimson  plush-velvet.  There 
are  two  beautiful  mirrors  at  the  entrance  to  the 
saloon,  with  2  circular  mahogany  tables,  which  are 
screwed  into  the  floor  and  taken  off,  as  is  found 
convenient.  The  saloon  is  30  feet  8  inches  long, 
and  a  mean  breadth  of  11  feet  3  inches,  and  6  feet 
6  inches  high.  The  paddle-boxes  are  ornamented 
with  the  Glasgow  arms,  supported  by  two  female 
figures.  Ptying  on  the  station  from  Glasgow  to 
Port  Glasgow,  Greenock,  Gourock,  Killereggan, 
Dunoon,  Rothsay,  Innellan,  &c. 

Launched  April  the  3rd,  from  the  yard  at  Kel- 
vin-Kaugh.  Launching-draft  of  water,  2  feet. 
Commenced  plying  in  June. 

DESCRIPTION. 

A  scroll-figure  (a  female  on  each  side  of  the  bows 
on  bulwark)  ;  no  galleries  ;  no  bowsprit  ;  1  mast; 
sloop-rigged  ;  common  bow  ;  square  sterned  and 
clinch-built  vessel ;  owned  by  the  builder.  Port  of 
Glasgow  ;  commander,  Mr.  Gilbert  M'Donald. 


The  Thames  and  Clyde  Steam  Shipping  Com- 
pany's new  iron  screw  steam  vessels — 

"METROPOLITAN,"    AND     "  COS3IOFOI.ITAN." 

Built  and  fitted  by  Jfr.  Robert  Napier,  engineer  and  iron 
shipbuilder,  Glasgow. 

Metro-       Cosmo- 
politan,     politan. 
Dimensions.  ft.  tenths,    ft.  tenths. 

Length  on  deck      ..  ..      189     9       192     9 

Breadth  on  do,,  amidships  26     9        27     0 

Depth  of  hold,  do.      ..        16     4         16     5 

Length  of  shaft  tunnel       ..       31     4 

Breadth  of  do 16 

Depth  of  do 4     3 

Length  of  gearing  space    . .       24    7 

Breadth  of  do 7     2 

Depth  of  do.  . .  . .         4    3 

Length  of  engine  space      ..       50     1         50    6 
Tonnage.  Tons.  Tons. 

Hull 589  ,<&  600  ftL 

Contents  of  engine  space  . .       239,2n"a         -4219ift- 
Do.  of  shaft  tunnel    ..  2f030 

Do.  of  gearing  space  8,2073 

Total  of  engine,  shaft,  and 

gearing  rooms    ..          ..       249,^,         250,'^, 
Register 340^'0         350T4060 

Metropolitan,  a  pair  of  geared  beam  engines,  of 
124  horse  (nominal)  power;  diameter  of  cylinders, 
45  inches  x  3  feet  length  of  stroke  ;  Cosmopolitan, 
engines  same  as  above,  of  130  horse  (nominal) 
power;  diameter  of  cylinders,  45  inches  x  3  feet  6 
inches;  diameter  of  screw,  9  feet,  having  3  blades  ; 
one  tubular  boiler,  720  brass  tubes,  and  5  furnaces; 
average  steam  pressure,  16lbs.  per  square  inch. 
Metropolitan  averages  from  42  to  44  revolutions 
per  minute  ;  Cosmopolitan,  ditto,  from  38  to  40. 
The  coal  bunker  carries  180  tons  of  coals,  and  the 
hold  carries  500  tons  of  cargo,  dead  weight. 

Stem  and  keel,  7  x  2A-  inches;  stern-post,  7 J 
x  3  inches;  frames,  4  x  3  x  |  inches,  and  18  inches 
apart;  plates  from  §  to  g  of  an  inch  in  thickness  ; 
average  load-draft  of  water,  14  feet  forward,  and 
14  feet  9  inches  aft.  The  Metropolitan  was  launched 
at  22  minutes  past  2,  p.m.,  on  the  13th  of  August, 
1851,  the  vessel  being  named  by  Miss  Brown, 
daughter  of  George  Brown,  Esq.,  of  the  firm  of 
Messrs.  Charles  Tenncnt  and  Co.,  St.  Rollox 
Works,  Glasgow.  Launching  draft  of  water,  for- 
ward, 5  feet  6|  inches,  and  6  feet  8  inches  aft. 


Cosmopolitan,  launched  from  the  building-yard, 
Govan,  on  the  21st  of  April. 

Cosmopolitan,  Greenock,  June  22nd,  at  7  o'clock 
in  the  evening,  arrived  from  London  in  66  hours, 
being  the  first  voyage  from  London  to  Glasgow. 

Metropolitan,  London,  June  23rd,  arrived  from 
Greenock  in  71  hours,  and  from  Glasgow  to  Lon- 
don in  73  hours. 

DESCRIPTION. 

A  bust  male  figure-head  (Metropolitan,  Lord 
Mayor  of  London  in  his  robes  ;  Cosmopolitan, 
Baron  Humboldt,  the  great  traveller) ;  no  galleries; 
flush-  on  deck  ;  standing  bowsprit ;  three  masts; 
schooner-rigged  ;  square  sterned  and  clinch-built 
vessels;  clipper  bows;  Port  of  Glasgow. 

Metropoli  tan,commandcr,  Mr.  Graham  C.M'Lean. 

Cosmopolitan,  „  Mr.  John  Miller. 


Messrs.  Robert  Barclay  and  Curie,  Eintiieston, 
Glasgow,  are  preparing  to  lay  down  the  keel  of  an 
iron  sailing  ship  for  the  foreign  trade.  Will  be 
flush  on  deck,  having  a  round  stern  and  clipper 
bow,  and  is  owned  by  the  builders. 

Dimensions.  ft.      in. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake  . .         ..        162     0 

Breadth  of  beam  28     0 

Depth  of  hold 19     0 

Tons. 
Tonnage  608|J 

The  keel  and  stem  are  9  x  2|  inches;  stern  post 
7  x  31  inches;  frames  4  x  3  x  ^  inch,  and  15  inches 
apart;  plating;  keel  strake  f  of  an  inch,  bottom  ji 
to  I  of  an  inch;  sides  f6  to  i  of  an  inch;  wales  and 
shear  strake  4  of  an  inch. 


MEADOWS1DE,   GLASGOW. 

Messrs.  Tod  and  M'Gregor,  engineers  and  iron 
ship-builders,  launched  from  their  building-yard, 
on  the  29th  of  April,  the  Pasha  of  Egypt's  splendid 
new  paddle-wheel  steam  yacht,  Faid  Effendes 
(Divine  Favour),  with  a  pair  of  oscillating  engines 
and  one  tubular  boiler;  feathering  paddle-wheels. 
She  is  being-  fitted  out  in  the  most  gorgeous  and 
costly  style  possible. 

May  the  20th  was  also  launched  by  this  firm 
the  screw  steam- vessel  Bombay;  launching  draft  of 
water  forward  7  feet  10  inches,  and  9  feet  8  inches 
aft;  mean  8  feet  9  inches.  This  vessel  is  similar 
in  all  respects  to  the  Madras,  launched  on  10th 
January.  ' 

CARTSDYKE     (GREENOCK). 

Messrs.  Caird  and  Co.,  engineers  and  iron  ship 
builders,  have  on  the  stocks  and  nearly  in  frame, 
an  iron  steam  vessel,  to  be  named  the  Atrato,  the 
property  of  the  West  India  Royal  Mail  Steam 
Navigation  Company,  and  will  be  the  largest  vessel 
ever  built  in  Scotland. 

Dimensions.  ft.     in. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake  ..  . .        315     0 

Breadth  of  beam  42     0 

Depth  of  hold 34    0 

Tons. 
Tonnage  2,720^ 

A  pair  of  side  lever  engines,  of  814  horse  (no- 
minal) power;  diameter  of  cylinders  96  inches  x  9 
feet  length  of  stroke;  feathering  paddle  wheels, 
diameter  40  feet,  16  floats  12  feet  x  4  feet  6  inches; 
4  return-flue  boilers.  Has  a  clipper  bow,  and  will 
be  launched  during  the  present  year,  to  supply  the 
place  of  the  Demerara,  which  was  unfortunately 
wrecked  at  the  Devil's  Point  on  the  river  Avon, 
near  Bristol,  November  the  10th. 

Mr.  James  M'Millan,  shipbuilder,'  has  on  the 
stocks  and  building,  a  9  years,  A  1,  barque,  nearly 
ready  to  launch,  flush  on  deck,  with  a  round-house, 
for  the  foreign  trade. 

Dimensions.  ft.    in. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake      117     0 

Breadth  of  beam 26     2 

Depth  of  hold       18    2 

Tonnage.  Tons. 

O.M 370^1 

N.M.  (about)        420 


PEMBROKE. 

In  Her  Majesty's  dock-yard,  at  present  on  the 
stocks,  and  nearly  ready  to  launch,  the  steam  sloop 
of  war  Windsor  Castle,  of  140  guns.  Engines  by 
Mr.  Robert  Napier,  Glasgow. 

Dimensions.  ft,    in. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake    240     0 

Breadth  of  beam  ...         59     2 

Depth  of  hold      24     8 

Tons. 

Tonnage      3,826^ 

A  pair  of  horizontal  (geared)  engines,  of  596 
horse  (nominal)  power;  diameter  of  cylinders  94 
inches  x  4  foet  length  of  stroke;  and  tubular 
boilers.  She  is  shortly  expected  in  Glasgow  to  re- 
ceive the  mat  hinery,  &c. 

GREENOCK. 

Messrs.  Robert  Steele  and  Co.,  shipbuilders, 
launched  from  their  building-yard,  on  the  27th  of 
May,  1851,  the  brig  Dante  (of  Greenock),  for  the 
Newfoundland,  Brazil,  West  India,  and  Medi- 
terranean trades,  classed  13  years,  A  1;  owned  by 
Messrs.  Baine  and  Johnstone,  merchants. 

Dimensions.  ft.    tenths. 

Length  on  deck 104    2 

Breadth  on  do,,  amidships         19     8 

Depth  of  hold  do.  13    0 

Length  of  quarter-deck 16     6 

Breadth  of  do 20     6 

Depth  of  do.  1     2 

Tonnage.  Tons. 

Hull  185$, 

Quarter-deck      4-«0 


Total    ... 

Tonnage  (loaded  act.) 

Hull         

Quarter-deck  ,    ... 

Total    ... 


189T»;0 

Tons. 
206^ 

209A'„ 


Builders'  measurement. 
Length  keel  and  fore-rake 
Breadth  of  beam . . . 


ft.     in. 

105     0 

21     6 

Tons. 

Tonnage 226|£ 

On  December  24th,  1851,  there  was  launched  by 
this  firm  the  steam  vessel  Plata  (late  the  Arabia), 
bought  by  the  West  India  Royal  Mail  Company, 
to  supply  the  place  of  the  Amazon. 

Dimensions  (builders' measurement).  ft.      in. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake    ...         ...  285    0 

Breadth  of  beam 40    8 

Depth  of  hold      27     8 

Length  of  engine  space ...     82     9 

Tonnage.  Tons. 

Hull  2,292^ 


Engine  space 


7068 


Register — 

...      1,585$ 

Customs'  measurement. 

ft.   tenths. 

Length  on  deck... 

...     284     4 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships 

...       37     4 

Depth  of  hold,        do. 

...       27     7 

Length  of  engine  space 

...       S2     8 

Tonnage. 

Tons. 

Hull       

...      2,402$, 

Contents  of  engine  space 

928,% 

Register  M"-*/;,!, 

A  pair  of  side  lever  engines,  by  Mr.  Robert  Napier. 
Glasgow,  of  960  horse  (nominal)  power;  diameter 
of  cylinders,  103  inches  x  10  feet  length  of  stroke; 
paddle-wheels,  diameter  effective,  27  feet;  28  floats, 
9  feet  C  inches  x  3  feet  G  inches  ;  tubular  boilers, 
with  2  funnels;  draft  of  water  at  launch,  10  feet 
5  inches  (mean);  do.,  with  machinery,  &c,  15  feet; 
has  accommodations  for  ISO  passengers;  capacity  of 
coal  bunkers,  1,300  tons.  Has  2  masts,  brig-rigged; 
bust  male  figuro  head  ;  round-sterned  and  carvel- 
built  vessel ;  standing  bowsprit ;  flush  on  deck  ; 
Port  of  London. 


184 


Reviews. 


[August, 


Ou  June  the  4th,  1S52,  there  was  launched  by 
this  firm  a  very  handsome  screw  steam-vessel, 
named  the  Larriston,  for  the  Bombay  and  China 
trade,  classed  13  years,  A  1. 

DIMENSIONS. 

Builders'  measurement. 
Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake  . . 
Breadth  of  beam 
Tonnage 

Customs'  measurement. 
Length  on  deck 
Breadth  on  do.,  amidships 
Depth  of  hold,  do. 
Length  of  quarter-deck 
Breadth  of  do. 
Depth  of  do. 

Tonnage 

Hull 

Quarter-deck 


ft.      in. 

170  10 

26     2 

566$  tons, 
ft.  tenths. 
167     5 


6     0 


)     1 

>     4 
Tons. 


17 


33 


Total 


47A05 
*'  -loo 


A  pair  of  beam-engines,  of  200  horse  power,  by 
Mr.  Robert  Napier,  Glasgow,  with  a  brass  screw, 
having  3  blades. 
Diameter  ..  ..         ..  ..         10  feet. 

Weight  of  machinery  and  water       ..       175  tons. 

Do.  of  coals  " 200     „ 

Do.      cargo  (measurement  goods)  . .       120     „ 
Do.       stores  and  outfits         . .  . .         55     „ 


Total    . 


550  tons. 


DESCRIPTION. 

A  lion  figure-head  ;  round-sterned  and  carvel- 
built  vessel;  standing  bowsprit;  3  masts  ;  schooner- 
rigged.  Port  of  London.  Owned  by  Messrs. 
Mathieson  and  Co.,  merchants  ;  commander,  Mr. 
H.  P.  Baylis. 

THE   GLASGOW   AND   ROTHESAY    NEW   IKON   STEAM 
VESSEL    "  OSPREY." 

Built  by  Messrs.  Barclay  and  Curie,  ship-builders,  Finnies- 
ton,  Glasgow;  engine  boilers,  &c.,  by  Messrs.  Caird  and 
Co.,  engineers  and  iron  ship-builders,  Cartsdyke,  Green- 
ock, 1852. 


Dimensions. 
Length  on  deck. . 
Breadth  on  do.,  amidships 
Depth  of  hold,  do. 

Length  of  engine  space 

Tonnage. 

Hull 

Contents  of  engine  space 

Register 


ft.  tenths. 
169     6 


47  1 
Tons. 
193 


824 


TOo 


TOo 


110$, 


One  steeple  engine  of  101  horse  (nominal)  power; 
diameter  of  cylinder  54  inches  x  4  feet  4  inches, 
length  of  stroke;  diameter  of  air-pump  24  inches, 
same  stroke  as  cylinder;  diameter  of  paddle  wheels, 
extreme  19  feet,  and  18  feet  6i  inches,  effective; 
seventeen  floats,  6  feet  7  inches  x  1  foot  3  inches. 
Two  tubular  boilers — length  above,  8  feet  3  inches; 
ditto  at  furnaces,  7  feet  3  inches;  breadth,  11  feet  3 
inches;  depth,  7  feet  9  inches:  steam-chests, length 
above,  5  feet  6  inches;  ditto  below,  6  feet  6  inches; 


breadth,  C  feet  6  inches;  depth,  4  feet  9  inches. 
Six  furnaces,  three  in  each  boiler,  length  6  feet  6 
inches;  breadth,  3  feet;  depth,  3  feet:  354  tubes, 
or  177  tubes  in  each  boiler;  diameter,  3  inches  x  6 
feet  long;  has  two  funnels,  3  feet  8  inches  x  21 
feet. 

The  steerage  is  20  feet  6  inches  long  x  7  feet_6 
inches  in  (mean)  breadth,  and  C  feet  4  inches  in 
height.  The  fore-cabin  saloon  is  15  feet  3  inches 
x  12  feet;  the  main  cabin  saloon  is  33  feet  6  inches 
long;  and  15  feet  9  inches  (mean)  breadth;  and 
the  seats  are  crimson  velvet  cushions.  Round  the 
edges  of  the  seats  and  the  panels  is  bird's-eye 
maple;  and  between  the  side  windows  are  very 
rich-coloured  stained  pictures  on  glass,  repre- 
senting views  in  Italy,  Germany,  Switzerland, 
France,  Wales,  and  Scotland,  the  production  of 
Thomas  Lawrie,  Esq.,  of  Glasgow.  No.  1,  Lake 
ofComo;  2,  Castle  of  Gandolphe;  3,  Ancona;  4, 
Inverary;  5,  Vale  of  Tempe;  6,  Rocca  dAmphi; 
7,  Mill  on  the  Llanberris;  8,  Taymoutli  Castle  ;  9, 
Venice;  10,  Mount  Etna;  11,  Louvre;  12,  Pavia; 
13,  Pisa;  14,  Vale  of  Langollen.  The  upholstery 
was  by  Mr.  James  Fisher,  of  Glasgow.  The  saloon 
is  also  furnished  with  five  very  large  mirrors  in 
gilt  frames,  and  two  marble  side-boards.  The 
ladies'  cabin  is  11  feet  long.  This  vessel  is  fitted 
up  with  every  accommodation  for  the  comfort  of 
passengers.  Frames  of  hull,  2\  x  2£  x  |  inches, 
and  2  feet  3  inches  apart;  plates,  {'s  to  -^  of  an 
inch;  breadth  over  the  paddle  cases,  35  feet  6 
inches.  Launched,  May  the  22nd.  Draft  of  water 
at  launching,  forward,  2  feet  6  inches,  and  2  feet  9 
inches  aft.  On  the  trial  trip,  in  June,  the  engine 
made  32  revolutions  per  minute,  the  mean  steam 
pressure  being  15  lbs.  per  square  inch,  and  con- 
sumed 16  cwt.  of  coals  per  hour;  the  speed  of  the 
vessel  being  about  15  miles  per  hour;  the  draft  of 
water  being  4  feet  7  inches  forward,  and  4  feet  1\ 
inches  aft. 

DESCRIPTION. 

No  figure  head,  galleries,  or  bowsprit;  one  deck 
(flush),  one  mast,  sloop  rigged,  square  sterned, 
and  clinch-built  vessel.  Port  of  Glasgow.  Com- 
mander, Mr.  Neil  M'Gill. 

THE  GLASGOW  AND  KILMAN  NEW  IRON  STEAM- 
VESSEL,  "  KOH-I-NOOR  "  (MOUNTAIN  OP  LIGHT). 

Built  and  fitted  by  Messrs.  Thomas  Wingate,  and  Co.  en- 
gineers andiron  ship-builders,  White  Inch,  Glasgow,  1850. 


Dimensions. 

ft.   tenths 

Length  on  deck 

146     4 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships 

11     3 

Depth  of  hold,  do 

6     1 

Length  of  engine-space 

32     8 

Tonnage. 

Tons. 

Hull 

74#5 

Contents  of  engine-space 

<>4Jfi_ 

-MOO 

Register 


49-; 


A  pair  of  diagonal  engines  (with  oscillating  pis- 
ton-rods, each  cylinder  facing,  and  connected  to 
the  one  crank-pin),  of  32  horse  (nominal)  power: 
diameter  of  cylinders,  25  inches  x  2  feet  1  inch, 
fitted  with  a  beam-engine  for  working  the   air- 


pumps,  also  the  feed  and  bilge-pumps.  The  other 
engines  are  solely  used  to  propel  the  vessel,  and 
are  fitted  with  reversing  gear.  The  paddle-wheels 
are  on  Mr.  Morgan's  patent  feathering  principle: 
diameter,  11  feet;  eight  floats,  4  feet  x  2  feet.  Has 
one  patent  vertical  boiler,  2  furnaces,  and  458 
(composition)  tubes.  Patent  condensers  at  bilges; 
frames,  2|  x  2}  x  \  inches,  and  2  feet  6  inches 
apart  ;  5  strakes  of  plates  from  keel  to  gunwale; 
draft  of  water,  3  feet  3  inches,  even  keel;  steam- 
pressure,  18  lbs.  per  square  inch  ;  engines  making 
60  revolutions  per  minute  ;  consuming  about  10'2 
cwt.  of  coals  per  hour;  and  sails  very  fast.  Plying 
from  Glasgow  to  Port  Glasgow,  Greenock,  Gou- 
rack,  Kilcreggan,  Dunoon,  Kilman,  Sandbank,  &c. 

DESCRIPTION. 

No  figure-head,  galleries,  bowsprit,  or  mast;  one 
deck,  flush;  square-sterned  and  clinch-built  vessel. 
Port  of  Glasgow;  commander,  Mr.  Neil  M'Bean. 

THE  GLASGOW  AND   ROTHSAT  NEW  IRON  STEAMER, 
"  EAGLE." 

Built  by  Messrs.  Alexander  Denny  and  Brother,  iron  ship- 
builders, Dumbarton.  Engines,  boilers,  &e.,  by  Messrs. 
Campbell,  M'Nabb,  and  Clark,  engineers,  Shawswater 
Foundry  (Greenock),  1852. 


Dimensions. 

ft.  tenths 

Length  on  deck 

167     0 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships     . . 

16     1 

Depth  of  hold 

8     3 

Length  of  engine-space 

45     8 

Tonnage. 

tons. 

Hull 

••        1764k 
66^ 

Contents  of  engine-space 

Register 


H0f& 


A  pair  of  oscillating  engines,  of  82  horse  (nomi- 
nal) power;  diameter  of  cylinders,  36  inches  x  3  feet 
3  inches.  One  inclined  air-pump,  with  trunk  mo- 
tion, fitted  with  Morgan's  patent  feathering  paddle- 
wheels;  diameter,  15  feet  2  inches.  Nine  floats,  6 
feet  x  2  feet  4  inches.  One  tubular  boiler;  length 
above,  18  feet  6  inches;  do.  below,  17  feet  6  inches; 
breadth,  8  feet  2  inches  ;  depth,  8  feet.  Four 
furnace^,  two  in  each  end  (being  fired  fore  and 
aft);  length,  7  feet;  breadth,  3  feet  3  inches; 
depth;  3  feet ;  dry  bottoms.  Two  steam-chests,  4 
feet  6  inches  x  4  feet  6  inches.  280  tubes  (brass); 
diameter,  2|  inches  x  6  feet  long.  Has  two  fun- 
nels, one  on  each  end  of  the  boiler.  Boiler  to  bulk- 
head, 7  feet  6  inches-  Frames  of  hull,  1\  x  2|  x 
%  inches,  and  2  feet  apart.  Steam- pressure,  25  lbs. 
per  square  inch;  engines  making  44  revolutions  per 
minute,  consuming  16'4  cwt.  of  coals  per  hour. 
Has  good  accommodations  for  passengers,  &c.  In 
the  panels  in  the  main-cabin  are  carved  represen- 
tations in  wood  of  the  arts,  sciences,  literature,  and 
music  ;  seats  of  crimson  velvet  ;  panels,  oak  and 
gold,  &C. ;  roof  white,  blue,  and  gold.  Commenced 
to  ply  May  the  12th. 

DESCRIPTION. 

No  figure-head,  galleries,  or  bowsprit ;  1  mast ; 
sloop-rigged ;  one  deck  (flush) ;  square-sterned  and 
clinch-built  vessel.  Port  of  Glasgow;  commander, 
Mr.  Richard  Price. 


E2VIEW. 


Atmosphere  ;  a  Philosophical   Work.       By  George   Woodhead,  Esq. 

8vo.,  pp.  146.     London  :   H.  Balliere. 

This  work,  as  we  are  informed  by  notes  appended  to  each  chapter, 
is  a  reprint  of  certain  articles  which  have  appeared  in  the  Mechanics' 
Magazine.  We  must  let  the  author  "review  "  himself,  for  we  have  not 
the  courage  to  begin.  The  following  extracts  may  serve  to  give  our 
readers  an  idea  of  Mr.  Woodhead's  philosophy  : — 

"If  the  ends  of  the  two  conducting  wires  (of  a  galvanic  battery)  are  dipped 
in  water,  aeriform,  clastic  fluids  or  gases,  called  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  come 
from  them;  the  oxygen  coming  from  one  wire,  the  hydrogen  from  the 'other ; 
which  gases,  according  to  many  opinions,  are  somehow  formed  from  the  water, 
but  in  this  opinion  I  do  not  concur.    It  seems  to  me  that  these  gases  or  fluids 


are  derived  from  the  atmosphere  ;  that  they  are  but  modifications  of  atmo- 
spheric air  ;  and  that  they  come  from  the  "battery  through  the  conducting 
wires.  I  think  so,  because  the  fluids  issue  from  the  wires,  and  may  be  di- 
verted at  any  part  of  them  ;  because  atmospheric  air  can  be  forced  copiouslv 
through  many  kinds  of  wood  and  stone  (a  vacuum  being  made  under  them) 
by  atmospheric  pressure  alone,  and  because  all  metals  are,  and  necessarilv 
must  be,  saturated  with  air  in  the  process  of  their  smelting,  formation,  and 
manufacture." 

"  If  a  piece  of  red-hot  iron,  or  any  other  red-hot  substance  is  plunged  into 
water',  the  air  it  contains,  and  which  is  the  cause  of  its  redness,  will  be  seen 
issuing  from  it  in  innumerable  bubbles." 

"Light  may  be  caught  and  examined,  when  it  is  found  to  he  air." 
We  have  met  with  nothing  like  this  since  the  celebrated  theory  of 
extracting  sunbeams  from  cucumbers.      If  our  readers  are  curious  to 
learn  more  of  such  philosophy,  they  had  better  go  to  the  fountain-head 
— we  dare  not  trust  ourselves  with  a  deeper  draught. 


1852.] 


Correspondence. 


185 


CHANNELS  FOR  INVESTMENT. 

LIST  OF  NEW  COMPANIES    LATELY  ESTABLISHED  OR  PROPOSED. 


Amount  of 

Share. 

No.  of  Shares. 

Capital. 

Deeside  Railway 

£10      .. 

10,625      . 

^£106,250 

Shrewsbury  and  Aberystwith 

do.            ...         .. 

20       .. 

37,500      . 

750,000 

Somerset  Central  do. 

20      .. 

35,000       . 

70,000 

African  Steam  Navigation  . . 

20      .. 

12,500       . 

250,000 

Steam  and  Atmospheric  Pa- 

tent Propulsion 

1       .. 

40,000       . 

40,000 

Aubin  Coal  and  Iron 

5      .. 

32,000      . 

160,000 

Fairhead  Harbour 

1       .. 

250,000      . . 

250,000 

Netherlands    and     Hanover 

Junction  Canal 

£2 10s.  .. 

50,000       . 

125,000 

Cheesewing  Granite 

1      .. 

20,000       . . 

20,000 

Patent  Silicious  Stone 

10      .. 

5,000       . 

50,000 

Chiriqui  Road 

5       .. 

40,000      . . 

200,000 

The  Monarch  Gold  Mining 

(Aust.) 

10*.    .. 

25,000       . . 

12,500 

Royal    Australian     Banking 

and  Gold  Importing 

£5      .. 

50,000      . . 

250,000 

Great  Australian  Emigration 

1      .. 

100,000       . . 

100,000 

Australian    Emigrants'    Aid 

and  Transit  Society 

10s.    .. 

20,000      . . 

10,000 

Port    Phillip    and    General 

Emigration     Colonisation, 

and  Investment 

£1      .. 

50,000       . . 

50,000 

RECENT  AMERICAN  PATENTS. 
For  an  improvement  in  machines  for  scouring  knives  and  forks ;  Christopher 

Aumock,  Columbia,  Ohio,  January  13. 

Claim. — "  I  claim  the  construction  of  this  machine,  composed  of  two  cylin- 
der brushes,  with  their  peripheries  in  contact,  which  causes  the  friction  neces- 
sary for  scouring  or  polishing,  and  at  the  same  time  keeps  the  cylinder  brushes, 
which  do  the  work  of  polishing  or  scouring,  wet  with  the  polishing  substance 
continually,  while  the  machine  is  in  motion,  by  immersing  the  under  side  of 
said  brushes  in  the  liquid  as  they  revolve  around  on  their  axis,  as  above 
mentioned.  The  article  to  be  scoured  or  polished  must  be  held  in  a  perpen- 
dicular position,  and  moved  up  and  down  between  the  cylinder  brushes 
while  in  the  act  of  scouring  or  polishing." 
For  an  improvement  in  ornamental  painting  on  glass,  fyc.;  John  W.  Bowers, 

Brookline.  Massachusetts,  January  13. 

"  My  process  imparts  to  a  painting  on  glass  an  appearance  very  much 
like  those  figures  which  are  executed  on  wood  or  papier-mache,  and  which 
are  more  or  less,  or  in  part,  made  up  of  pieces  of  mother  of  pearl  let  into 
the  wood.  The  paintings  or  figures  produced  by  my  said  method  have  very 
beautiful  properties  of  reflecting  light,  such  arc  often  exhibited  by  silvered 
prismatic  or  crystalline  surfaces." 

Claim. — "  What  I  claim  as  my  improvement  in  ornamenting  surfaces, 
consists  in  combining  with  the  process  of  painting  and  ornamenting,  by 
metallic  foil,  that  of  corrugating  or  crimping  the  foil,  so  as  to  impart  to  the 
figure  or  figures  a  power  of  reflecting  light,  so  as  to  produce  the  sparkling, 
scintillated  appearance  as  specified." 

For  an  improvement  in  sand-paper  holder ;  Azel  H.  Copeland,  West  Bridge- 
water,  Massachusetts,  January  27. 

Claim. — "Having  thus  described  my  invention,  I  shall  state  my  claim  as 
follows  :  what  I  claim  as  my  invention  is,  the  implement  called  a  sand-paper 
holder,-  constructed  substantially,  as  above  described  ;  that  is,  of  two  similar 
pieces  of  wood,  with  handles  at  the  ends,  the  inner  sides  flat,  and  the  other 
sides  rounded,  joined  together  lengthwise  by  a  hinge  of  cloth  or  leather,  so 
that  the  flat  sides  can  be  brought  together  ;  the  outer  edges  of  the  flat  sides 
having  small  wire-pins  inserted  in  them,  by  which  the  sand-paper  is  held, 
and  the  two  pieces  being  held  together,  when  closed,  by  dowels  in  one  of  the 
flat  sides  entering  corresponding  holes  in  the  other  flat  side." 

For  an  improved  mode  of  preventing  collisions  on  railroads;  Thomas  A.  Davies, 

City  of  New  York,  February  10. 

"  The  nature  of  my  invention  consists  in  applying  to  a  locomotive  engine 
a  sound-gatherer  with  an  ear-piece,  in  such  a  manner  that  any  extraordinary 


noise  made  by  the  approach  of  a  train,  or  by  a  steam  whistle,  or  any  known 
way  of  making  a  great  noise,  is  gathered  and  communicated  to  the  ear  of 
the  engineer  in  time  to  stop  his  engine,  or  train,  as  the  case  may  be." 

Claim. — '*  What  I  claim  as  new  and  original  is,  the  application  of  a  sound- 
gatherer  with  an  ear-piece,  to  a  locomotive  engine,  or  train  of  cars,  arranged 
substantially  as  above  described,  so  that  the  engineer  or  another  can  ascer- 
tain by  sound  the  approach  of  a  locomotive  or  train,  in  time  to  prevent 
collision." 
For  improvements  in  railroad  gates;  Egbert  P.  Carter,  Yorkshire,  New  York, 

February  17. 

"  The  nature  of  my  invention  consists  in  so  constructing  rail  gates,  to  be 
opened  and  held  open  by  the  action  of  the  cars  in  passing,  as  that  the  gate 
shall  swing  upward  in  the  arc  of  a  circle,  from  an  axis  in  the  centre  of  the 
hub  of  the  gate,  by  means  of  a  shaft,  which  the  passing  train  first  rotates  and 
then  holds  fixed,  thus  avoiding  the  necessity  of  having  any  portion  of  the 
apparatus  to  sink  below  the  level  of  the  track,  which  is  liable  to  become  in- 
operative by  snow,  ice,  &c." 

Claim.—"  Having  thus  fully  described  my  invention,  what  1  claim  therein 
as  new  is,  the  method  herein  described  for  balancing  a  railroad  or  other  gate, 
viz.,  by  means  of  a  spring,  coiled  around  a  stationary  axis,  to  which  it  is 
attached  by  one  end,  the  other  end  being  attached  to  the  disk  which  forms 
the  hub  or  centre  of  the  gate  turning  on  said  axis,  substantially  as  herein 
described. 

"  I  also  claim  the  use  of  the  rock  shaft,  provided  with  the  cam  ledges  and 
straight  ledge,  to  be  operated  upon  by  the  wheels  of  the  passing  train,  and 
the  cams  for  winding  up  the  chains  which  draw  up  the  gates ;  the  whole 
being  arranged  in  the  manner  and  for  the  purpose  herein  substantially  set 
forth  and  shown." 


HOTES   FROM    correspondence;. 

*!*  We  cannot  insert  communications  from  anonymous  correspondents. 

Copsland's  Metallic  Packing. — We  have  received  a  letter  from  Mr. 
Copeland,  in  reference  to  the  claim  of  Mr.  Hunt  (p.  110)  to  the  invention  of 
the  metallic  packing.  Mr.  C.  refers  to  the  published  description  of  Mr. 
Hunt's  invention  in  the  Glasgow  Mechanics'  Journal,  p.  176,  vol.  1848,  in 
which  no  provision  is  shown  for  lateral  play,  which  Mr.  Copeland  states  to 
be  absolutely  essential  to  its  proper  working.  As  registered  by  Mr.  Hunt, 
it  has  been  tried  repeatedly  in  the  United  States,  and  failed,  as  it  cither 
destroyed  the  piston-rod,  or  the  packing  itself  was  destroyed. 

Continuous  Indicator  for  Steam  Engines,  "  J.  G.,  Halifax." — A  simple 
continuous  indicator  would  be  a  most  valuable  instrument,  but  we  arc  not 
aware  that  there  is  one  at  work  in  this  country.  Dr.  Lardner  arranged  a 
very  complete  one  for  the  Great  Western,  which  registered  the  fluctuations 
of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder  and  boiler,  and  vacuum  in  the  condenser,  &c; 
but  it  was  too  delicate  an  affair  for  an  engine-room  at  sea,  and  too  much 
trouble  for  the  engineers.    We  shall  be  happy  to  see  his  plan. 

"  An  Architect." — AVe  presume  there  can  only  be  one  opinion  of  the  bad 
taste  (to  use  a  mild  term),  of  dragging  tbe  private  circumstances  of  a  gentle- 
man before  a  gaping  world;  but  we  think  we  should  best  consult  the  feelings 
of  those  most  entitled  to  sympathy,  by  refraining  from  keeping  public  atten- 
tion attracted  to  the  subject. 

Caerett's  Steam-Pump.—  Mr.  Carrett  has  written  us  to  call  our  atten- 
tion to  the  superiority  of  his  arrangement  of  pumps  over  Worthington  and 
Baker's,  in  which  no  expansion  can  be  used,  and  which  consequently  require 
more  steam.  We  coincide  with  Mr.  Carrett  as  to  this  fact,  and  for  land 
engines  of  larger  size,  we  should  prefer  his  arrangement,  whilst  Worthing. 
ton's,  from  its  simplicity  and  compactness,  has  advantages  for  marine  pur- 
poses, where  steam  is  of  little  object. 

[Erratum.— In  the  description  of  the  Times  steamer,  p.  157,  for  "  123  miles 
in  101  hours,"  read  "  138  miles  in  1 U  hours. 


LIST  OF  ENGLISH  PATENTS, 
From  24th  of  June,  to  22nd  July,  1852. 
Six  months  allowed  for  enrolment,  unless  otltcrioise  greeted. 
Samuel  Lusty,  of  Birmingham,  for  improvements  In  manufacturing  win 
fabrics  and  pins.    June  24.  .    .    ..  -    . 

Thomas  Boll,  of  Don  Alkali  Works,  South  Shields,  for  improvements  in  the  mamn 
of  sulphuric  acid.    June  24.  .  „„,„,. ,,  ,_..„„ 

Joseph  Morgan,  of  Manchester,  patent  candle-maclnnc  manufacturer,  and  Pel  ■ 

of  the  same  place,  gentleman,  for  Improvements  in  the  manufacture  m  candle  .   1  nu  -  U 

Charles  James  Wallis,  of  Clarendon  Chambers,  lland-court,  llulborn,  evil  engineer  and 
mechanical  draughtsman,  for  improvements  in  machinery  for  croBhtouj,  pulverising  and 
grinding  stone,  quartz,  and  other  substances    June  24. 


186 


List  of  Paten's. 


[August,  1852. 


Thomas  Bazley,  of  Manchester,  cotton  spinner,  for  improvements  in  machines  for  comb- 
in?  cotton,  flax/silk,  and  other  fibrous  materials.    June  24. 

John  M'Conochie,  of  Liverpool,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  locomotive  and  other 
steam  engines  and  boilers,  in  railways,  railway  carriages,  and  their  appurtenances ;  also  m 
machinery  and  apparatus  for  producing  part  or  parts  of  such  improvements.    June  24.  _ 

Thomas"  Allan,  of  Edinburgh,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  producing  and  applying 
electricity,  and  in  apparatus  employed  therein.    June  24.  ' 

Thomas  Hoblyn,  Esq.,  of  White  Barns,  Hertford,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  art  of 

Matthew'  Augustus  Crooker,  engineer,  of  the  City  of  New  York,  America,  for  certain  im- 
provements in  paddles  for  steam  vessels.    June  28. 

James  Edward  Coleman,  of  Porchester  House,  Baysw.iter,  gentleman,  for  improvements 
in  the  application  of  India-rubber  and  gutta  percha,  and  of  compounds  thereof.    June  28. 

Duncan  Mackenzie,  of  London,  gentleman,  for  certain  improvements  in  machinery  and 
apparatus  for  reading  in  and  transferring  designs  or  patterns,  and  for  cutting,  punching, 
and'numbering,  or  otherwise  preparing  perforated  cards,  papers,  or  other  materials  used  or 
suitable  in  the  manufacture  of  figured  textile  fabrics  by  Jacquard's  or  other  weaving  looms 
or  frames.    June  29. 

Lazare  Francois  Vandelin,  of  Upper  Charlotte-street,  Fitzroy-square,  for  improvements 
in  obtaining  wool,  silk,  and  cotton,  from  old  fabrics,  in  a  condition  to  be  again  used.  (Being 
partly  a  communication.)    June  30. 

Richard  Hornsby,  of  Spittlegate,  Grantham,  Lincoln,  agricultural-implement  maker,  for 
improvements  in  machinery  for  threshing,  shaking,  riddling,  and  dressing  corn.    July  3. 

Edward  Clarence  Shepard,  of  Duke-street,  Westminster,  gentleman,  for  improvements 
in  electro-magnetic  apparatus  suitable  for  the  production  of  motive  power,  of  heat,  and  of 
light.    (Being  a  communication.)    July  6. 

Martyn  John  Roberts,  of  Woodbank,  Bucks,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  the  pro- 
duction of  electric  currents,  in  obtaining  light,  motion,  and  chemical  products  and  effects, 
by  the  agency  of  electricity,  part  or  parts  of  which  improvements  are  also  applicable  to  the 
manufacture  of  acids,  and  to  the  reduction  of  ores.    July  6. 

William  Tanner,  of  Exeter,  leather  dresser,  for  improvements  in  dressing  leather.  July  6. 

Edward  Maitland  Stapley,  of  Cheapside,  for  improvements  in  cutting  mouldings,  grooves, 
tongues,  and  other  forms,  and  in  planing  wood.     (Being  a  communication.)    July  6. 

Moses  Poole,  of  the  Patent-office,  London,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  reaping  and 
mowing-machines,  and  in  pulverising  land.     (Being  a  communication.)    July  6. 

Thomas  Blakey  and  Joseph  Skaife,  of  Keighley,  York,  millers,  for  improvements  in  mills 
for  grinding.    July  6. 

James  Higgins,  of  Salford,  Lancaster,  machine-maker,  and  Thomas  Schofield  Whit- 
worth,  of  the  same  place,  mechanic,  for  certain  improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus 
for  spinning  and  doubling  cotton  and  other  fibrous  substances.    July  6. 

Harold  Potter,  of  Over  Darwen,  Lancaster,  carpet-manufacturer,  and  Matthew  Smith,  of 
the  same  place,  manager,  for  certain  improvements  in  looms  for  weaving,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  terry  fabrics.    July  6. 

Jules  Lemoine,  chemist,  of  Courbevoie,  near  Paris,  for  an  improved  composition  applica- 
ble to  the  purposes  of  varnish,  to  the  waterproofing  of  fabrics,  to  the  manufacture  of  trans- 
parent fabrics,  to  the  fixing  of  colours,  and  to  other  useful  purposes.    July  6. 

John  Henry  Johnson,  of  47,  Lincoln's  Inn-fields,  Middlesex,  and  of  Glasgow,  North 
Britain,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  steam-engines.  (Being  a  communication.)  July  C. 

Alfred  Henry  Gaullie,  of  Paris,  sculptor,  for  an  improved  plastic  composition  applicable  to 
manufacturing  purposes.    July  6. 

William  Septimus  Losh,  of  Wreay  Syke,  Cumberland,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in 
obtaining  salts  of  soda.    July  6. 

James  Murdoch  of  Staple-inn,  Holborn,  Middlesex,  for  an  improvement  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  certain  kinds  of  woollen  fabrics.    (Being  a  communication.)    July  6. 

John  Andrews,  of  Fair  Oak-terrace,  Minde,  Newport,  Monmouthshire,  contractor,  for 
certain  improvements  in  coke  ovens,  and  in  the  apparatus  connected  therewith.    July  6. 

Frederick  Sang,  of  Pall-mall,  artist  in  fresco,  tor  certain  improvements  in  machinery  or 
apparatus  for  cutting,  sawing,  grinding,  and  polishing.    July  6. 

Friedrich  Gesswein,  of  Cannstadt,  Wurtemberg,  stone-mason,  for  a  method  of  preparing 
for  baking  and  burning  masses  of  clay  of  any  given  form  and  size,  and  baking  and  burning 
the  same  when  so  prepared,  as  thoroughly  and  completely  as  a  common  brick  can  now  be 
baked  or  burnt.    July  6. 

John  Ramsden,  of  Manchester,  screw-bolt  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements  in 
machinery  or  apparatus  for  cutting  screws.    July  6. 

Joseph  Jepson  Oddy  Taylor,  of  Graeechurch-street,  London,  machinist,  for  an  extension 
for  the  term  of  four  years,  from  the  1st  day  of  May  last,  for  part  of  his  invention  described 
in  the  original  letters  patent  under  the  title  of,  "  An  improved  mode  of  propelling  ships 
and  other  vessels  on  water."    July  6. 

Warren  Stormes  Hale,  of  Queen-street,  Cheapside,  candle-maker,  and  George  Roberts, 
of  Great  Peter-street,  Westminster,  miner,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  night 
lights  or  mortars.    July  8. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  improvements  in 
machinery  for  cutting  soap  into  slabs,  bars,  or  cakes.    (Being  a  communication.)    July  10; 

Thomas  Jordan,  of  Old  Broad-street,  London,  for  improvements  in  disinfecting  essential 
oils,  and  in  treating  fatty  matters  obtained  from  shale  schistus,  or  other  bituminous  sub- 
stances, and  in  retorts  employed  in  distilling  such  materials.    July  12. 

Joseph  Baron  Palm1,  of  Castle-street,  Holborn,  for  an  improved  mode  of  baking  bricks, 
tiles,  and  other  kinds  of  pottery  or  earthenware.    July  13. 

Charles  Burrell,  of  Thetford,  Norfolk,  and  Matthew  Gibson,  of  Rollington-terrace,  New- 
castle-on-Tyne,  for  improvements  in  reaping  machines.    July  15. 

George  Hinton  Bovill,  of  Abchurch-lane,  London,  for  improvements  in  manufacturing 
wheat  and  other  grain  into  meal  and  flour.    July  15. 

Moses  Poole,  of  the  Patent-office,  London,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  boots,  shoes, 
eiogs,  and  similar  articles.     (Being  a  communication.)    July  15. 

Henry  John  Gauntlett,  of'  Charlotte-street,  1'ortland-place,  Middlesex,  doctor  in  music, 
for  improvements  in  organs,  seraphines,  and  other  similar  wind  instruments,  and  also  im- 
provements in  pianofortes.    (Being  a  communication.)    Ju'y  15. 

Charles  Barrington,  of  the  city  and  county  of  Philadelphia,  in  America,  gentleman,  for 
an  improved  steam-boiler  water-feeding  apparatus,  and  furnace  therefor.  (Being  a  com- 
munication.)   July  15. 

Charles  James  Pownall,  of  Addison-road,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  the 
treatment  and  preparation  of  flax  and  other  similar  fibrous  vegetable  substances.  July  15. 

Thomas  Richards,  of  St.  Erth,  and  Samuel  Grose,  of  Gwinear,  both  in  Cornwall,  for  cer- 
tain improvements  in  machinery  for  reducing  and  pulverising  ores,  minerals,  stones,  and 
other  substances.    July  15. 

John  Hunt,  of  Rennes,  France,  gentleman,  for  certain  machinery  for  washing  and  sepa- 
ting  ores.    July  1 6. 

William  Fawcett,  of  Kidderminster,  Worcester,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  manu- 
facture of  carpets.  This  patent  being  opposed  at  the  Great  Seal,  was  not  sealed  till  17th 
inst.,  but  bears  date  the  2:id  February  last,  by  order  of  the  Lord  Chancellor. 

Joseph  William  Schlesinger,  of  Brixton,  Surrey,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  fire- 
arms, in  cartridges,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  powder.  (Being  part  y  a  communication.) 
July  20. 

Julius  Friedrich  Phillipp  Ludwig  von  Sparre,  of  Brewer-street,  Golden-square,  mining 
engineer,  for  improvements  in  separating  substances  of  different  specific  gravities,  and  in 
the  machinery  and  apparatus  employed  therein.    July  20. 

Stribblehill  Norwood  May,  of  Fitzroy-square,  gentleman,  for  certain  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  thread,  yarn,  and  various  textile  fabrics,  from  certain  fibrous  matters. 
July  20. 


Emery  Rider,  of  Bradford,  Wilts,  manufacturer,  for  improvements  in  the'manufacture  or 
treatment  of  India  rubber  or  gutta  percha,  and  in  the  application  thereof.    July  20. 

John  Shaw,  of  Dukinfield,  Chester,  cylinder  maker,  for  certain  improvements  in  machi- 
nery or  apparatus  for  carding  cotton,  wool,  flax,  and  other  fibrous  materials.    July  20. 

Sir  William  Burnett,  Knight  Companion  of  the  most  Honourable  Order  of  the  Bath,  of 
Somerset-house,  Middlesex,  an  extension  for  the  term  of  seven  years  from  the  26th  day  of 
July,  1852,  being  the  expiration  of  the  original  grant  of  his  patent  for  improvements  in  pre- 
serving wood  and  other  veg"table  matters  from  decay.    July  20. 

John  Francis  Egan,  of  Covent-garden,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar. 
(Being  a  communication.)    July  20. 

James  M'Henry,  of  Liverpool,  merchant,  for  certain  improvements  in  machinery  for 
manufacturing  bricks  and  tiles.     (Being  a  communication.)    July  20. 

Richard  Bealey,  of  Radcliffe,  Lancaster,  bieacher,  for  certain  improvements  in  apparatus 
used  in  bleaching.    July  20. 

George  Augustus  Huddart,  of  Brynkir,  Carnarvon,  esq.,  for  improvements  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cigars.    July  20. 

Richard  Birckton  and  Thomas  Lawscn,  both  of  Leeds,  Yorkshire,  manufacturers,  for 
certain  improvements  in  the  adaptation  and  application  of  a  new  manufactured  material  to 
certain  articles  of  dress.    July  21. 

John  Kirkham,  of  the  New-road,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  and  Thnmas  Nesham  Kirk- 
ham,  of  Fulham,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  gas  for  lighting 
and  heating.    July  22. 


LIST  OF  SCOTCH  PATENTS, 
Feoji  24th  of  Mat  to  the  18th  of  Jdlt,  1852. 

John  Harcourt  Brown,  of  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  and  James  Macintosh,  of  the  same  place, 
for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  paper,  and  articles  of  paper.    May  24. 

Charles  James  Pownall,  of  Addison-road,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  the 
preparation  and  treatment  of  flax,  and  other  fibrous  and  vegetable  substances.    May  28. 

John  Weems,  of  Johnstone,  Renfrew,  North  Britain,  tinsmith,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  or  production  of  metallic  pipes  and  sheets.    May  31. 

Alexander  John.-on  Warden,  of  Dundee,  Foifar,  Scotland,  manufacturer,  for  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  certain  descriptions  of  carpets.    May  31. 

Joseoh  Swan,  of  Glasgow,  Lanark,  North  Britain,  engraver,  for  improvements  in  the 
production  of  figured  surfaces,  and  in  printing,  and  in  the  machinery  or  apparatus  used 
therein.    June  10. 

George  Searby,  of  Chelsea,  Middlesex,  decorator,  for  certain  improvements  in  apparatus 
for  cutting  and  carving  metal,  stone,  and  other  substances.  (Being  a  communication.) 
Jute  11  ;  four  months. 

John  Frearson,  of  Birmingham,  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements  in  cutting, 
shaping,  and  pressing  metal,  and  other  materials.    June  14. 

Thomas  Twells,  of  Nottingham,  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  manu- 
facture of  looped  fabrics.    June  14;  four  months. 

Andrew  Fulton,  of  Glasgow,  Lanark,  North  Britain,  hatter,  for  improvements  in  hats 
and  other  coverings  for  the  head.    June  14. 

William  Edward  Newton,  of  60,  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improve- 
ments in  machinery  for  weaving,  colouring,  and  marking  fabrics.  (Being  a  communi- 
cation.)   July  15. 

James  Edward  Coleman,  of  Porchester  House,  Bayswater,  Middlesex,  gent.,  for  improve- 
ments in  materials  and  apparatus  to  be  employed  in  parts  of  railways,  of  engines,  and  of 
carriages,  and  in  the  application  of  such  materials  to  those  purposes,  and  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  textile  and  other  mechanism.     (Being  a  communication.)    June  16. 

William  Hindman,  of  Manchester,  Lancaster,  gentleman,  and  John  Warhurst,  of  Newton 
Heath,  near  Manchester,  cotton  dealer,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  method  of  gene- 
rating or  producing  steam,  and  in  the  machinery  or  apparatus  connected  therewith. 
June  16  ;  four  months. 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  the  firm  of  J.  C.  Robertson  and  Company,  of  66,  Fleet- 
street,  London,  patent  agents,  "  A  Reaping  Machine."    (Being  a  communication.)  June  17. 

William  Gratrtx,  of  Salford.  Lancaster,  dyer  and  printer,  for  certain  improvements  in  the 
production  of  designs  upon  cotton  and  other  fabrics.    June  17. 

James  Edward  M'Connell,  of  Wolverton,  Bucks,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in 
steam  engines,  in  boilers  and  other  vessels  for  containing  fluids,  in  railways,  and  in 
materials  and  apparatus  employed  therein  or  connected  therewith.    July  18. 


June  29, 
„  29, 
„  30, 

July 


3311 
3312, 
3313; 

,3314 
,3315. 
,  3316, 


5,  3317, 

5,3318. 
6,3319. 

6,  3320, 

7,  3321, 
7,  3322, 

7,  3323 

8,  3324. 

9,  3325, 


3326, 
3327, 

3328, 
3329, 
:j330, 
3331, 
3332, 
3333 

3334, 
3335, 
3330, 

3337 
3338 
3339, 


22,  3340 


DESIGNS  FOR  ARTICLES  OF  UTILITY, 
Fbom  29th  of  June  to  the  22nd  of  July,  1852. 
,  Tylor  and  Pace,  John-street,  Hackney,  "  Heating  apparatus  for  baths." 
T.  Allan,  Edinburgh,  "  Electrode." 
T.  Hills  and  Son,  Cooper-street,  City-road,  "  Gold  washing  and  reserving 

machine." 
PI.  E.  Campbell,  Guildford-street,  "Horizontal  gold  washing  machine.' ' 

B.  Samuelson,  Banbury,  Oxford,  "  Part  of  a  lawn  mower." 

W.  Dray  and  Co.,  Swan-lane,  London  Bridge,  "  Combined  winnowing  and 

blowing  machine." 
W.  Tasker  and  G.  Fowle,  Andover,  Hants,  "  Convex  clod-crusher  or  press  - 

wheel  roller." 
J.  Duncan,  Gresham-street,  west,  "Marquise  joint." 
W.  Dray  and  Co.,  Swan-lane,  City,  "Part  of   a  reaping  and  mowing 

machine," 

F.  Barnes,  Union-row,  Tower-hill,  "  Gold  washing  machine." 
J.  Higham,  Manchester,  "  Bugle." 

K   Garrett,  Saxmnndham,  "  Manure  distributor." 
Ransomes  and  Sims,  Ipswich,  "  Spherical  locking  carriage." 

C.  Burrell,  Thetford,  "  Force  pump  discharge  apparatus." 

W.  Hensman  and  Son,  Woburn,  Bedfordshire,  and  S.  L.  Taylor,  Cotton-end. 

near  Bedford,  "  Steam-engine  controller." 
R.  F..  Beauford.  St.  Leonards  and  Hastings,  "  Daguerreotype  accelerator." 
W.  Dray  and  Co.,  Swan-lane,  London-bridge,  "  Lever  and  extended  horse- 
rake." 
J.  Symonds,  Circus,  Minories,  "  Gold-wishing  cradle." 
J.  Cla-son,  Dublin,  "  Steam-boat  and  railway  chessboard  and  men." 
J.  Crawley,  Silver-street,  Cheapside,  "  Arm-hole  shirt  front." 
J.  R.  Isaac,  Liverpool,  "Perpetual  remembrancer." 

G.  P.  Thomas,  St.  James'-street,  "  Adjustable  clog  fastening." 

W.  Starkes,  Lostock,  Cheshire,  "Apparatus  for  cutting  corn  and  other 

standing  crops." 
M  M.icpherson,  St.  Petersburgh,  "Annular  boiler." 
G.  II.  and  D.  Kicholl,  Dundee,  "  Kitchen-range." 
T.  A.  Re.;dwin,  v\ inchester-buildings,  " Revolving  holder  for  pen,  pencil, 

or  toothpick. 
H.  Barber,  Leicester,  "Thread-carrier  stop  of  a  stocking-frame." 
Moran  and  Quin,  Myd  elton-street,  Clerkenwell.  "Folded  spring-catch." 
VV.  Bourn,  Leicester,  ■'  Apparatus  for  pluffing,  fluting,  and  preserving  the 

shape  of  gloves." 
W.  Wigfall,  and  Co.,  Sheffield,  "Saucepan  cleaner." 


THE     AKTIZAN. 


No.  IX.— Vol.  X.— SEPTEMBER  1st,  1852. 


THE  EVENTS  OF  THE  MONTH. 


The  railway  world  has  been  furnished  with  ample  material  for  dis- 
cussion in  the  revived  scheme  for  the  amalgamation  of  the  leading 
companies.  The  London  and  North  Western  and  the  Great  Western 
ave  to  be  the  happy  couple  who  are  to  set  the  example ;  the  Midland 
and  Great  Northern  are  coquetting,  and  other  matches  are  hinted  at. 
It  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  railway  interest,  strong  as  it  is  in 
Parliament,  could  carry  such  a  measure,  without  submitting  to  the 
supervision  in  detail  of  their  entire  management.  The  bare  idea  of  a 
Government  Railway  Board  is  enough  to  deter  shareholders  from 
entertaining  such  a  proposal,  and  most  assuredly  one  part  of  the  scheme 
could  not  be  carried  out  without  the  other.  With  the  Board  of  Cus- 
toms daily  before  their  eyes,  men  of  business  will  be  slow  to  take  any 
steps  which  would  hand  the  management  of  their  property  over  to  such 
a  body.  But  the  necessity  of  such  an  amalgamation  has  yet  to  be 
shown.  Surely  the  management  of  a  line  of  railway  500  miles  in 
length,  and  representing  fifteen  millions  of  money,  is  sufficient  to 
satiate  the  ambition  of  any  chairman  or  any  board.  In  such  gigantic 
concerns  no  economy  is  possible  by  amalgamation  which  could  not  be 
attained  with  less  risk  by  amicable  arrangements  as  to  the  mutual 
working  or  construction  of  branch  lines.  Such  appears  to  be  the 
general  feeling  out  of  doors,  and  some  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  the 
whole  affair  has  been  got  up  merely  "  to  throw  to  the  whale,"  at  the 
half-yearly  meetings.  A  better  reason  may  be  found  in  the  sense  of 
the  responsibility  which  directors  have  incurred  in  making  unprofitable 
extensions  and  guarantees. 

A  more  practicable  method  of  increasing  dividends  would  be  the 
reduction  of  working  expenses,  by  adopting  the  American  system  of 
working  the  trains,  and  by  running  lines  into  towns ;  not  such  extra- 
vagant extensions  as  the  Waterloo,  but  a  line  worked  by  horse  power 
to  carry  goods  into  the  heart  of  a  town.  There  are  numerous  old- 
fashioned  towns  in  which  the  main  streets  are  of  ample  width  to  admit 
of  a  line  of  rails  without  interfering  with  the  ordinary  traffic,  and  in 
which  the  gradients  would  not  be  objectionable.  Such  articles  as  coals, 
bricks,  timber,  &c,  could  thus  be  carried  directly  into  the  town 
without  the  expense  of  cartage. 

The  Salisbury  and  Exeter  scheme  is  still  pushed  with  energy  by  Mr. 
Locke  and  his  friends,  although  the  South  Western  proprietors  seem 
insensible  to  the  great  advantages  they  are  to  derive  from  it.  It  is,  in 
fact,  a  landowner's  question,  as  Mr.  Locke  frankly  admits,  and  if  the 
landowners  want  the  line,  let  them  make  it.     It  will  pay  them  in  the 


improvement  of  their  property,  even  if  the  receipts  only  cover  the 
expenses. 

Several  accidents  have  occurred  which  might  have  been  prevented  by 
an  efficient  external  means  of  stopping  the  train.  In  a  mere  pecuniary 
point  of  view,  the  expense  of  adopting  such  a  plan  would  soon  be  saved 
by  the  absence  of  compensations  for  accidents,  which  have  begun  to 
form  a  very  ugly  feature  in  railway  balance-sheets.  As  this  appears  to 
be  the  only  point  on  which  boards  of  directors  are  accessible,  we  will 
suggest  a  plan  by  which,  at  the  smallest  possible  expense  to  themselves, 
their  pockets  might  be  protected,  and  their  consciences  lightened — if, 
indeed,  boards  have  any  consciences  at  all. 

Let  a  commission  be  appointed — composed  of  locomotive  superin- 
tendents, an  equal  number  of  practical  consulting  engineers  (not  engine 
makers  who  have  contracts  with  railway  companies),  and  a  few  govern- 
ment officers — to  inquire  into  the  causes  of,  and  best  methods  of  pre- 
venting, railway  accidents  in  general.  Let  the  expenses  of  such  a 
commission,  and  of  the  trials,  be  paid  by  a  pro  raid  contribution  from 
the  various  companies.  Ten  thousand  pounds  laid  out  in  this  way — a 
sum  less  than  a  single  accident  has  cost— would  settle  the  question. 

London  has  usually  been  very  free  from  boiler  explosions,  although 
a  great  proportion  of  the  engines  in  it  are  worked  with  high-pressure 
steam.  We  regret,  therefore,  to  have  to  record  a  very  disastrous  explo- 
sion which  occurred  on  the  2nd  instant,  at  a  saw-mill  at  Wapping. 
The  circumstances  were  rather  peculiar.  The  boiler  was  of  the  best 
shape,  cylindrical  with  flue  through  of  T7s  plates;  the  ends  were  strongly 
stayed,  the  water  was  not  low,  and  the  pressure  was  only  about  16'  lbs. 
per  square  inch.  The  shell  was  6  feet  diameter,  and  we  should  have 
had  no  hesitation  in  working  such  a  boiler  to  40  or  50  lbs.  per  square 
inch.  Many  boilers  about  Manchester,  of  8  or  .9  feet  diameter,  and  the 
same  thickness  of  plates,  are  doing  so  with  great  safety.  In  this  case 
the  bottom  of  the  shell  had  become  corroded,  where  it  rested  on  the 
ridge  of  brickwork  separating  the  two  flues,  to  such  an  extent,  that  in 
many  places  not  an  eighth  of  an  inch  of  sound  metal  was  left.  The  boiler 
had  given  signs,  by  excessive  leakage  for  several  months,  that  the 
bottom  was  in  bad  condition,  and  it  had  been  patched,  but  no  investi- 
gation of  it  by  any  competent  person  had  taken  place.  Had  the  boiler 
been  tested  in  its  place  by  hydraulic  pressure  to  30  foa.  on  the  inch, 
the  accident  would  never  have  happened,  two  lives  would  have  been  saved, 
and  the  proprietor  would  have  been  several  thoihsand  pounds  the  richer. 
Such  a  scene  of  devastation  as  it  occasioned  it  has  never  been  our  lot 
to  witness  before.  Similar  explosions  have  taken  place  at  lSurnley 
and  Worcester,  during  the  last  few  days,  in  both  of  which  we  suspect 

shortness  of  water  will  prove  to  have  been  the  cause. 

2o 


IUTE  12 


■  E  direr 


188 


Beet  Sugar  Manufacture. 


[September, 


BEET  SUGAR  MANUFACTURE, 

WITH   PLANS    OF    SUGAR   WORKS,    AS    CONSTRUCTED    BY    M. 
DEWILDE,    ENGINEER. 

Translated  for  The  Arlizan  from  the  French  of  M.  Armengaud  Aine. 

Illustrated  by  Plates  11  and  12. 

(Continued  from  page  150.) 

The  Crystallisation.— The  syrup  having  been  run  into  the 
coolers,  X  X,  is  well  stirred,  in  order  to  mix  and  equalise  the  various 
batches  of  sugar.  The  room  is  kept  at  a  gentle  heat,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve the  fluidity  of  the  syrup  necessary  to  crystallisation,  and  in  this 
room  the  moulds  are  filled  by  the  workmen. 

After  being  stirred,  the  syrup  is  allowed  to  cool  down  to  75°  or  60° 
centigrade,  during  which  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  coolers  become 
covered  with  small  crystals,  which  have  but  little  consistency.  The 
grain  is  then  formed,  and  the  filling  can  be  commenced. 

The  syrup  is  poured  into  large  moulds,  q,  formed  of  earthenware, 
galvanised  iron,  or  copper  painted  or  tinned.  Metallic  moulds  require 
great  care  in  their  use,  and  sometimes  spoil  the  sugar,  in  spite  of  the 
paint  with  which  they  are  covered.  Copper  tinned  appears  to  be  the 
best  material,  if  it  is  not  too  expensive.  It  was  formerly  the  custom, 
says  M.  Payen,  to  put  the  moulds  to  drain  into  pots,  into  which  their 
points  were  inserted.  This  arrangement  being  inconvenient  for  collecting 
the  drainings,  and  expensive  in  hand  labour,  has  been  replaced  by  large 
frames,  into  which  the  moulds  are  inserted.  Below  these  frames  is  a  zinc 
gutter,  which  carries  all  the  molasses  drained  off  into  special  reservoirs, 
whence  they  can  be  taken  to  be  reboiled,  either  at  once,  or  after  being 
mixed  with  water  to  facilitate  their  decoloration  by  the  charcoal.  They 
then  concentrate  them  a  little  farther  than  the  first  time,  and  obtain 
crystallisable  sugar  from  the  second  round.  They  can,  by  using  the 
drainings  from  the  second  sugars,  obtain  sugars  of  the  third  round,  the 
crystallisation  of  which  often  takes  three  or  four  months.  They  are 
often  compelled,  in  order  to  extract  the  molasses  from  these  sugars, 
either  to  finish  them,  or  to  put  them  through  the  refining  process,  to 
submit  them,  wrapped  in  cloths,  to  considerable  pressure. 

The  extraction  of  the  molasses  is  usually  effected  on  a  floor  placed  in 
the  roof.  The  moulds  are  carried  up  by  a  windlass  or  "  lift,"  worked 
by  steam  power.  The  drain  gutters  are  arranged  along  the  building, 
and  the  molasses  are  conveyed  by  a  copper  pipe,  a2,  to  the  general  re- 
ceiver, B2,  whence  they  undergo  a  second,  and  sometimes  even  a  third 
treatment. 

A  trial  is  now  being  made  at  the  factory  of  M.  Perot,  at  Villette,  of 
a  vacuum-process  for  extracting  the  molasses.  The  ends  of  the  moulds 
are  put  into  the  lid  of  a  box  furnished  with  india-rubber  mouth  pieces, 
which  form  air-tight  joints.  On  the  air  being  exhausted  from  the  box, 
the  atmospheric  pressure  forces  the  molasses  through  the  sugar,  not 
only  more  rapidly,  but  more  completely. 

This  idea  is  not  new,  for  Messrs.  Derosne  and  Cail  claim  it  in  a 
patent  of  1845,  as  belonging  to  them  since  1812.  Messrs.  Guillaume 
and  Dorey  also  describe,  in  a  patent  dated  1840,  a  process  similar  in 
principle  to  those  of  Messrs.  Derosne  and  Cail.  Whichever  way  this 
may  he,  the  process  appears  very  rational,  and  only  requires  the  sanc- 
tion of  experience. 

The  clarifying  (or  "  liquoring,'*  as  it  is  termed  here)  is  the  final  ope- 
ration, in  order  to  deprive  the  sugar  of  the  molasses  entangled  amongst 
the  crystals.  The  liquor  is  water  saturated  with  fine  sugar,  which  will 
dissolve  the  molasses  but  not  the  sugar,  in  the  moulds.  This  is  poured 
on  the  mould,  the  surface  of  the  sugar  being  first  smoothed  down 
three  times,  at  intervals  of  twelve  hours,  and  left  to  drain  for  three  or 
four  days.  At  the  end  of  this  time  the  sugar  is  dryer,  finer,  and  less 
liable  to  change  than  the  ordinary  raw  sugar. 

M.  Trappe,  well  known  as  a  sugar-maker,  patented,  in  1833,  an  im- 
proved method  of  refining,  by  using  syrup  and  spirits  of  wine  together, 


and  by  cooling  the  "  liquor  "  by  a  pneumatic  refrigerator.  The  use  of 
this  apparatus  is  to  prevent  the  liquor  changing  colour  and  deteriorating, 
whilst  standing  in  the  reservoirs. 

We  ought  not  to  omit  to  mention  the  process  of  M.  Lecointe,  who 
obtains  a  white  sugar  without  refining.  The  raw  sugar,  prepared  in  the 
ordinary  method,  is  whitened  in  large  moulds  by  means  of  terrage, 
which  consists  in  pouring  on  the  loaf  of  sugar  syrup  saturated  with 
white  sugar,  which,  in  filtering  through,  expels  the  coloured  syrup. 
The  sugar  is  then  removed  from  the  moulds,  crushed,  and  passed 
through  a  metallic  sieve,  and  finally  put  into  small  moulds  well  filled. 
The  moulds  are  then  reversed  on  a  board  which  will  contain  a  dozen 
or  fifteen  loaves.  These  are  put  in  the  stove,  and  by  next  day  acquire 
sufficient  consistency  to  admit  of  their  being  handled,  and  put  on  shelves 
like  loaves  undergoing  refining.  Three  or  four  days  after  they  may  be 
finished.  This  process  appears  to  involve  a  good  deal  of  hand-labour, 
and  the  colour  is  perhaps  not  so  white ;  but,  according  to  M.  Dumas, 
experience  proves  it  capable  of  yielding  good  results. 

After  the  loaves  are  clarified,  they  are  cut  in  halves.  The  heads  are 
put  in  moulds  over  pots,  to  finish  draining,  and  the  other  halves  are 
placed  on  their  base,  to  finish  drying.  As  soon  as  they  are  well  dried, 
they  are  assorted,  and  the  grains  of  sugar  taken  out. 

The  residue  of  the  first  crystallisations  and  the  clarifyings,  after  being 
reboiled  and  drained,  give  a  second  produce,  which,  in  its  turn,  gives  a 
third,  which  is  sold,  unclarified,  as  an  inferior  quality.  The  process 
may  be  repeated,  to  the  third  or  fourth  operation;  but,  in  general,  they 
cease  when  the  drainings  mark  34°  of  density  by  the  hydrometer.  They 
are  then  no  longer  crystallisable. 

of  the  boilers  and   steam-engine. 

The  steam  necessary  for  the  work,  in  supplying  the  engines  and  the 
defecating  and  evaporating  pans,  is  generated  in  four  boilers,  K,  of  a 
total  force  of  80  horse  power.  As  will  be  seen  in  the  transverse  section, 
fig.  4,  pi.  11,  they  are  cylindrical  boilers,  with  two  tubes  under.  They 
are  connected  by  a  steam-pipe,  and  are  each  provided  with  a  separate 
stop-valve.  The  condensed  water  from  the  pans  is  carried  into  a  cylin- 
drical tank  over  the  boilers,  and  from  which  the  boilers  are  fed. 

The  steam-engine,  C2,  is  of  the  direct-acting  variety,  the  cylinder 
being  bolted  down  on  the  sole-plate,  whence  rise  two  columns  to  sup- 
port the  crank-shaft.  The  steam  is  worked  at  high-pressure,  and  ex- 
pansively, without  condensation.  The  works  are  supplied  with  water 
from  the  tank,  Is ,  which  is  filled  from  the  well  C,  by  means  of  pumps 
worked  by  the  steam-engine. 

COST   OF    SUGAR-FACTORY'. 

The  sugar-factory,  represented  in  plates  11  and  12,  is  designed  to 
operate  on  500  hectolitres  (2,200  bushels)  per  24  hours,  which  corre- 
sponds to  about  2,500  kilog.  (2|  tons)   of  sugar  per  day,   estimating 
the  produce  at  5  per  cent.  only. 

The  following  are  the  approximate  prices  of  the  principal  items  : — 
Twelve-horse  engine  (without  boiler)  . .  . .      £375 

Clutches,    pulleys,   and  shafting  for   working  rasps, 

press-pumps,  and  washer    . .  . .  . .  . .  S3 

Two  well-pumps,  with  clutches  and  fly- wheel  . .  125 

Four   steam-boilers   (weighing  about  6^  tons  each), 

with  valves,  &c 1,008 

Furnace-mouths,  bars,  dampers,  &c.  . .  . .  60 

Four  stop-valves  in  cast-iron  and  brass,  with  pipes  . .  25 

Four  feed-cocks,  with  plungers  and  pipes     . .  . .  17 

Two  condensed  water-cisterns,  with  cocks     . .  . .  42 

Washer  and  shoot,  to  conduct  roots  to  rasps  . .  33 

Rasp  of  four  cutters  on  cast-iron  plate,  and  cast-iron 

vat  for  pulp  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  83 


Carried  forward 


.£1,851 


1852.] 


Agricultural  Engineering. 


189 


Brought  forward 

Spare  drum  for  rasp,  with  knives 

Revolving  table,  with  power  to  press  bags  of  pulp 

Six  hydraulic  presses 

Pumps  for  working  presses 

Four  defecating  pans,  with  copper  bottoms,  contain- 
ing 353  gals,  furnished  with  admission  and  exhaust- 
cocks 

Six  filters  of  sheet-iron,  with  two  grates  and  discharge 
and  ball-cocks 

Four  evaporating  pans,  with  coil,  covers,  and  dis- 
charge-cocks 

Three  scum  presses 

A  scum  carriage,  furnished  with  cock  and  grate 

A  vacuum  pan,  with  air-pump  and  condenser 

Two  copper  boilers,  with  double  cast-iron  bottom    . . 

Two  juice  lifts  for  defecation  and  filtrage 

Steam  pipes,  with  cocks  . 

Three  juice  vats  of  wood,  lined  with  copper 

Steam  pipes  for  heating  refining-rooms 

Pipes  to  carry  steam  to  evaporating-pans  (copper)  . . 


£1,851 

33 

63 

20S 

250 


Total,  say 


333 
221 

250 

62 

6 

625 

100 

50 
146 

19 
166 

25 

£4,819 


(To  be  continued.) 


AGRICULTURAL    ENGINEERING. 

(Continued  from  page  168.) 

No  question  is  more  open  to  discussion  than  the  relative  advantages 
of  fixed  and  portable  engines  for  agricultural  purposes.  We  believe  that 
it  depends  more  upon  the  size  of  the  farm  and  the  extent  to  which 
machinery  is  employed,  than  anything  else.  Where  one  engine  only  is 
employed,  it  should  be  a  portable  one,  but  on  large  estates  a  stationary 
engine  may  also  be  employed  to  grind,  saw,  pump  liquid  manure,  &c. 
To  show  what  arguments  are  used  on  either  side,  we  quote  the  follow- 
ing from  a  paper  by  Mr.  Ritchie,  who  advocates  fixed  engines  :  — 

'•  What  object  can  be  obtained  by  locomotion  to  a  farmer  of  ordinarily 
prudent  habits  of  management,  in  the  present  state  of  husbandry,  the  writer 
is  at  a  loss  to  comprehend.  If  threshing  stacks  in  the  field  be  the  manner 
in  which  the  farmer  conducts  his  business,  no  doubt  removing  the  engine 
from  field  to  field  may  be  a  lazy  expedient,  and  in  some  cases  may  prove 
convenient ;  and  where  a  portable  farm  railway  is  used,  it  will  be  easily 
transported.  No  doubt,  in  England,  threshing  in  the  field  is  extensively 
adopted,  and  is  more  common  than  the  more  economical  plan  of  threshing 
at  the  homestead,  and  having  the  threshing-machine  established  in  the  barn. 
In  some  parts  of  England,  the  occupier  of  a  large  farm  prefers  having  several 
barns  at  different  parts  of  a  farm  to  having  them  all  placed  in  one  central 
position  near  his  dwelling-place,  on  account  of  the  saving  of  cartage  ;  and 
hence,  for  such  an  arrangement,  portable  machines  may  be  valued.  But  is  the 
mere  threshing  of  a  rick  the  summit  of  a  farmer's  ambition  ?  and  is  he  not 
yet  alive  to  the  great  advantages  arising  from  the  capabilities  of  the  fixed 
farm  engine  being  applied  to  a  great  variety  of  useful  purposes,  which  the  ex- 
perience of  every  year  is  immensely  increasing  ? 

"It  seems  unnecessary  to  notice  the  inconvenience  of  threshing  in  the  open 
air,  in  a  climate  such  as  this,  and  the  injury  the  grain  must  sustain.  It  is  a 
well-ascertained  fact  that  the  ancients,  even  in  the  better  climate  of  Italy, 
could  not  dispense  with  a  covering  for  their  threshing  floors  in  the  open 
field,  and  sometimes  a  covered  place  was  used  for  the  corn,  contiguous  to 
the  threshing-floor.  It  was  reserved,  it  seems,  for  the  modern  Britons  to 
exhibit  the  advantages  of  steam-engines  and  threshing-machines,  that  will 
thresh  grain,  as  of  old,  in  the  open  fields,  and  to  dispense  with  the  storing  of 
stacks  in  the  rick-yard,  and  with  a  barn  and  granary  altogether  !  But  what 
a  waste  of  labour  as  well  as  loss  of  grain  is  incurred  by  this  plan  !  The  por- 
table engine,  after  all,  is  not  so  very  portable,  its  weight  not  being  so  very 
inconsiderable  as  to  make  it  easily  moved  and  transported.  It  can  be  moved 
without  a  railway  on  a  hard  road;  but  upon  a  soft  farm-road,  and  still  softer 


field,  its  removal  is  an  operation  of  no  inconsiderable  magnitude  and  diffi- 
culty, as  it  takes  even  several  horses  to  move  it  upon  a  common  road." 

Mr.  Ritchie  then  notices  and  describes  the  several  forms  of  portable  engines, 
the  use  of  which  in  England  has  now  become  so  very  common.  He  considers 
them  very  useful  for  small  farms,  where  they  are  employed  to  supersede  the 
laborious  and  injurious  use  of  horse  power  and  the  flail;  but  asks,  What  com- 
parison can  be  drawn  between  them  and  the  palpable  advantages  of  a  sta- 
tionary threshing-machine?  He  points  out  a  common  error  in  the  application 
of  the  portable  engine— that  of  performing  the  work  quickly  in  place  of 
perfectly,  whence  arises  loss  of  grain,  and  imperfection  in  the  shaking  process. 

"Some  millwrights,"  he  says,  "chiefly  in  the  west  of  Scotland,  have 
recently  attempted  to  introduce  portable  threshing-machines  on  a  large  scale, 
with  elevators.  Their  bulky  construction  does  not  admit  of  their  being 
moved  from  place  to  place,  and  hence  they  are  more  adapted  for  the  barn 
than  the  field  ;  and  to  call  them  portable  is  a  misnomer.  These  machines 
are  made  with  cast-iron  framing,  are  sometimes  termed  the  peg-drum  beater, 
and  made  with  the  common  drum  beater,  2i  inches  broad,  armed  with  a 
double  row  of  iron  pegs  about  2  inches  long,  the  drum  working  downwards, 
as  in  Atkinson's  patent  peg  machine.  There  is  usually  one  shaker  in  these 
machines.  The  fanners  and  riddles  are  placed  on  the  top,  and  the  grain  is 
lifted  to  them  by  elevators,  and  is  received,  when  dressed,  at  the  bottom. 
The  ability  of  a  machine  of  this  description,  however  compact,  is  hypothetical. 
It  must  be  chiefly  advantageous  for  small  farmers,  in  cases  where  the  machine 
cannot  be  conveniently  incorporated  into  the  farm  buildings.  The  expense 
of  a  machine  of  this  kind  varies  from  £56  to  £65;  and  for  small  farms, 
from  £25  to  £35  for  2 -horse  power.  With  respect  to  the  advantages  or 
disadvantages  of  the  common  and  peg-drum  beaters,  the  subject  has  been 
already  discussed  in  the  Society's  transactions  for  October,  1849,  and  it  is 
unnecessary  to  enter  here  upon  it.  The  writer  there  gives  the  preference  to 
the  peg-beater  machine  over  the  common-beater  and  the  patent  peg-drum." 

With  this  we  may  contrast  the  arguments  advanced  by  Mr.  Philip 
Pusey,  the  eminent  practical  agriculturist,  in  his  capacity  of  chairman 
and  reporter  to  the  agricultural  jury  of  the  Great  Exhibition. 

"  If  a  farm  be  a  large  one,  and  especially  if,  as  is  often  the  case,  it  be  of  an 
irregular  shape,  there  is  greater  waste  of  labour  for  horses  and  men  in  bringing 
home  all  the  corn  in  the  straw  to  one  point,  and  in  again  carrying  out  the 
dung  to  a  distance  of  perhaps  two  or  three  miles.  It  is  therefore  common, 
and  should  be  general,  to  have  a  second  outlying  yard.  This  accommoda- 
tion cannot  be  reconciled  with  a  fixed  engine. 

"  If  the  farm  be  of  a  moderate  size,  it  will  hardly — and  if  small  will  certainly 
not — bear  the  expense  of  a  fixed  engine;  there  would  be  waste  of  capital  in 
multiplying  fixed  engines  to  be  worked  but  a  few  days  in  a  year.  It  is 
now  common,  therefore,  in  some  counties,  for  a  man  to  invest  a  small  capital 
in  a  moveable  engine,  and  earn  his  livelihood  by  letting  it  out  to  the 
farmer. 

"  But  there  is  a  further  advantage  in  these  moveable  engines,  little,  I  believe, 
if  at  all  known.  Hitherto,  corn  has  been  threshed  under  cover  in  barns;  but 
with  these  engines  and  the  improved  threshing  machines,  we  can  thresh  the 
rick  in  the  open  air  at  once,  as  it  stands.  It  will  be  said  "  How  can  yon 
thresh  out  of  doors  on  a  wet  day  ?  "  The  answer  is  simple— Neither  can  you 
move  your  rick  into  your  barn  on  a  wet  day ;  and  so  rapid  is  the  work  of  the 
new  threshing  machines,  that  it  takes  no  more  time  to  thresh  the  corn  than 
to  move  it.  Open  air  threshing  is  also  far  pleasanter  and  healthier  for  the 
labourers,  their  lungs  not  being  choked  with  dust,  as  under  cover  they  are; 
aftd  there  is,  of  course,  a  saving  of  labour  to  the  tenant  not  inconsiderable  : 
but  when  these  moveable  steam  engines  have  spread  generally, there  will  arise 
an  equally  important  saving  to  the  landlord  in  buildings.  Instead  of  three 
or  more  barns  clustering  round  the  homestead,  one  or  other  in  constant  want 
of  repair,  a  single  building  will  suffice  for  dressing  corn  and  for  chaff  cutting. 
The  very  barn  floors  saved  will  be  no  insignificant  item.  Now  that  buildings 
are  required  for  new  purposes,  we  must,  if  we  can,  retrench  those  buildings 
whose  objects  are  obsolete.  Open  air  threshing  may  appear  visionaryj  but  it 
is  quite  common  with  the  new  machinery;  nor  would  any  one  perform  the 
tedious  manoeuvre  of  setting  horses  and  men  to  pull  down  a  rick,  place  ii  on 
carts,  and  build  it  up  again  in  the  barn,  who  had  once  tried  the  simple  plan 
of  pitching  the  sheaves  at  once  into  the  threshing  machine." 


190 


Arman  s  Patent  System  of  Shipbuilding. 


[September, 


"We  confess  we  think  Mr.  Pusey's  argument  the  more  cogent  for  the 
great  majority  of  cases;  and,  to  put  the  matter  in  a  clearer  light,  we  will 
give  our  notes  of  the  method  of  applying  steam  power  on  the  estate  of 
Lord  Willoughby  d'Eresby,  at  Grimsthorpe,  and  the  farm  of  Mr.  Mechi, 
at  Tiptree  Hall,  both  of  which  we  have  lately  visited  and  minutely 
examined. 

At  Grimsthorpe  there  is  a  mechanical  shop,  which  supplies  the  wants 
of  the  whole  estate.  Power  is  supplied  by  a  portable  engine,  con- 
structed on  the  most  approved  locomotive  principle  at  Swindon,  under 
Mr.  Gooch's  superintendence.  This  engine  drives  a  corn  mill,  a  heavy 
timber  frame,  a  deal  frame,  a  cross-cut  saw,  a  circular  saw,  and  gutter- 
making  machine,  drills  for  making  gates,  a  circular  saw  for  stone,  and  a 
reciprocating  saw  for  the  same  purpose,  and  other  minor  machines. 
The  whole  of  the  wood  and  stone  work  for  building  and  repairing  the 
cottages  on  the  estate  is  thus  prepared  under  cover,  and,  owing  to  the 
variety  of  the  machines,  there  is  always  work  for  some  of  them  to  keep 
the. hands  going.  In  fact,  there  is  quite  sufficient  to  keep  a  fixed  engine 
going,  but  the  portable  engines  offer  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  be 
taken  to  the  surrounding  farms  to  thresh  at  a  time  when  there  is  a  great 
demand  for  their  services.  They  are  also  employed  in  ploughing,  as  we 
have  already  noticed,*  but  with  a  vastly  improved  effect,  as  the  following 
extract  from  a  report  by  Mr.  W.  Keld  Whytehead,  C.  E.  (recently 
published  in  the  Illustrated  News),  shows. 

"In  the  present  improved  arrangement  two  engines  are  employed,  one 
at  each  end  of  the  field,  as  represented  in  the  sketch,  the  capstans  being 
attached  to  the  engines.  The  ploughs  are  made  double-ended,  and  are 
drawn  alternately  by  each  engine  along  the  field,  so  that,  whilst  the 
rope  is  being  wound  upon  the  capstan  of  one  engine,  it  is  being  unwound 
off  the  capstan  of  the  other,  and  vice  versa.  Each  engine,  as  it  is  alter- 
nately idle,  is  moved  along  a  temporary  tramway,  formed  of  planks  laid 
along  the  side  of  the  hedge.  To  prevent  the  rope  dragging  in  the 
furrow,  six  small  wooden  frames  are  dropped  into  the  furrow,  and  pro- 
vided with  rollers,  over  which  the  rope  runs.  Two  ploughs  are  arranged 
together,  each  turning  a  furrow  of  nine  inches.  With  a  field  180  yards 
long  between  the  engines,  the  ploughing  of  each  furrow  18  inches  wide 
occupies  2\  minutes,  the  ploughs  moving  at  rather  less  than  2f  miles 
per  hour.  Allowing  for  the  time  lost  in  shifting  the  plough,  this  gives 
four  acres  per  day  at  the  present  slow  speed,  which  I  see  no  difficulty  in 
increasing  to  four  miles  per  hour,  when  the  men,  who  are  only  agricul- 
tural labourers,  shall  have  acquired  greater  dexterity  in  managing  the 
engines  and  ploughs. 

"To  produce  this  result,  there  are  required  two  men  to  drive  engines, 
four  to  shift  ploughs  and  engines,  one  to  hold  plough,  and  three  boys 
at  trucks,  and  7i  cwt.  of  coke.  Taking  the  wages  of  men  and  boys  at  12s. 
per  day,  and  the  coke  at  8s.,  or  total  20s.,  the  cost  per  acre  will  be  5s., 
which  is  about  one-half  the  cost  of  ploughing  by  horse  power,  with  the 
advantage  of  doing  it  in  half  the  time.  In  estimating,  however,  the 
pecuniary  advantages  of  steam-ploughing,  it  must  be  viewed  in  con- 
nection with  a  general  system  of  farm  machinery." 

Here,  therefore,  there  is  a  case  where  a  fixed  engine  would  present  no 
advantage,  because  the  saving  of  fuel  effected  by  its  use  over  that  of  the 
portable  engine  would  not  pay  for  the  cost  of  the  latter,  which  must  be 
had  in  any  case. 

Mr.  Mechi's  farm  buildings  are  arranged  with  reference  to  a  fixed 
engine,  which  is  of  6-horse  power,  and  drives  a  threshing  machine, 
millstones,  chaff-cutters,  oat  bruisers,  &c,  and,  above  all,  two  liquid 
manure  pumps. 

A  circular  brick  tank  is  sunk  in  the  ground,  as  near  the  engine  as 
convenient ;  the  sides  are  only  half-brick  thick,  set  in  cement,  with 
puddle  behind  ;  the  roof  is  domed  over.      Into  this  tank  is  led  all  the 

*  Artizan,  vol.  1850,  pp.80,  227.  For  expensesof  threshing  bysteam,  seepp.  46,  71,  and 
252,  vol.  1850. 


drainings  from  the  stables,  piggeries,  cow-houses,  &c,  and  anything  and 
everything  that  can  turn  into  manure.  The  contents  of  this  tank 
(which  Dickens  calls  "  the  stomach  of  the  farm")  are  stirred  up  by  a 
blast  of  air,  driven  through  a  perforated  pipe,  and  diluted  with  an  ample 
supply  of  water.  Pipes  are  laid  to  the  centre  of  each  field,  where  a 
stand-pipe  and  stop-valve  is  provided.  To  this  stand-pipe,  a  gutta 
percha  hose,  200  yards  in  length,  is  attached,  and  as  the  stream  is  deli- 
vered with  sufficient  force  to  carry  it  60  yards  more,  it  is  obvious  that 
each  stand-pipe  will  irrigate  an  area  of  520  yards  in  diameter. 

The  advantages  of  this  plan  are — First,  that  the  food  is  delivered  in 
such  a  state  that  the  plant  can  immediately  imbibe  it,  so  that  the  capital 
invested  in  the  manure  does  not  lie  idle  for  a  day.  Secondly,  the  mere 
irrigating  effect  of  the  water  is  very  advantageous.  Thirdly,  all  loss  of 
strength  in  the  manure,  from  keeping  it  in  heaps,  is  avoided.  Fourthly, 
the  labour  and  expense  of  carting  the  manure  out  is  saved,  and  the 
poaching  of  the  land  avoided.  As  to  its  effects,  the  cabbages,  mangel- 
wurzel,  &c,  speak  for  themselves;  the  former,  especially,  are  of  a 
size  and  solidity  which  is  perfectly  marvellous.  The  capital  sunk  in 
pipes  and  hose  is  about  £4  per  acre,  which,  rather  curiously,  comes  to 
almost  the  same  figure  as  at  Liscard  Farm  (vide  p.  106),  where  the  ex- 
pense for  serving  150  acres  is  £672.  Deducting  <£60  for  use  of  steam- 
engine,  we  have  just  about  £4  per  acre. 

(To  be  continued.) 

ARMAN'S  PATENT  SYSTEM  OF  SHIP-BUILDING. 

We  have  so  often  discussed  the  comparative  merits  of  wood  and  iron 
vessels,  that  we  need  not  now  reproduce  the  arguments  used  on  either 
side.-  In  spite  of  all  the  objections  urged  agairjst  them,  iron  vessels  are 
steadily  and  rapidly  increasing  in  number.  Their  corrosion,  and  the 
fouling  to  which  they  are  subject,  renders  their  use  less  advantageous 
in  tropical  climates  ;  and  it  has  therefore  beeu  proposed  to  sheath  them 
with  wood,  and  otherwise  to  use  a  combination  of  wood  and  iron,  which 
should  possess  the  advantages  of  both  materials,  and  the  evils  of 
neither.  Messrs.  Jordan  and  Getty,  of  Liverpool,  and  our  correspond- 
ent, Mr.  Poad  Drake,  have  both  patented  the  use  of  iron  ribs  and  wooden 
sheathing;  and  some  vessels  have  been  built  by  the  former  gentlemen. 
The  principle  has  been  still  further  carried  out  by  Messrs.  L.  Arman  and 
Co.,  of  Bordeaux,  whose  representative,  Mr.  J.  J.  Brunet,  of  the  Canal 
Iron-works  (Messrs.  Seaward  and  Co.'s),  London,  has  favoured  us  with 
a  description  of  their  plans,  from  which  we  extract  as  follows  : — 

Being  fully  impressed  with  the  above  important  facts,  Messrs.  L. 
Arman  and  Co.,  experienced  shipbuilders  of  Bordeaux,  have  brought 
forward  a  plan  for  the  construction  of  long  sharp  steam  vessels,  in  which 
they  extensively  employ  iron,  but  which,  they  confidently  believe,  is 
entirely  free  from  the  evils  above  pointed  out,  and  which,  nevertheless, 
combines  all  the  important  advantages  of  freedom  from  fouling,  the 
durability  of  the  ordinary  timber-built  vessels  (copper-fastened  and 
coppered),  with  the  strength,  rigidity,  and  comparative  lightness  of  iron- 
built  vessels.  The  plan,  in  fact,  unites  the  two  modes  of  building  ;  that 
is  to  say,  the  outside  part  of  the  vessel,  in  contact  with  the  water,  and 
exposed  to  the  weather,  is  a  timber-built  vessel,  while  internally  it  is  an 
iron  vessel.  For  instance,  in  a  vessel  built  on  this  plan,  a  framing  of 
timber  of  the  usual  form,  but  of  considerably  reduced  scantling,  is  pre- 
pared ;  on  the  outside  of  this  timber  frame  the  wood  planking  is  secured 
in  the  common  manner,  copper-fastened  or  coppered,  as  may  be  judged 
advisable ;  inside  the  timber  framing  is  introduced  a  second  framing  of 
iron,  the  ribs  of  which  are  formed  of  iron,  rolled  in  a  shape  somewhat 
like  the  letter  Z.  The  iron  ribs  are  not  placed  vertically,  but  diagonally, 
about  two  or  three  feet  apart,  crossing  the  first  framing  at  an  angle  of 
about  45°,  and  bolted  to  the  timber  frame  at  every  crossing,  something 
similar  to  the  plate-iron  riders  frequently  adopted  in  timber-built  ships. 
The  lower  ends  of  these  iron  ribs  are  continued  forward  or  aft,  so  as  to 


1852.] 


Arman' s  Patent  System  of  Shipbuilding. 


191 


connect  them  with  and  form  a  part  of  an  iron  kelson,  introduced  for 
that  purpose.  Iron  shelf-pieces,  clamps,  beams,  &c.,  &c,  are  also  used, 
as  in  iron-built  ships  ;  so  that,  in  fact,  the  inside  is,  to  all  intents,  an 
iron  vessel. 


Longitudinal  plate-iron  strakes  are  plated  or  riveted  to  the  inner 
surface  of  these  iron  ribs,  at  different  heights,  dividing  equally,  or  nearly 
so,  the  distance  between  the  under  part  of  the  beams  of  the  main  deck 
and  the  floor  timbers,  leaving  thereby  spaces  or  interstices  which  fully 
expose  to  view  both  the  iron  and  wood  framing,  as  also  the  inside  of  the 
wood  planking,  so  that  a  leak  may  be  easily  found  out  and  remedied, 
without  injuring  or  destroying  any  part  of  the  hull. 

To  prevent  any  portion  of  the  cargo  finding  its  way  into  these  inter- 
stices, they  may  be  covered  over  with  moveable  or  sliding  panels,  com- 
posed either  of  wood  and  iron. 

In  the  year  1851,  Messrs.  L.  Arman  and  Co.  built  on  this  plan  a 
steamer  of  120  horse  power— the  General  Castilla— -which  so  completely 
fulfilled  the  high  expectations  entertained  of  Mr.  L.  Arman's  new  mode 
pf  building,  that  the  French  Government  appointed  a  commission  to 
examine  this  new  construction,  and  report  thereon  ;  and  Mr.  Sabattier, 
a  naval  engineer,  expresses  himself  in  these  words,  addressed  to  M.  de 
Chasseloup-Laubat,  minister  of  the  naval  department : — 

"  The  hull  of  this  vessel  [General  Castilla]  is  lighter  than  that  of  any 
of  the  mail  packets  of  120  horse  power,  having  the  same  dimensions; 
and  M.  Arman  has  certainly  succeeded,  by  his  combination  of  wood  and 
iron  framings,  in  making  it  much  more  rigid  and  solid. 

"  The  draught,  here  annexed,  will  explain  clearly  the  system  adopted 
by  this  gentleman;  and  a  few  explanations  of  the  mode  of  construction 
of  the  said  vessel  will  show  all  the  advantages  of  his  plan.  Fig.  1  is  a 
transverse  section,  and  fig.  2  an  elevation  of  the  inside  of  the  vessel. 

"  The  timbers  of  packets  for  120  horse  power  are,  for  the  floors, 
moulded  6^  inches,  and  8|  sided,  and  4   X  G  inches  at  the  gunwale. 

"  Mr.  Arman  has  reduced  the  scantling  of  these  frames  to  4|  inches, 
from  the  floor  timber  to  the  gunwale. 


"  The  distance  between  the  timbers  is  6j  inches,  and  he  introduces 
alternately  a  pair  of  ribs,  and  then  two  single  ribs. 

"  When  his  timber  frame  is  formed,  he  brings  in  his  filling-in  pieces 
for  the  bottom,  bolts  the  frame  with  the  keel,  and  substitutes  for  the 
wooden  kelson  an  iron  kelson  of  nearly  13  in.  high,  and  nearly  half  an 
inch  thick. 

"This  kelson  is  fastened  to  the  timbers  by  rag-bolts,  and  to  the 
filling-in  pieces  by  fore-lock  bolts. 


Fig.  2. 


"  Then,  beginning  about  midships,  and  proceeding  fore  and  aft,  he 
crosses  this  timber  framing  by  a  second  framing  of  2|  double  angle-iron, 
a  a,  riveted  back  to  back,  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  Z,  extending  from 
the  under  part  of  the  deck  to  the  iron  kelson,  to  which  it  is  fastened,  and 
forming  the  sides  of  the  iron  kelson  aforesaid.  These  iron  ribs  are 
fastened  by  one  or  two  galvanised  iron  bolts  on  each  timber,  which 
they  cross  at  an  angle  of  about  45°,  and  clinched  on  the  outside. 

"  These  iron  ribs  are  4  ft.  ^  in.  apart,  and  between  and  parallel  to 
them,  a  light  wooden  piece  2|  X  5£,  b  b,  is  made  fast  on  each  of 
the  timbers. 

"  Iron  shelf-pieces  and  clamps,  c  c,  are  substituted  for  those  of  wood, 
and  fastened  to  the  framing,  as  done  in  iron  vessels. 

"  The  beams  are  of  iron  in  the  engine  room,  and  of  wood  towards 
each  end. 

"  The  engine  room  is  separated  from  the  other  parts  of  the  vessel  by 
iron  bulkheads,  fastened  to  the  timber  frame  by  angle-iron. 

"The  stiffness  of  the  vessel  is  also  increased  in  this  part  by  four  iron 
riders,  extending  from  the  main  beams  to  the  iron  bearers,  establishing 
thereby  a  connection  between  the  different  parts,  and  giving  to  the 
whole  a  great  solidity. 

"  The  engine  and  boiler  bearers  arc  of  plate  and  angle-iron  ;  fastened 
on  the  timber  framing,  with  bolts  clinched  outside,  previous!!/  to  the 
fastening  on  of  the  outside  planking. 

"  When  these  framings  are  properly  fastened,  as  well  as  the  engine 
bearers,  and  the  iron  riders  above  mentioned,  they  proceed  with  the 
outside  planking,  wales,  &c.,  which  are  copper-bolted  on  the  timber 
framing  only,  the  bolts  being  clinched  inside  as  usual. 

"  When  the  outside  planking  is  securely  fastened,  and  the  whole  has 
been  well  painted,  three  longitudinal  strakes  of  plate  iron  are  riveted 


192 


Cotton  Mechanism  and  its  Inventors. 


[September, 


on  the  inside  surface  of  the  iron  ribs,  dividing  equally,  or  nearly  so,  the 
distance  between  the  shelf-pieces  and  the  lower  floor-heads. 

"  Interstices  are  left  between  these  plate-iron  strakes,  which  fully 
expose  to  view  the  double  framing,  which  may  be  kept  in  order  and 
painted,  so  as  to  last  longer  than  usual. 

"  This  important  point  constitutes  one  of  the  greatest  advantages  of 
Mr.  Annan's  plan. 

"  The  engines  are  perfectly  steady  on  the  iron  bearers,  and  during  our 
trials  at  sea  not  the  smallest  vibration  or  play  could  be  discovered  in 
any  part  of  this  double-framed  vessel. 

"  We  may  therefore  say  that  this  plan  of  building  combines  all  the 
rigidity  and  solidity  of  iron-built  vessels,  with  all  the  advantages  of 
timber-built  ships. 

"  Repairs  of  all  sorts  will  present  less  difficulties  than  usual ;  and 
should  it  be  necessary  at  any  time  to  remove  any  of  the  iron  ribs,  coach 
screws  may  then  be  advantageously  used  in  refixing  them. 

"  In  conclusion,  we  may  say,  that  sea-going  vessels  built  according 
to  Mr.  Arman's  plan  are  lighter  and  stronger,  though  not  dearer,  than 
those  built  according  to  the  old  system.  It  is  therefore  most  important 
to  the  French  navy  that  a  trial  should  be  made,  and  that  one  of  the 
vessels  that  are  ordered  should  be  built  on  this  plan." 

The  Committee  for  Inquiries  in  Naval  Affairs,  who  had  also  received 
Mr.  Arman's  communication  upon  the  same  subject,  appointed  one  of 
their  members,  Mr.  Charner,  now  a  rear-admiral,  to  report  upon  theinfor- 
mation  forwarded  by  Mr.  Sabattier,  the  naval  engineer  above  mentioned. 
Mr.  Charner,  after  having  reported  in  favourable  terms  upon  the  de- 
scription entered  into  by  Mr.  Sabattier,  adds  : — ■ 

"  We  questioned  whether  a  vessel  constructed  on  this  plan  would  not 
run  the  greatest  dangers,  should  it  be  struck  by  a  shot  near  the  water- 
line  ;  and  whether  the  destructive  effects  on  the  double  wood  and  iron 
framing,  and  the  outside  planking,  would  not  cause  so  large  an  opening 
as  could  not  be  easily  stopped. 

"  Mr.  Arman's  answer  was,  that  the  iron  framing  might  be  then 
partly  torn  and  bent  by  the  shot;  but  as  the  outside  planking  was 
fastened  only  on  the  timber  framing,  and  quite  independent  of  the  iron 
ribs,  the  opening  through  the  side  would  not  be  larger  than  in  a  common 
timber-built  vessel. 

"  We  are  inclined  to  be  of  his  opinion." 

Mr.  Auriol,  naval  engineer,  subdirector  of  naval  constructions  at 
Rochefort,  also  reports  as  follows  : — 

"  The  plan  we  adopted  at  Rocheford,  under  the  direction  of  Mr. 
Hubert,  in  the  year  1840,  for  the  framing  of  the  steamer  the  Gomer, 
and  which  has  been  followed  ever  since  by  order  of  the  minister  for  the 
navy,  in  all  the  government  yards,  is  particularly  remarkable  for  the 
strength  imparted  to  these  steamers. 

"  The  Gomer,  for  instance,  ran  aground  three  times ;  and  remained 
several  hours  fretting  among  rocks.  When  set  afloat  again,  she  resumed 
her  long  voyage,  and  returned  to  Rocheford  the  following  year,  without 
the  smallest  leak,  and  without  any  change  of  form,  though  she  lost  part 
of  her  keel,  and  the  Avhole  of  her  false  keel. 

"  The  timbers  are  smaller  in  the  Gomer  and  other  steam  frigates 
than  those  previously  used  for  vessels  of  that  size  ;  therefore  her  solidity 
is  attributable  to  the  diagonal  planking  and  to  the  iron  riders  that  cross 
them  at  an  angle  of  45°. 

"The  weight  of  the  hull  is  equal  to  nearly  43  per  cent,  of  the  total 
displacement,  without  any  fittings,  and  46  per  cent,  with  all  her  fittings. 

"  A  shipwright  of  Bordeaux,  Mr.  Arman,  has  ventured  upon  a  bolder 
step,  in  the  construction  of  a  small  steamer  just  launched. 

"  This  steamer's  displacement  is  of  460  tons,  whereas  the  weight  of 
her  hull  is  only  160  tons  :  35  per  cent,  of  her  displacement,  viz. :— * 

*  The  General  Caslilta  was  a  vessel  of  a  very  limited  draught  of  water ;  in  large  vessels 
Mr.  Arman  has  succeeded  hy  his  new  mode  of  building  in  bringing  down  the  weight  of  the 
hull  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  total  displacement.  " 


'  Timber  framing    . . 
Outside  oak  planking 
Decks  and  fittings 
Plate  and  angle-iron 


60  tons. 
40     „ 
24     „ 
16     „ 


Total 160  tons. 

"This  vessel  is  nearly  153  feet  in  length  at  the  water  line. 

„  „        20  feet  9  in.  in  breadth  outside  the  planking 

„  „  9  feet  mean  draught  of  water. 

"  Beam  engines  and  common  flue  boilers. 
"  Engines  and  boilers  with  water. . 
Coal,  for  seven  days'  consumption 
Freight 

Masts,  spars,  and  spare  gear     . . 
Provisions 


Total 


140  tons. 

100     „ 

25     „ 

25     „ 

10     „ 

300  tons." 

Messrs.  Arman  and  Co.  have  already  built  the  Castilla  and  the 
Messager.  They  are  now  finishing  a  vessel  of  2,400  tons,  and  a  clip- 
per of  700  tons,  whilst  their  success  has  induced  the  French  Govern- 
ment to  build  the  corvette,  La  Me'gere,  of  220  horse  (auxiliary)  power. 
It  will  be  a  long  time,  we  suspect,  ere  our  Government  will  test  any 
plan  which  does  not  emanate  from  themselves ;  but  we  doubt  not  that 
private  enterprise  will  be  forthcoming  on  this,  as  on  all  other  occasions 
where  our  national  commerce  is  concerned. 


COTTON  MECHANISM  AND  ITS  INVENTORS. 

In  last  number  we  attributed  the  invention  of  the  "  Patent  Feeder  "  for 
carding  engines  and  blowers  to  Mr.  Mason,  who  had  furnished  us  with  a 
notice  of  it.  We  are  requested  to  state  that  the  inventor  was  John  George 
Bodmer,  Esq.,  the  eminent  machinist  from  Switzerland,  of  whom,  and  his 
numerous  ingenious  inventions,  our  readers  have  doubtless  heard.  We 
have  to  apologise  to  the  representatives  of  Mr.  Bodmer  still  in  this  country, 
for  the  mistake  we  have  made  in  this  matter;  it  must  be  attributed  entirely 
to  us,  not  to  Mr.  Mason,  who  merely  furnished  us  with  the  sketch,  presuming 
on  our  knowledge  of  its  inventor.  Mr.  Bodmer  brought  out  this  invention 
while  in  the  establishment  of  Mr.  Hugh  Birley,  of  Manchester. 

The"  Coder"  to  "carding  engines"  and  "  drawing  frames,"  is  the  in- 
vention of  Messrs.  Tatham  and  Cheetham,  of  Rochdale,  and  the  "  Consoli- 
dator,"  in  the  double-beater  lap  machine,  that  of  Mr.  William  Johnson,  of 
Farnworth,  near  Bolton.  The "  Plunger,"  that  of  Mr.  James  Hill,  of 
Stalybridge. 

New  Carding-Engine. — It  is  rumoured  in  Manchester,  that  five  gentle- 
men, of  whom  one  played  an  important  part  in  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1S51, 
have  purchased  the  patent  right  of  a  cotton  carding-engine,  for  the  sum  of 
£30,000,  each  subscribing  £6,000.  Our  readers  can  judge  of  the  importance 
of  any  cotton  machinery  from  this  fact  alone.  By  some,  the  inventor  may 
be  considered  very  fortunate  in  obtaining  such  a  sum  for  an  untried  inven- 
tion— at  least,  publicly  untried  ;  nevertheless,  he  may  be  thus  disposing  of  a 
handsome,  or  rather  a  colossal,  fortune,  compared  to  which,  the  sum  he  now 
obtains  may  be  but  a  "  mere  drop  in  the  bucket."  Any  machine  promising 
to  effect  a  saving  in  textile  productions  is  sure  to  meet  with  a  large  demand, 
and  if  judiciously  introduced,  the  demand  leads  to  fortune.  Not  a  few  have 
been  made  by  a  successful  invention  in  textile  machinery.  We  trust  that  an 
opportunity  may  soon  be  afforded  us  of  illustrating  this — apparently—  valu- 
able invention. 

Flax- Wool. — We  were  shown,  the  other  day,  what  appeared  to  us  to  be 
a  lot  of  wool  of  good  quality,  and  which,  we  believe  had  been  pronounced 
to  be  so  by  several  good  judges  in  the  trade  ;  and  right  well  astonished  were 
we  to  be  told  that  it  was  all  flax,  without  the  slightest  admixture  of  any 
other  fibrous  material.  If  this  production  can  be  easily  and  comparatively 
cheaply  manufactured,  it  is  sure  to  take  a  higher  place  in  the  rank  of  com- 
mercial speculations  than  the  celebrated  "flax-cotton."      There  is  too  little 


1852.] 


On  the  Use  of  Coal  in  Locomotives. 


193 


disparity  between  the  price  of  cotton  and  flax,  to  make  the  cotton— so-called 
— produced  from  the  latter  to  be  of  a  high  value  ;  not  so  with  wool, — it  is  a 
much  dearer  article  than  cotton,  and  likely,  from  our  Australian  gold  fever, 
to  be  still  more,  so  that,  if  this  new  material  can  be  successfully  introduced, 
we  can  see  very  clearly  that  a  large  and  speedily-made  fortune  awaits  the  ' 
fortunate  inventor,  if  he  has  it  properly  secured.  It  seemed  a  matter  hard 
to  be  believed  that  the  wool  we  saw  was  flax,  and  nothing  but  flax.  We 
may  anticipate  some  considerable  amount  of  "jerrying"  going  on  in  so- 
called  "  real  woollen  goods."  We  should  like  to  know  more  of  the  proper- 
ties of  this  capital  "imitation." 

Improvements  in  Bleaching. — We  understand  that  the  patentees  of  a 
new  system  of  bleaching  cotton  have,  after  a  long  series  of  elaborate  experi- 
ments, brought  their  machinery  to  such  a  state  of  perfection,  that  they  fully 
anticipate  to  commence  public  operations  very  shortly.  The  difficulties  in 
the  way  have  been  merely  mechanical ;  but  these,  through  the  ingenuity  of 
the  engineer,  who  is  carying  out  the  plan,  have  been  nearly,  if  not  quite,  sur- 
mounted. The  efficiency  of  the  plan  has  been  well  tested,  apart  from  those 
difficulties,  and  entirely  to  the  satisfaction  of  competent  authorities.  It  is 
expected  to  make  quite  a  revolution  in  a  certain  branch  of  trade.  We  have  J 
been  promised  illustrations  of  it  in  due  time. 

}' ! 

ON  THE  USE  OF  COAL  IN  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINES. 
The  expense  of  coking  the  coal  to  be  used  in  locomotives  adds  some- 
what to  the  working  expenses  of  railways,  and  if  any  system  could  be 
devised  to  remove  the  objections  to  the  use  of  raw  coal,  it  would,  in 
many  cases,  prove  of  advantage.  The  smoke  produced,  the  choking  of 
the  tubes,  and  the  deficiency  of  evaporating  power,  have  usually  been 
uroed  as  obstacles ;  to  which  may  be  added,  in  case  of  the  coal  con- 
taining sulphur,  the  rapid  deterioration  of  the  fire-box  and  tubes.  On 
the  other  hand,  many  countries  possess  coal  only  of  that  description  j 
which  will  not  coke,  and  they  must  either  use  it  raw  or  not  at  all.  The 
Northern  Railway  through  Bohemia  is  in  this  predicament,  and  the 
Austrian  government  in  1849-50  employed  a  commission  to  examine 
and  report  on  the  subject.  This  report,  which  has  appeared  in  Le  Genie 
Industriel,  presents  the  following  conclusions  : — 

1.  The  substitution  of  coal  or  lignite  for  wood  does  not  necessitate 
any  alteration  in  the  construction  of  the  boiler.  All  that  is  necessary 
is  to  regulate  the  admission  of  air,  either  by  employing  thicker  bars,  or 
by  covering  a  portion  of  the  grate  with  cast-iron  plates,  or  by  both 
plans  combined. 

2.  A  little  preliminary  instruction  and  good  will,  on  the  part  of  the 
engineers  and  stokers,  is  sufficient  to  make  them  acquainted  with  the 
best  method  of  managing  the  fire. 

3.  The  substitution  requires  no  change  in  the  service,  as  the  engines 
get  up  steam,  and  keep  it  as  well  as  with  wood. 

4.  Experience  has  entirely  dissipated  the  fear  of  the  tubes  choking. 

5.  With  judicious  management  the  smoke  is  not  abundant ;  scarcely 
visible  even,  except  immediately  after  firing. 

6.  The  commissioners  think  that  too  much  stress  has  been  laid  upon 
the  destructive  effect  of  the  coal  on  the  boiler.  The  locomotive  Moldau, 
on  which  they  experimented,  ran  2,400  kilometres,  or  450  miles. 

The  following  precautions  are  recommended  to  be  adopted  :— 

1.  The  coals,  and  above  all,  the  lignites,  require  to  be  properly  dried. 
The  desiccation  ought,  in  general,  to  be  carried  further,  as  the  coal  is 
more  impure.  The  water,  held  by  the  earthy  matters  which  the  coal 
contains,  is  very  hurtful,  not  only  by  the  absorption  of  heat  which  it 
occasions,  in  its  evaporation,  but  by  its  making  the  coal  cake  and  clog 
the  bars.  The  coal  stores  should  be  raised  to  protect  them  from  damp, 
and  should  be  raised  to  protect  them  from  the  sun  and  rain,  and  the  air 
should  circulate  freely  around  them.  With  these  precautions,  eight 
days  is  sufficient  to  render  them  dry  enough.  The  tenders  may  also  be 
covered  in  wet  weather. 

2.  The  small  should  be  picked  out,  and  the  large  reduced  to  pieces  a 


little  less  than  a  man's  fist.     The  trouble  will  be  well  repaid.     The 
small  may  be  used  for  lighting  the  fires,  or  for  stationary  engines. 

3.  The  thickness  of  coal  on  the  bars  should  be  3h  to  4  inches.  The 
coals  must  be  thrown  on  at  intervals  depending  on  the  steam  required; 
but  not  more  than  two  or  three  shovelsful  at  a  time. 

4.  The  proportion  which  the  area  for  the  admission  of  air  should 
bear  to  the  total  heating  surface,  should  be,  for  coal,  '0018,  and  for 
lignite  -00235. 

A  plan  was  proposed  some  years  since,  by  a  workman  at  the  central 
workshop  at  Malines,  for  a  locomotive  to  burn  coal,  and  which  was  also 
designed  to  superheat  the  steam.  For  this  purpose,  the  barrel  of  the 
boiler  was  entirely  filled  with  tubes,  divided  into  two  sets.  At  the  bot- 
tom of  the  barrel  one  large  tube  was  placed,  to  carry  the  flame  to  the 
smoke-box,  from  whence  it  returned  to  the  front  of  the  boiler  into  a 
smoke-box  (formed  by  placing  a  horizontal  water-space  over  the  fire- 
box), from  which  it  passed  to  the  back  of  the  boiler.  The  object  of 
the  large  tube  was  to  permit  the  deposition  of  coal  to  take  place  in  it, 
in  preference  to  allowing  it  to  choke  the  small  tubes.  It,  however, 
completely  destroyed  that  facility  of  cleaning  which  characterises  the 
ordinary  locomotive  boiler,  whilst  it  exaggerated  a  special  defect — the 
want  of  steam-room. 

Whilst  on  this  subject,  we  may  correct  an  erroneous  impression 
which  M.  Couche,  professor  of  the  Mining  School,  appears  to  enter- 
tain, or,  at  least,  we  gather  as  much  from  the  tenor  of  his  remarks. 
The  production  of  smoke  on  railways  is  forbidden  in  this  country  by  act 
of  Parliament;  and  it  is  only  therefore  on  a  few  lines  constructed  before 
the  passing  of  the  act,  that  the  use  of  coal  is  admissible,  under  any  cir- 
cumstances, excepting,  of  course,  a  perfect  smoke-burner  can  be  devised. 
We  remember,  when  on  the  Hayle  Railway,  in  West  Cornwall,  that  coal 
was  invariably  used,  and  the  smoke  appeared  to  be  "  drowned  "  by  the 
steam.  No  inconvenience  was  felt,  even  in  open  cariages,  at  the  moder- 
ate speed  (20  miles  an  hour  maximum)  employed,  nor  did  the  choking 
of  the  tubes  give  any  particular  trouble. 

It  appears  to  us  that,  to  make  an  efficient  coal-burner,  the  conditions 
of  the  furnace  must  be  approximated  as  nearly  as  possible  to  those  of 
an  ordinary  stationary  boiler.  This  means  that  slower  combustion,  and, 
consequently,  larger  fire-grate  surface,  must  be  adopted  than  for  coke. 
This  enlargement  would  also  have  the  effect  of  mitigating  the  back 
pressure  on  the  piston,  by  reducing  the  power  of  the  blast  necessary 
to  maintain  combustion.  By  dividing  the  fire-box  by  a  water-space 
fere  and  aft,  a  double  furnace  would  be  formed,  which,  if  fired  either 
side  alternately,  would  also  mitigate  the  smoke  nuisance.  We  may 
refer  on  this  point  to  Mr.  Zerah  Colbum's  remarks  on  the  use  of  coal 
in  American  locomotives,  ante  p.  117- 


WILLSON'S  PATENT  COMPOUND  RAIL. 

The  number  of  plans  in' use  for  the  permanent  way  of  railways  indi- 
cates pretty  clearly  that  an  extended  experience  has  not  yet  enabled 
engineers  to  decide  which  plan  combines  the  greatest  number  of  advan- 
tages. At  p.  147,  vol.  1851,  we  have  described  all  the  leading  varieties 
in  use  in  this  country :  and  we  have  now  to  call  attention  to  one  of 
American  introduction.  The  engravings  show  four  different  arrange- 
ments, on  Mr.  Willson's  patent  principle,  which  consists  in  rolling  the 
rail  in  two  pieces,  and  then  riveting  them  together,  breaking  joint  in 
the  middle  of  each.  A  very  perfect  "  fish-joint"  is  thus  obtained, 
with  greater  facility  for  rolling  the  rails.  By  rolling  them  so  as  to  form 
a  hollow  rail,  great  stiffness  may  be  obtained,  with  a  diminution  of  the 
weight. 

The  following  report,  by  R.  G.  Benedict,  C.  E.,  has  led  the  Great 
Western  Company  of  Canada  to  adopt  the  compound  rail  for  the  whole 
line,  and  a  contract  to  that  effect  has  been  entered  into  with  the  Ebbw 
Vale  Iron  Company,  in  Wales. 


194 


Willsons  Patent  Compound  Rail. 


[September, 


The  following  are  the  more  important  parts  of  the  report  :— 
"  It  is  asserted  that  the  advantages  of  the  compound  rail  over  the  or- 
dinary T  or  H  rail  are,  that  it  has  no  cross  joint,  and,  as  a  consequence, 


cannot  settle  thereat,  but  preserves  an  even  and  uniform  surface,  over 
which  the  engines  and  cars  pass  without  any  of  that  deafening  noise 
or  disagreeable  jarring  motion  incident  to  the  use  of  the  T  rail,  reducing 
thereby  much  of  the  wear  and  tear  of  rails  and  machinery ;  that  no 
chairs,  clamps,  or  other  contrivances  are  required  for  securing  the  ends 
or  joints  of  the  bars ;  that  a  saving  of  three-fourths  of  the  cost  of  keep- 
ing the  track  in  adjustment  is  realised;  that  the  bearing-surface  of  the 
wheels  is  greater;  that  higher  speed  can  be  maintained  with  the  same 
power,  much  less  noise,  and  with  far  greater  safety  ;  and  that  ten  per 
cent.  ,of  power  is  saved  in  pulling  loads  of  equal  weight. 

"This  rail  is  now  in  use  upon  the  New  York  and  Erie,  Hudson  River, 
Philadelphia  and  Reading,  Utica  and  Schenectady,  Syracuse  and  Utica, 
Buffalo  and  Rochester,  and  the  Michigan  Central  Railroads,  and  is 
about  to  be  laid  upon  several  roads  now  being  constructed. 

"There  are  ten  miles  of  it  laid  upon  the  Utica  and  Schenectady  Rail- 
road, which  has  been  in  use  for  one  year,  passing  upon  the  average  six  or 
seven  trains  daily.  This  rail  is  not  of  the  improved  pattern,  but  of  its 
performance  I  refer  ypu  to  Mr.  Vibbard's  letter  of  March  1st,  1851. 

"  I  passed  over  this  rail  on  the  10th  inst.,  in  a  hand-car,  stopping  at 
various  points  to„sjxamine  it,  and  found  that,  notwitstanding  the  service 
it  had  performed,  it  had  kept  its  adjustment  admirably  ;  and  the  track- 
master  informed  me  that  he  was  never  troubled  to  look  after  it. 

"  The  Hudson  River  Railroad  Company  have  five  miles  of  the  com- 
pound rail  laid  upon  their  road  between  Pokeepsie  and  Hyde  Park. 
This  rail  is  of  the  latest  improved  form,  and  gives  the  most  entire  satis- 
faction. I  was  informed  by  Mr.  Higham,  the  superintendent,  that  they 
had  not  expended  a  dollar  for  repairs  upon  the  portion  of  the  line  where 
this  rail  was  used,  although  the  T  rail,  at  both  ends  of  it,  required  a 
force  constantly  upon  it  to  raise  track  at  the  joints.  The  Hudson  River 
Railroad  Company  have  ordered  an  additional  quantity  of  four  miles  to 
lay  upon  their  long  bridges,  not  considering  the  old  rail  safe  at  high 
rates  of  speed;  and  this  fact  alone  is  the  strongest  evidence  in  favour 
of  the  rail,  as  the  president  of  that  road,  Mr.  Wm.  C.  Young,  has, 
heretofore,  refused  to  recognise  the  superiority  of  the  rail  until  it  had 
been  tested  by  the  life-time  of  ordinary  rails.  In  my  last  interview  with 
him,  he  expressed  himself  decidedly  in  favour  of  the  rail  with  its 
present  improvements. 

"The  Philadelphia  and  Reading  Railroad  Company  have  about  three 
miles  of  the  compound  rail  in  use  upon  their  road ;  one  mile  and  a  half 
between  the  Schuylkill  and  the  Delaware  Rivers,  and  a  like  amount 
at  the  Neversink  Hills  curve,  near  Reading.  These  two  points  are  sup- 
posed to  be  the  hardest  trials  that  a  rail  can  undergo;  as  I  am  informed 
by  Mr.  Steele,  superintendent  of  the  road,  that  rails  ordinarily  last  but 


four  years  at  either  place.  In  both  cases  the  rail  is  laid  upon  theloaded 
track ;  that  between  the  Schuylkill  and  the  Delaware  being  upon  an 
ascending  grade  of  45  feet  to  a  mile,  where  an  assistant  engine  is 
used  to  help  the  train  up ;  at  this  place  the  rail  has  been  laid  four 
months,  and  has  passed  700,000  tons  of  coal,  and  more  than  4,000 
locomotives. 

"  I  passed  over  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  Railroad  on  the  1 7th 
instant  with  Mr.  Steele,  who  informed  me  that  the  rail  remained  to  all 
appearance  the  same  as  when  laid  down,  with  the  exception  of  three 
or  four  bars  which  were  badly  manufactured.  The  mile  and  one  half 
of  the  rail  at  the  Neversink  Hills,  near  Reading,  has  been  laid  down 
between  two  and  three  months,  and  has  passed  between  3  and  400,000 
tons  of  coal,  and  1,500  locomotives.  This  rail  is  also  laid  at  one  of  the 
most  trying  points  on  the  road,  it  being  on  a  curve  of  700  feet  radius, 
and  on  a  grade  where  the  heavy  descending  coal  trains  acquire  their 
greatest  speed.  At  this  place  the  rail  shows  the  greatest  iuear,  but  does 
not  give  evidence  of  any  weak  points,  having  retained  its  position  in 
the  curve  without  the  least  variation  the  whole  distance.  I  was  accom- 
panied over  this  portion  of  the  track  by  Mr.  Nicoll,  the  engineer  of  the 
road,  and  Mr.  Millholland,  the  master  machinist,  who  both  testify  to  the 
safety  of  the  rail,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  is  kept  in  repair. 

"Before  leaving  for  the  East,  I  addressed  a  letter  to  Mr.  J.  W.  Brooks, 
of  the  Michigan  Central  Railroad,  on  the  subject,  and  herewith  beg 
leave  to  lay  before  you  a  copy  of  his  answer ;  it  completely  covers  the 
whole  ground,  and  it  is  useless  for  me  to  occupy  your  time  in  repeating 
the  same  arguments  used  by  him  in  its  favour;  I  believe  with  him  that 
the  adoption  of  the  compound  rail  by  the  Great  Western  Railroad  Com- 
pany will  put  them  in  a  position  to  run  their  road  an  hour  quicker  from 
river  to  river  (228  miles),  and  with  much  more  safety  than  with  the 
most  improved  form  of  T  rail ;  and  that,  after  the  track  is  ballasted 
and  settled,  the  expenses  for  repairs  of  way,  usually  so  heavy  an  item, 
will  be  reduced  nearly  three-fourths. 

"  In  addition  to  this,  must  be  added  the  saving  in  the  wear  and  tear 
of  machinery,  the  saving  of  fuel,  and  the  increased  receipts  from  busi- 
ness drawn  upon  the  road,  in  consequence  of  the  speed  and  regularity 
attained  by  the  adoption  of  this  rail ;  items  that,  in  themselves,  go  far 
towards  swelling  the  profits  of  railroads. 

"There  is  not  a  doubt,  however,  in  my  own  mind  on  the  subject,  as  I 
conceive  the  trial  it  has  had  on  the  Reading  Railroad  equal  to  at  least 
five  years'  wear  of  it  on  the  Great  Western;  and  the  rail  is  in  good  order 
and  likely  to  last  out  the  ordinary  life-time  of  bars  used  in  the  same 
place ;  and  I  therefore  recommend  the  adoption  of  the  compound  rail 
for  the  Great  Western  Railroad  Company." 

The  following  further  account  of  an  experience  of  this  rail  on  the 
Philadelphia  and  Reading  railway,  is  given  by  J.  D.  Steele,  C.  E. 

"  The  advantages  to  be  looked  for  from  the  general  principle  of  com- 
pounding rails  are  fully  set  forth  in  Mr.  Latrobe's  pamphlet  on  the 
subject ;  extracts  from  which  will  be  found  in  Mr.  Winslow's  late  cir- 
cular, and  they  need  not  be  repeated  by  me.  The  question  as  to  their 
success  or  otherwise  has  turned  on  the  capacity  of  the  rivets  to  hold  the 
parts  together  ;  if  it  should  prove  that  they  are  sufficient,  or  can  at  any 
reasonable  cost  be  made  so,  all  admit  the  advantages  of  this  principle  ; 
and  if,  on  the  other  hand,  they  fail,  as  little  doubt  exists  among  prac- 
tical men  as  to  the  necessity  of  rejecting  it.  The  experience  on  the 
Philadelphia  and  Reading  Railroad  does  not  thus  far  indicate  any  pro- 
bability of  such  a  failure  ;  the  two  sections  in  use  are  on  the  loaded  car 
track,  and  each  about  li  miles  in  length;  the  first  is  on  the  steep  grades 
between  the  Schuylkill  and  Delaware,  which,  from  the  employment  of  an 
assistant  engine  upon  it,  is  found  to  be  the  hardest  part  of  our  road  on 
iron.  It  has  been  in  use  three  months,  and  has  passed  about  430,000  tons 
of  coal,  and  seems  in  as  good  condition  as  when  it  was  first  put  down  ; 
one  rivet  only  has  failed,  which  was  in  the  middle  of  a  bar,  where  there 
was  no  strain  on  it,  and  was  evidently  defective  when  put  in.  The 
second  section  is  on  the  sharp  curvature  round  Neversink  Hill,  near 
Reading,  where  a  descending  grade  in  the  direction  of  the  trade  enables 
the  coal  trains  to  attain  an  unusual  speed.  It  has  been  in  use  one  month, 
has  passed  153,000  tons  of  coal,  and  is  also  in  a  very  fine  condition, 
having  lost  one  rivet  only,  under  circumstances  precisely  similar  to  that 
,  already  stated,  all  the  other  rivets  remaining  perfectly  good,  without 
apparently  having  been  subjected  to  any  material  strain." 


1852.] 


Grimes'  Steam  and  Water  Indicator. 


195 


GRIMES'  STEAM  AND  WATER  INDICATOR. 

The  Committee  on  Science  and  the  Arts,  constituted  by  the  Franklin  Institute  of  the  State 
of  Pennsylvania  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Mechanic  Arts,  to  whom  was  referred  for  exa- 
mination a  •'  Steam  and  Water  Indicator,"  invented  by  W'm.  C.  Grimes,  of  Philadelphia, 
Penna.— Report  : — 

That  the  instrument  of  Mr.  Grimes,  which  is  intended  to  indicate 
continually  the  height  of  the  water  and  pressure  of  the  steam  in  a 
boiler,  at  any  required  place  at  whatever  distance  from  the  boiler,  con- 
sists in  two  metallic  tubes,  which  are  inserted,  the  one  into  the  steam 
space,  the  other  into  the  lower  part  of  the  water  space,  of  the  boiler, 
and  extend  from  the  boiler  to  the  place  at  which  the  indications  are  re- 
quired to  be  made,  where  the  ends  of  the  tubes  are  brought  side  by  side 
and  connected  together  by  a  bent  glass  tube,  one  end  of  which  enters 
each  of  the  metallic  tubes.  In  the  simplest  form  (which  is  described 
for  the  purpose  of  explaining  most  simply  the  theory  of  the  apparatus), 
the  tube  connected  with  the  steam  space  (which  may  be  called  the 
upper  tube)  enters  the  boiler  at  the  water  line  and  runs  for  some  dis- 
tance horizontally,  or  a  little  inclined  downwards,  when  it  again  bends 
downwards  for  some  inches,  and  then  runs  in  any  convenient  direction 
to  the  glass  tube.  The  object  of  this  arrangement  is  to  allow  the  steam 
to  condense  in  this  part  of  the  tube,  and  to  keep  the  water  which  fills  it 
always  at  the  proper  water  level  of  the  boiler.  Each  of  the  tubes  is 
provided  with  a  stop-cock  near  the  boiler,  and  on  each  of  them  imme- 
diately below  the  glass  tube  there  is  a  small  hole  (called  by  Mr.  Grimes 
the  air-hole),  which  may  be  closed  by  a  screw.  In  order  to  put  the 
apparatus  in  working  order,  the  boiler  is  filled  to  above  the  water  line, 
the  stop-cocks  of  the  tubes  being  closed,  and  a  small  pressure  of  steam 
raised  ;  the  stop-cock  of  the  upper  tube  being  then  opened  a  little,  the 
water  will  enter  the  tube,  and  expelling  the  air  before  it  through  the 
air-hole,  will  finally  begin  to  run  through  this  hole ;  the  stop-cock  of 
the  upper  tube  is  then  closed,  and  the  plug  of  the  air-hole  screwed  in. 
The  lower  tube  is  then  filled  with  water  in  a  similar  manner.  The  ap- 
paratus then  contains  water  in  the  metallic  tubes,  and  air  in  the  glass 
tube  or  gauge.  If  now  the  stop-cocks  on  the  tubes  be  opened,  and  the 
pressure  of  the  steam  increased,  the  air  in  the  gauge  will  be  compressed 
proportionably,  and  the  water  will  rise  to  an  equal  height  in  each  branch 
of  the  tube  ;  in  this  way  the  gauge  may  be  graduated  by  direct  experi- 
ment. But  the  fall  of  the  water  level  in  the  boiler  will  cause  the  level 
to  fall  also  in  that  branch  of  the  gauge  which  communicates  with  the 
lower  tube  (that  is,  the  tube  opening  near  the  bottom  of  the  water  space 
of  the  boiler),  and  this  will  cause  the  water  to  rise  in  the  opposite 
branch  of  the  gauge,  in  consequence  of  the  necessity  of  the  column  of 
air  retaining  its  bulk.  While,  therefore,  the  pressure  of  steam  in  the 
boiler  is  indicated  by  the  mean  height  of  the  columns  in  the  gauge,  the 
fall  of  the  water  below  its  adjusted  level  will  be  indicated  by  the  differ- 
ence'of  the  height  of  these  two  columns,  provided  the  level  of  the  water 
in  the  boiler  end  of  the  upper  tube  be  maintained  constant. 

In  practice  this  construction  is  modified  by  the  introduction  of  an- 
other vertical  tube,  connecting  the  end  of  the  upper  and  lower  tubes 
near  the  boiler.  The  upper  tube  is  then  inserted  into  the  steam  space 
of  the  boiler,  and  it  leaves  the  connecting  tube  at  the  proper  water 
level,  when  it  runs,  as  before  described;  in  this  way  there  will  be  left 
but  a  small  portion  of  the  upper  tube  to  be  filled  by  the  condensed 
steam.  The  lower  tube  is  also  provided  with  a  blow-off  cock  between 
the  boiler  and  the  stop-cock  before  described,  to  prevent  this  tube  from 
being  choked  by  sediment.  The  level  of  the  water  in  the  gauge  is  in- 
dicated by  a  floating  glass  tube,  coloured  and  graduated  in  the  inside, 
and  closed  in  the  leg  communicating  with  the  upper  tube,  while  a  glass 
ball  floats  on  the  surface  in  the  other  leg.  The  difference  in  the  levels 
of  the  water  columns  is  then  indicated  by  the  position  of  this  ball  on 
the  graduated  scale  of  the  glass  tube  in  the  other  leg. 

The  indicator  thus  described  has  been  for  some  time  in  operation  in 
several  steam  boilers  in  our  city— especially  in  the  boiler  at  the  office 


of  the  Public  Ledger,  where  the  gauge  is  brought  up  into  the  office, 
and  may  be  seen  constantly  in  action;  and,  so  far  as  the  committee 
can  learn,  they  appear  to  have  given  satisfaction. 

The  committee  regard  the  invention  of  Mr.  Grimes  as  a  very  in- 
genious one,  and  as  fulfilling  a  very  desirable  purpose,  that  of  indicating 
the  steam  pressure  and  water  level  of  a  boiler  in  the  office  of  the  ma- 
nager of  the  establishment.  They  think  that  it  will  require  an  experi- 
ence of  some  time  to  ascertain  satisfactorily  that  the  water  level  of  the 
boiler  and  of  the  tube  connected  with  the  steam  space  can  be  kept  con- 
stant by  the  condensation  of  the  steam,  but  they  see  no  other  practical 
objection  to  the  instrument,  which  appears  so  far  to  have  given  satis- 
faction in  practice.  And  as  they  believe  that  it  will  be  found  to  be  use- 
ful in  engineering,  and,  so  far  as  they  know,  new,  they  recommend  that 
Mr.  Grimes  receive  the  Scott's  Legacy  Medal  for  his  invention. 
By  order  of  the  committee, 

William  Hamilton,  Actuary. 
Philadelphia,  July  12,  1851. 

The  figures  represent  two  forms  of  the  instrument,  together  with  an 
illustration  of  the  principle  upon  which  they  act. 

The  same  letters  refer  to  like  parts. 

A,  is  the  boiler;  a,  reservoir  of  water ;  B  B,  metallic  tubes ;  C  C, 
legs  to  the  glass  syphon  ;  D  D,  the  stop-cocks ;  E  E,  are  screws  closing 

Fig.  1.  Fig.  3.  Fig.  2. 


196 


Comparative  Cost  of  Water  and  Steam  Power  in  the  United  States.  [September, 


apertures  in  the  tubes,  which  are  to  allow  the  air  to  escape  as  the  tubes 
fill  with  water  or  other  fluid.  F  F,  in  fig.  1,  are  reservoirs  for  contain- 
ing quicksilver,  or  other  dense  fluid  ;  the  tubes,  B  B,  both  from  above 
and  below,  extending  into  the  reservoirs  nearly  to  the  opposite  end  of 
the  same ;  G  G,  small  screws  closing  apertures  in  the  upper  ends  of 
the  reservoirs,  through  which  they  are  filled,  and  through  which  the  air 
escapes  as  the  tubes  below  fill  with  water;  H  H  are  screws  closing 
apertures  in  the  tubes,  B  B,  between  the  reservoirs,  and  the  glass 
through  which  all  the  air  is  allowed  to  escape  up  to  that  point.  I  I,  in 
fig.  2,  is  a  wooden  case,  inclosing  the  glass  of  the  syphon ;  J  J,  high 
coloured  glass  floats,  to  render  more  visible  the  tops  of  the  columns  of 
water  that  rise  in  the  syphon.  An  elastic  fluid  fills  the  space  above  the 
floats.     K  K,  graduated  scale  plates. 

Fig.  3  represents  a  glass  syphon,  with  the  ends  of  the  legs  in  the 
cups,  L  L,  of  water,  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  principle  of  the 
instrument.  If  the  syphon  is  nearly  filled  with  water,  with  a  small 
portion  of  air  above,  as  represented  at  N,  and  one  of  the  cups  be  raised 
or  lowered,  a  corresponding  movement  will  take  place  at  the  tops  of  the 
columns  of  wajer.  Or  if  a  quantity  of  some  fluid  more  dense  than 
water  (quicksilver  for  instance)  is  placed  in  the  bend  at  M,  and  the 
rest  of  the  syphon  filled  with  water,  then  the  movement  of  the  cups 
up  or  down  will  cause  a  corresponding  movement  of  the  fluids  in  the 
syphon,  but  in  a  degree  diminished  in  proportion  to  the  density  of  the 
fluid  in  the  bend. 

COMPARATIVE  COST  OF  WATER  AND  STEAM  POWER  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES. 

By  C.  E.  Leonard,  New  York. 

It  is  not  our  intention  at  present  to  endeavour  to  point  out  those 
local  advantages  which  may  be  derived  from  the  use  of  water  or  steam 
power  in  any  particular  location.  Our  investigations  will  be  confined 
to  those  elements  in  this  problem  which  are  purely  mechanical ;  this 
will  be  the  kind  of  information  which  we  apprehend  the  capitalist 
requires. 

We  will  first  ascertain  the  usual  expense  of  horse  power  for  running 
the  steam  engine.  We  will  select  a  20-horse  power  for  a  medium  of 
the  small  class  of  engines,  and  200-horse  for  a  medium  of  the  largest 
class  of  land  engines.  It  is  not,  perhaps,  generally  known  that  the 
largest  class  engines  produce  power  at  a  much  cheaper  rate  than  those 
of  the  smallest  size  ;  this  being  the  case,  it  will  be  necessary  for  us  to 
present  two  sets  of  calculations,  one  for  each  class.  A  20-horse  may 
be  considered  a  good  medium  for  the  small  class,  and  200-horse  for  the 
larger  denomination. 

It  will  be  shown  in  the  articles  on  steam  power  that  it  will  require  a 
12-inch  cylinder  engine  to  give  20-horse  power.  In  this  case  the  pres- 
sure of  the  steam  in  the  boiler  will  be  about  60  lbs,  per  inch,  and  the 
supply  of  steam  to  be  cut  off  at  about  half  of  the  stroke. 

The  ordinary  consumption  of  coarse  anthracite  coal  of  an  engine  of 
this  size,  when  working  under  the  circumstances  we  have  named,  is 
about  five-fourths  of  a  ton  for  each  10  hours.  This  kind  of  coal  is 
generally  worth  from  3J  to  4  dollars  per  ton,  delivered  at  the  boilers — 
say  4  dollars. 

It  will  not  require  but  one  person  to  attend  to  the  engine  and  boilers, 
whose  wages  will  be  about  9  dollars  per  week.  The  small  current  ex- 
penses, such  as  oil,  packing,  &c,  will  amount  to  about  2  dollars  per 
week. 

The  cost  of  running  the  engine   per  week   will  be    expressed    as 
follows : — 

Coal  per  week,  5  tons  at  4  dollars  . .  . .  20  dollars. 

Engineer        . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .        9   „ 

Current  expenses      . .  . .  . .  . .  . .        2   „ 


Cost  to  run  the  engine  per  week 


31  dollars. 


This  divided  by  20  gives  l-55  dollars  the  cost  per  horse  power  per 
week,  or  26  cents,  per  10  hours  per  horse  power.     This  result  may  be 
considered  a  fair  average  cost  of  power  produced  from  the  small  class 
of  engines. 

We  will  now  give  an  estimate  on  a  condensing  engine  of  200  horse 
power.      It  will  be  shown  in  the  articles  on  steam  power  that   two 
30-inch  cylinders  will  yield  this   power,   the  supply  of  steam  being 
cut  off  between  ^  and  -|  stroke,  and  the  pressure  of  the  steam  in  the 
boiler  being  from  40  to  50  pounds,  or  about  45  pounds  per  inch.     It 
will  also  be  shown  that  such  engines  working  under  these  conditions 
will  consume  about  4  tons  per  10  hours.     This  engine  will  require  the 
services  of  an  engineer,  fireman,  and  a  labourer.     The  current  expense 
of  oil,  packing,  &c,  will  be  about  5  dollars  per  week. 

The  cost  of  running  this  engine  per  week  will  be  expressed  as  follows  : 
Coal  per  week,  24  tons,  at  4  dollars  . .        96  dollars. 

Engineer       . .  . .  . .  . .  . .        12       „ 

Fireman        . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  6       „ 

Labourer       . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  5       „ 

Current  expenses     . .  . .  . .  . .  5       „ 

124  dollars. 
This,  divided  by  200,  gives  62  cents  per  horse  per  week,  or  10  cents 
nearly  per  10  hours,  or  less  than  half  of  the  20-horse  engine. 

The  theory  or  reason  of  this  great  disparity  will  be  duly  explained  in 
the  articles  on  steam  power,  which  will  be  presented  in  some  future 
number. 

The  cost  of  running  each  of  these  engines  per  year  will  be — 
312  312 

20-00  5-20 


6240-00  1622-40 

that  is,  6,240  dollars  for  200-horse,  and  1,622  dollars  for  the  20-horse. 

Water-Power. — Water  companies  generally  rent  their  power  at  a 
stipulated  sum  per  foot  under  a  given  head,  and  with  a  certain  fall. 

The  term  "  head  "  refers  to  the  distance  from  the  level  of  the  water 
in  the  flume  to  centre  of  the  opening  of  the  gate,  when  the  gate  is 
hoisted  to  its  proper  height.  The  term  "fall  "  is  equal  to  the  distance 
from  the  centre  of  the  opening  of  the  gate  to  the  level  of  the  water  in 
the  race  below  the  wheel. 

The  term  "  per  foot  "  refers  to  the  area  of  the  opening  of  the  gate  ; 
thus,  if  a  gate  is  12  feet  in  length,  and  is  hoisted  4  inches,  then  the 
area  of  the  opening  would  be  12  feet  by  4  inches,  or  4  feet  area.  In 
this  case,  there  would  be  4  feet  of  water  in  use. 

At  present,  we  shall  not  have  room  to  compare  the  cost  of  steam 
power  with  but  one  of  the  various  water  companies  which  we  could 
select.     We  shall,  however,  continue  the  subject  in  some  future  number. 

For  a  comparison,  at  present  we  will  select  the  water  power  at  Pater- 
son,  N.  J. 

The  whole  fall  on  some  of  the  sites  is  21  feet,  and  the  head  about  2i 
feet.  We  have  first  to  ascertain  how  many  feet  on  a  fall  of  21  feet  will 
be  required  to  give  20-horse  power.  This  fall  will  allow  an  overshot 
wheel  about  18  feet  in  diameter. 

We  find,  in  our  articles  on  water  power,  that,  to  produce  20-horse 
power  on  this  fall,  it  will  require  12  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second. 
We  must  now  ascertain  how  many  feet  will  be  required  to  allow  12  cubic 
feet  to  pass  per  second. 

The  velocity  of  the  water  under  this  head  is  determined  by  the  fol- 
lowing rule : — 

Square-root  of  2J  (the  head)  =  1.58 
Constant  number  =  5-6 

8  S  feet  velocity 
of  the  water  under  this  head.    (This  rule  will  be  explained  in  the  articles 
on  water  power.) 


18.52.] 


Manufacture  of  Stearic  Candles. 


197 


Now,  if  12  is  divided  by  88,  the  result  will  give  1^  feet  area  of  gate  ; 
and   if  the  cost  of  steam  power  per  year  is  divided  by  this  result, 
we  shall  have  the  value  of  the  water  power  per  foot;  thus  :  — 
1-363 )  162240 

1191  dollars. 
The  value  of  a  foot  of  water,  therefore,  on  a  total  fall  of  21  feet,  when 
compared  with  the  cost  of  power  derived  from  an  engine  of  20-horse,  is 
worth  1,191  dollars  per  year. 

We  will  now  compare  the  cost  with  that  of  the  large  engine  of  200- 
horse. 

It  will  be  shown,  in  the  articles  on  water  power,  that  the  area  of 
the  gate  will  vary  directly  as  the  quantity  of  water  discharged.  The 
area  of  the  gate,  therefore,  for  200-horse  power  must  be  deduced  as 
follows  : — 

20     :     1363     ::     200     :    a 
200 


20 )  272-600 


13-63,  or  about  13|  feet, 
number  of  feet  required  for  200-horse  power.     The  price  per  foot  will  be 
13-6)6240 

458  dollars  per  foot. 

The  expense  of  the  power  produced  by  a  20-horse  engine  was  1,191 
dollars  per  foot.  The  price  of  water  power  at  Paterson  is  500  dollars 
per  foot. 

From  these  results  we  see  that  steam  cannot  compete  with  water 
power  at  Paterson,  unless  it  is  established  on  an  extended  scale.  If  an 
/establishment  was  to  be  put  in  operation,  which  would  require  some 
150  to  200  horse  power  to  propel  it,  it  would  probably  be  the  most 
economical  to  use  steam  power.  As  water  power  is  now  divided  up  in 
Paterson,  we  do  not  think  that  steam  could  be  substituted  for  less 
than  the  equivalent  of  1,100  dollars  per  foot,  or  about  double  of  what 
it  now  costs. 

[In  the  foregoing  calculation,  no  account  is  taken  of  the  interest  on 
the  capital  sunk  in  the  engine,  boiler,  setting,  chimney,  &c,  which 
forms  an  important  item  in  the  annual  cost.  Nor  is  anything  allowed 
for  repairs  and  replacement.  On  the  other  hand,  nothing  is  said  as  to 
the  cost  of  the  water-wheel.  In  estimating  the  horse  power,  it  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  an  approximation  to  the  indicated  power  is 
spoken  of. — Ed.  Artizan.~\ 

MANUFACTURE  OF  STEARIC  CANDLES.* 
The  foundation  upon  which  the  manufacture  of  stearic  acid  candles  is 
based  is  the  saponification  of  fats,  and  the  separation  of  the  fatty  acids 
from  the  soaps,  which  the  beautiful  researches  of  Chevreul  have  made 
known  to  us.  It  would,  however,  be  an  error  to  suppose  that  these 
investigations  alone  solved  the  difficulty.  Seven  years,  in  fact,  elapsed, 
after  the  publication  of  ChevreuPs  discoveries,  before  they  were  suc- 
cessfully applied  ;  but  this  can  be  a  matter  of  no  surprise  to  those 
familiar  with  the  establishment  of  a  new  industry,  and  who  are  aware 
of  the  immense  chasm  which  separates  the  laboratory  of  the  chemist 
from  the  workshop  of  the  manufacturer ;  they  only  can  comprehend 
fully  the  obstacles  of  all  kinds  that  must  be  vanquished  in  order  to 
fructify  a  purely  scientific  germ,  and  render  it  a  healthy  and  vigorous 
branch  of  art. 

The  first  steps  in  the  manufacture  of  stearic  candles  were  surrounded 
by  difficulties  of  all  kinds,  which  frequently  clouded  the  prospects  of  the 
enterprising  inventors.  ChevreuPs  experiments  were  published  as  early 
as  1823,  but  the  idea  of  making  candles  from  the  isolated  fatty  acids  does 

*  Report  of  the  Jury  of  the  Great  Exhibition. 


not  appear  to  have  been  matured  until  two  years  later.  At  this  period 
Chevreul  allied  himself  with  his  celebrated  colleague  Gay-Lussac,  with 
the  intention  of  applying  his  discoveries  to  the  practical  purposes  of  life. 
In  the  year  1825,  these  two  chemists  took  out  a  patent  in  France  for 
the  manufacture  of  fatty  acids  and  their  application  to  the  making  of 
candles.  Gay-Lussac  took  out,  moreover,  a  patent  in  England,  in  the 
name  of  his  agent,  Moses  Poole,  on  the  9th  of  June  of  the  same  year. 
The  specification  of  these  patents  is  highly  interesting,  as  evincing  a 
remarkable  sagacity,  on  the  part  of  the  patentees,  in  anticipating  the 
progress  of  this  branch  of  industry;  they  call  in  aid  all  the  agents 
which  have  been  adopted  up  to  the  present  day,  even  including  the 
distillation  of  fatty  acids  with  the  aid  of  steam,  which  has  only  been 
brought  into  practical  operation  within  the  last  ten  years.  Nevertheless, 
the  proprietors  of  the  patents  derived  no  benefit  from  them,— the  pro- 
cesses which  they  employed  resembled  too  closely  the  proceedings  of 
the  chemist  in  his  laboratory,  rendering  their  industrial  execution  too 
costly.  Although  lime  was  specified  by  Gay-Lussac  for  the  saponifica- 
tion of  the  fat,  the  ordinary  alkalies  continued  to  be  employed;  and,  for 
decomposing  the  soap,  hydrochloric  acid  was  used,  the  alkaline  salts  of 
which  were  never  completely  separable  from  the  fatty  a(Ws.  In  their 
French  patent,  Chevreul  and  Gay-Lussac  even  spoke  of  the  necessity 
of  cold  and  hot  alcohol  for  the  perfect  purification  of  the  stearo-mar- 
garic  acid.  If  we  compare  this  proceeding  with  the  present  practice, 
we  perceive  that  it  had  yet  to  pass  through  various  ordeals. 

A  formidable  and  unforeseen  difficulty  presented  itself  in  the  fact 
that  the  new  stearic  candles  would  not  burn  with  the  ordinary  wick ;  a 
long  series  of  experiments  were  necessary,  in  order  to  construct  a  wick 
which  would  not  sputter  the  fat  during  its  combustion.  Chevreul  and 
Gay-Lussac  succeeded  in  doing  this  in  the  course  of  1825,  and,  indeed, 
the  plan  was  specified  in  the  English  patent  before  spoken  of;  thev 
endeavoured  to  secure  their  invention  in  France  by  a  rider  to  their 
patent,  but  this  was  not  done  until  another  inventor  had  taken  out  a 
patent  for  a  similar  contrivance. 

A  discovery  like  the  separation  of  the  fatty  acids  necessarily  excited 
in  many  minds  the  desire  for  its  practical  application.  Almost  imme- 
diately after  the  publication  of  ChevreuPs  work,  Cambaceres,  an  Ingi- 
nieur  des  Ponts  et  Chausse'es,  appears  to  have  directed  his  attention  to 
the  utilisation  of  ChevreuPs  investigations ;  at  all  events,  he  took  out  a 
brevet  for  the  improvement  of  the  wicks  of  stearic  candles,  in  February, 
1825,  which  was  prior  to  the  date  of  the  rider  to  Chevreul  and  Gay- 
Lussac's  patent  in  France,  and  that  of  Gay-Lussac  in  England ;  the 
value  of  the  patents  of  these  chemists  was  therefore  considerably  reduced. 
Cambaceres'  first  plan  was  a  hollow  wick ;  but  in  May  of  the  same 
year  he  patented  the  plaited  and  twisted  wicks,  by  which  snuffers  were 
rendered  superfluous.  The  tension  of  the  separate  threads  of  the 
plaited  wick  causes  the  portion  which  rises  from  the  candle  to  curl  out- 
wards, so  that  its  point  projects  beyond  the  flame,  and  is  rapidly  con- 
sumed in  the  air,  that  plays  freely  around  it. 

Cambaceres  had  observed  that  the  wicks  soon  became  clogged  in  the 
stearic  candles,  although  this  did  not  happen  if  they  were  used  in  ordi- 
nary tallow  candles ;  he  ascribed  this  phenomenon  to  the  formation  of 
soaps  produced  by  the  action  of  the  fatty  acids  on  the  carbonated  alkali 
resulting  from  the  combustion  of  the  wick.  Whatever  may  be  the 
cause,  he  succeeded  in  removing  the  difficulty  by  treating  the  wick  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  ;  he  supposed  that  the  presence  of  this  acid  pre- 
vented the  formation  of  soaps,  by  combining  with  the  alkalies  in  the 
ash  to  form  sulphates. 

Another  essential  improvement  in  this  branch  of  industry  was  brought 
about  by  the  introduction  of  the  cheaper  material  lime,  as  a  saponifying 
agent,  followed  up  by  the  decomposition  of  the  lime  soap  by  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid.  The  merit  of  having  successfully  introduced  the  saponifi- 
cation by  lime  {saponification  calcaire)  belongs  to   De  Mill}',  who  has 


198 


Manufacture  of  Stearic  Candles. 


[September, 


earned  great  praise  by  his  contributions  to  the  stearic  manufacture. 
His  plan  formed  part  of  the  original  patent  of  Chevreul  and  Gay-Lussac, 
and  it  redounds  much  to  his  credit  that  he  brought  a  plan  to  bear  which 
had  failed  in  the  hands  of  his  illustrious  predecessors.  The  saponifica- 
tion by  lime,  in  an  industrial  sense,  dates  from  1831. 

As  the  wicks  were  frequently  corroded  by  the  sulphuric  acid  used 
according  to  Cambaceres'  preparation,  De  Milly,  in  1836,  took  out  a 
patent  for  employing  the  borate,  phosphate,  or  sulphate  of  ammonia 
for  the  same  purpose.  These  improvements,  and  the  endeavours  of 
De  Milly  to  promote  the  introduction  of  the  new  branch  of  industry  in 
other  countries,  gradually  caused  its  extension. 

Nevertheless,  numerous  difficulties  still  remained  to  be  overcome. 
The  limits  of  the  present  sketch  will  not  permit  us  to  do  more  than 
give  the  main  features  of  the  development  of  the  stearic  manufacture. 
"We  are  unable,  consequently,  to  trace  year  by  year  all  the  little  im- 
provements which  have  taken  place  ;  but  we  cannot  avoid  a  short  notice 
of  the  numerous  experiments  to  prevent  the  crystallisation  of  the  stearie 
acid  during  the  moulding  of  the  candles.  The  first  attempt  was  made 
to  introduce  another  acid,  and  though  successful  in  its  immediate  object, 
the  choice  (art  enions  acid)  was  an  unhappy  one,  for  it  almost  threatened 
the  very  existence  of  the  youthful  art.  It  is  true  that  this  deleterious 
substance  was  added  in  very  minute  quantities,  yet  it  was  entirely  in- 
compatible with  health,  and  was  soon  prohibited  on  the  Continent  by 
authority,  and  in  England  by  equally  powerful  public  opinion.  Here 
commenced  all  the  manufacturer's  troubles  anew;  in  all  directions  he 
sought  a  substitute,  and  found  none ;  at  last,  after  innumerable  experi- 
ments, and  when  almost  driven  to  despair,  he  hit  on  two  expedients — 
very  simple  when  once  found  out — which  answered  as  perfectly  as 
the  discarded  plan.  The  means  now  employed  are — the  addition  of  a 
very  minute  quantity  of  wax  to  the  stearic  acid  :  a  still  more  common 
plan  is  to  allow  the  melted  acid  to  cool  down  almost  to  the  point  of 
congelation  before  it  is  poured  into  the  moulds,  which  are  warmed  to 
the  same  temperature  as  the  fatty  acids.  The  refrigeration  and  occa- 
sional stirring  of  the  liquid  fat  produces  a  sort  of  liquid  pulp,  which 
congeals  in  the  moulds  without  crystallisation. 

Sulphuric  saponification  (saponification  sulplmrique ) .  While  the 
stearic  manufacture  was  gaining  ground  extensively,  as  we  have  in- 
dicated, a  new  art  sprang  up  during  the  last  ten  years,  having  the  same 
objects,  and  being  based  on  the  same  foundations,  but  seeking  the 
attainment  of  the  goal  by  entirely  different  means — we  speak  of  the 
saponification  of  fat  by  means  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and 
subsequent  distillation  of  the  resulting  fatty  acids. 

The  origin  of  this  proceeding  must  undoubtedly  be  sought  in 
Chevreul's  work ;  still  E.  Fremy  deserves  the  credit  of  having,  in  an 
important  paper,  perspicuously  exhibited  the  relations  of  fats  to  sulphuric 
acids.  He  demonstrated,  in  a  treatise  which  he  published  in  1S36, 
that  the  action  of  powerful  acids  on  fatty  substances  has  a  close  analogy 
to  that  of  the  alkalies.  Both  re-agents  decompose  the  fat ;  but  while  the 
alkalies  combine  with  the  fats,  and  set  the  glycerin  free,  the  sulphuric 
acid  combines  both  with  the  acids  and  the  glycerin ;  thus  we  obtain 
conjugate  sulpho-acids,  sulpho-stearic,  sulpho-margaric,  and  sulpholeic 
acids  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  sulpho-glyceric  acid.  The 
first  three  are  of  a  very  ephemeral  character;  water  decomposes  them 
into  slightly  modified  fatty  acids,  insoluble  in  water,  and  sulphuric  acid, 
which,  with  the  sulpho-glyceric  acid,  dissolves  in  the  water. 

To  George  Gwynneis  due  the  merit  of  having  first  described  a  method 
of  obtaining  fatty  acids  by  the  sulphuric  saponification  of  neutral  fats, 
and  subsequent  distillation  of  the  resulting  products.  In  a  patent  ob- 
tained in  March,  1840,  he  describes  very  fully  his  proposed  plan  for 
effecting  this  object,  which  consisted  in  distilling  in  vacuo,  by  means  of 
an  apparatus  similar  to  that  employed  in  sugar  refining ;  the  difficulty 
of  sustaining  a  good  vacuum  on  the  large  scale  was,  however,  found 


to  present  so  many  obstacles,  that  the  plan  was  consequently  aban- 
doned. 

Mr.  Gwynne  proposed  also  to  distil,  in  the  same  manner,  fatty  acids 
obtained  by  means  of  lime  saponification,  and  even  to  obtain  fatty  acids 
by  the  distillation  of  neutral  fats. 

George  Clark  also  directed  his  attention  to  the  practical  application 
of  Fremy's  experiments.  On  the  5th  November,  1840,  he  took  out  a 
patent  for  utilising  this  property  of  sulphuric  acid  in  decomposing 
fats,  but  without  having  recourse  to  their  subsequent  distillation  :  the 
difficulty  in  cost,  however,  of  purifying  the  fat  after  decomposition,  ren- 
dered the  attempt  unsuccessful,  notwithstanding  that  the  quantity  of 
sulphuric  acid  proposed  to  be  used  was  only  one-fourth  the  weight  of 
the  fat,  whilst  Fremy  employed  in  his  laboratory  experiments  double 
this  quantity.  Further  experiments  were  still  necessary  to  establish  on 
a  firm  footing  saponification  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid,  which  ulti- 
mately again  led  to  the  adoption  of  an  improved  system  of  distillation. 

In  the  patent  before  mentioned,  which  Gay-Lussac  took  out  in  Eng- 
land, and  which  is  distinguished  by  its  comprehensive  treatment  of  the 
question,  the  distillation  of  fatty  matters  is  spoken  of,  and  the  remark 
incidentally  made  that  the  process  is  much  accelerated  by  the  presence 
of  moisture ;  this  part  of  the  specification  was,  however,  never  worked. 

Nearly  sixteen  years  later,  on  the  22nd  August,  1841,  Dubrunfaut 
obtained  a  patent  in  England,  and  about  the  same  time,  likewise,  one 
in  France,  for  the  purification  of  fatty  bodies  and  their  distillation.  The 
plan  proposed  by  M.  Dubrunfaut  was  to  heat  the  commoner  oils  to  a 
high  temperature,  and  to  pass  steam  through  them,  by  which  means 
their  disagreeable  odorous  principle  was  intended  to  be  removed.  The 
distillation  of  fatty  bodies  was  also  claimed  by  Dubrunfaut,  but  the 
chief  object  of  his  patent  was  evidently  the  purification  of  common  oils. 
By  decomposing  the  neutral  fatty  bodies  in  this  way,  acrolein  is  pro- 
duced, the  vapour  of  which  is  so  pungent  and  irritating,  both  to  the 
eyes  and  the  throat,  that  no  workman  can  be  found  to  endure  it;  hence 
this  patent  was  not  successfully  worked,  yet  it  contained  a  germ  which, 
in  the  hands  of  Jones,  Wilson,  and  Gwynne,  was  elaborated  into  the 
art  now  practised. 

In  an  English  patent,  dated  the  Sth  December,  1842,  and  granted  to 
William  Coley  Jones  and  George  Wilson,  we  find  the  first  application 
of  the  combined  process  of  sulphuric  saponification  and  steam  distilla- 
tion. They  decompose  fats  with  sulphuric  acid,  aided  by  heat,  and 
distil  the  fat  thus  decomposed  by  means  of  steam,  which  passes  in. 
minute  streams  out  of  a  perforated  coil  fixed  in  the  bottom  of  the  still. 

The  combination  of  the  sulphuric  saponification  and  subsequent  dis- 
tillation solved  the  fundamental  conditions  of  success;  nevertheless,  a 
whole  series  of  improvements  followed,  which  essentially  contributed  to 
establish  the  present  extension  of  this  system  of  manufacture. 

Patents  taken  out  by  Gwynne  and  Wilson  on  the  lGth  November, 
1843,  and  on  the  28th  December  of  the  same  year,  secured  to  them 
farther  improvements  in  this  process;  in  the  latter,  a  method  is  de- 
scribed of  reducing  the  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  employed  for  decom- 
posing the  fats  to  from  10  lbs.  to  Gibs,  for  every  112  lbs.  of  fat;  that  is, 
to  one-sixth,  and  even  to  one-tenth  of  the  quantity  employed  by  Fremy 
in  his  investigations.  This  saving  was  effected  by  heating  the  fat  to 
177°  C.  (350°  F.)  Another  improvement  was  the  heating  of  the  steam 
in  a  series  of  pipes  after  it  had  left  the  boiler,  instead  of  depending  on 
the  temperature  of  the  fat  to  effect  it. 

Their  last  patent  on  the  subject  is  that  of  the  30th  October,  1844,  in 
which  they  propose  to  use  a  jet  of  supersaturated  steam  to  heat  the 
fats  previous  to  sulphuric  saponification.  These  patents  embody  all 
the  plans  which,  since  July,  1844,  have  been  in  operation  at  the 
works  of  Price's  Candle  Company  at  Vauxhall  and  Battersea,  of  which 
Mr.  Wilson  is  the  managing  director. 

Similar  manufactories,  though  not  of  such  magnitude,   have  b:en 


1852.] 


Notes  by  a  Practical  Chemist. 


199 


established  in  other  countries ;  the  principal'  are  those  of  Masse  and 
Tribouillet,  at  Neuilly,  near  Paris,  Motard  in  Berlin,  Bert  at  Gijon 
(Spain),  and  of  the  Milly  Candle  Society  in  Vienna. 

There  can  be  but  little  doubt,  after  inspection  of  the  candles  in  the 
Exhibition,  that  the  process  just  described  is  applicable  to  the  produc- 
tion of  the  higher  class  of  candle,  white,  inodorous,  and  dry  to  the 
touch ;  but  this  is  not  the  only  part  which  it  has  filled  up  to  the  pre- 
sent time,  it  is  in  the  treatment  of  palm  oil  and  cheap  fatty  bodies  that 
it  renders  most  valuable  service.  By  its  aid  fats  the  most  fetid  and 
impure  furnish  candles  of  the  finest  quality ;  and  thus  it  utilises  the 
waste  of  the  glue-maker  and  oily  residues  derived  from  the  waste  lyes 
of  woollen  and  other  manufactories. 

We  now  proceed  to  describe  the  practical  processes  of  the  workshop, 
the  various  stages  of  which  will  be  followed  without  difficulty,  after 
what  has  been  said  in  the  article  on  soap,  and  in  the  fore^oinn-  sketch 
respecting  the  constitution  of  fats  and  their  decomposition. 

(To  be  continued). 
NOTES    BY   A    PRACTICAL   CHEMIST. 


Photographs  on  Glass. — Pucker  forms  a  thin  film  of  iodide  of 
sulphur  upon  plate  glass,  by  covering  the  glass,  which  must  be  very 
clean,  with  a  very  thin  coating  of  sulphur,  and  then  impregnating  this 
for  a  few  seconds  with  the  vapour  of  iodine.  The  glass  plate  is  then 
placed  in  the  camera,  where  at  the  same  time  the  vapour  of  some  quick- 
silver, in  an  iron  cup  at  the  bottom  of  the  camera,  acts  upon  the  iodide 
of  sulphur  with  which  it  is  coated,  and  it  receives  the  photographic 
image  within  a  minute.  The  glass  plate,  when  taken  out  of  the 
camera,  only  exhibits  a  trace  of  the  picture,  but  this  immediately 
comes  out  on  exposure  to  the  action  of  the  vapour  of  bromine.  If 
the  picture  be  now  held  over  alcohol,  and  some  of  the  same  liquid 
poured  upon  it,  it  will  be  fixed.  Not  more  than  from  five  to  eight 
minutes  are  required  for  the  whole  operation.  The  glass  plates  must 
be  breathed  upon  and  well  rubbed  with  soft  linen  rag  several  times 
before  use.  They  are  coated  with  sulphur  by  burning  sulphur  sticks, 
made  on  purpose,  in  a  proper  tube,  and  holding  the  plates  over  it  at  a 
distance  of  about  three  inches.  These  sulphur  sticks  are  prepared  by 
dipping  pieces  of  rush  pith  into  a  melted  mixture  of  sulphur  and  mastic, 
with  which  they  become  incrusted.  For  use,  these  sulphur  sticks,  which 
are  about  the  size  of  a  lucifer  match,  are  stuck  on  a  brass  needle,  intro- 
duced into  the  middle  of  a  glass  tube,  and  kindled,  so  that  the  vapour 
of  the  sulphur  may  come  in  contact  with  the  glass  plate  held  over  it. 

These  glass  plates  are  so  sensitive,  that  the  coating  of  iodide  of  sulphur 
becomes  instantly  changed  on  exposure  to  direct  sunlight,  and  gives  a 
Moser's  image  within  five  minutes,  when  laid  in  a  book.  The  figures 
thus  obtained  are  most  easily  read  by  candle-light.  In  day-light, 
the  blue  letters  can  be  recognised  on  the  yellow  ground  only  by  looking 
through  the  plate  towards  the  middle  of  the  window,  or  towards  a  sheet 
of  paper  fastened  in  that  place,  the  sulphur  not  having  been  removed 
either  by  vapour  of  bromine  or  by  alcohol. 

If  a  glass  plate,  covered  with  a  solution  of  gum,  and  exposed  to  the 
vapour  of  iodized  sulphur,  be  placed  in  the  camera,  a  positive  picture, 
with  all  its  details,  is  obtained,  the  outlines  of  which  can  be  laid  bare 
by  an  etching-point  capable  of  scratching  the  glass.  If  a  glass  plate,  so 
marked,  be  rubbed  in  with  printing  ink,  the  outlines  will  be  filled,  and 
the  ink  will  remain  in  them  when  the  glass  is  freed  from  the  coating  of 
gum  by  means  of  water.  The  picture  is  then  easily  transferred  to  paper, 
which  is  to  be  laid  on  the  plate,  and  rubbed  over  with  a  paper-knife. 

Process  for  the  Analysis  of  Chrome  Ores.— Mr.  Calvert 
proposes  the  following  process  :— The  ore,  well  pulverised,  is  mixed 
with  about  three  or  four  times  its  weight  of  a  mixture  made  by  slaking 
quicklime  with  caustic  soda,  and  then  drying  and  calcining  the  mass. 


To  this,  about  a  quarter  of  nitrate  of  soda  is  added,  and  the  mixture 
calcined  for  about  two  hours.  By  this  method,  one  treatment  is  gene- 
rally sufficient  to  convert  the  chromium  into  chromic  acid;  whereas,  by 
the  usual  method,  five  or  six  successive  calcinations  are  required. 

Another  process,  which  he  has  also  found  to  produce  good  results, 
consists  in  calcining  the  pulverised  chrome  ore  with  nitrate  of  baryta, 
adding  a  little  caustic  potash,  from  time  to  time,  towards  the  end  of  the 
process. 

New  Alloy  for  Plates  used  in  Calico-printing. — A  white 
alloy,  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  plates  used  in  calico-printing,  and  used 
for  that  purpose  in  Ghent,  has  the  following  composition  : — 

Tin "     4681 

Lead 37'44 

Bismuth         . .  . .  15-75 

Separation  of  Arsenic,  Antimony,  and  Tin. — Mr.  Ansell 
proposes  to  dissolve  the  mixed  sulphurets  in  nitro-hydrochloric  acid, 
and  pour  the  solution  into  a  vessel  in  which  hydrogen  gas  is  being 
developed.  The  gases  given  off  are  first  conducted  through  a  bottle 
containing  solution  of  acetate  of  lead,  to  remove  hydrochloric  acid  and 
sulphureted  hydrogen,  and  are  then  passed  into  a  test-tube  half  full 
of  concentrated  nitric  acid.  The  nitric  acid  solution  obtained,  after  the 
gases  have  passed  for  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  is  evaporated  to  dry- 
ness, and  the  residue,  which  contains  the  arsenic,  partly  as  arsenious 
and  partly  as  arsenic  acid,  and  the  antimony  as  antimonic  acid,  is  ex- 
hausted with  warm  water,  which  takes  up  the  two  former  substances, 
and  leaves  the  latter  untouched.  The  tin  remains  in  the  vessel  where 
the  hydrogen  was  evolved.  These  are  now  severally  detected  by  the 
usual  tests. 

Distinguishing  reactions  of  Arsenical  and  Antimonial 
Spots. — Wackenroder  has  entered  upon  an  examination  of  Slater's 
test,  which  consists  in  the  use  of  hypochlorite  of  soda.  lie  finds  that 
it  may  be  used  with  the  greatest  certainty  in  distinguishing  purely 
arsenical  from  purely  antimonial  spots,  which  is  the  principal  point  in 
judicial  investigations. 

answers  to  correspondents. 

"  B.  A."  You  will  do  well  to  be  cautious  in  following  methods  given 
in  journals  of  the  merely  literary,  or  "family"  class.  One  of  these 
luminaries  advised  cottagers  to  add  solution  of  chloride  of  calcium  to 
the  ordinary  liquid,  in  whitewashing  their  walls.  A  wall  so  treated 
would  remain  damp  for  ever.  Another  recommended  the  use  of  the 
young  green  sprouts  of  garden  rhubarb  as  a  spring  vegetable,  regardless 
of  the  amount  of  oxalic  acid  therein  contained. 

"  Eureka."  No,  you  have  not  found  it.  The  yellow  scales  you 
describe  are  not  gold,  but  merely  iodide  of  lead,  a  substance  which, 
strangely  enough,  has  led  others  into  the  very  same  error.  You  will 
find  alchemy  a  very  poor  speculation  in  these  days  of  gold-mining. 

S. 


ON  PRESERVED  FOODS. 

(From  Professor  Lindley's  Exhibition  Lectures,) 
In  the  first  place,  the  Exhibition  contained  some  examples  of  dried  vege- 
tables, prepared  by  what  is  called  Masson's  process.  Yonder  are  specimens, 
lying  to  the  right  of  the  chairman.  They  have  been  packed  in  tin- foil,  and 
very  imperfectly  secured  ;  so  that,  although  they  are  still  undergoing  no 
change  whatever,  yet  they  are  not  seen  under  favourable  circumstances;  (hey 
have  been  affected,  though  not  injuriously,  by  the  dampness  of  the  building 
in  which  they  have  been  kept.  The  samples  consist  of  white  and  red  cab- 
bages, turnips,  Brussels  sprouts,  and  various  other  things.  As  to  the  method 
of  preserving  them,  it  appears  to  be  free  from  all  objections.  First,  it  is  very 
cheap;  secondly,  as  wc  are  led  to  believe  by  persons  in  France  who  are  well 
informed  on  the  subject,  it  perfectly  answers  the  purpose.  The  mode  of  pre- 
paring these  vegetables  is  shortly  as  follows  :— They  are  dried  at  a  certain 


200 


A  Lost  Art. 


[September. 


temperature  (from  104°  to  118°),  which  is  neither  so  low  as  to  cause  them  to 
dry  slowly,  nor  so  high  as  to  cause  them  to  dry  too  quickly  ;  if  the  last 
happens,  they  acquire  a  hurnt  taste,  which  destroys  their  quality.  They  lose 
from  S7  to  89  per  cent,  of  their  water,  or  seven-eighths  of  their  original 
weight ;  after  which  they  are  forcibly  pressed  into  cakes,  and  are  ready  for 
use.  I  saw,  a  year  ago,  the  original  of  a  letter  from  the  captain  of  the  As- 
trolabe, a  French  vessel  of  war,  speaking  in  the  highest  terms  of  the  supply 
of  these  vegetables  for  the  use  of  that  vessel  during  her  voyage  ;  the  French 
navy  generally  mentions  them  in  the  most  favourable  terms,  and  no  reason 
appears  for  doubting  such  statements.  The  specimens  before  you  are,  I 
repeat,  seen  under  unfavourable  circumstances.  They  ought  to  have  been 
kept  iu  tin,  and  protected  from  the  air,  instead  of  which,  they  have  been  lying 
about  more  than  nine  months  in  the  Exhibition  building,  where  they  have 
been  exposed  to  considerable  dampness.  Yet  they  are  not  injuriously  af- 
fected, although  they  are  absorbing  moisture,  as  must  necessarily  happen  in 
a  damp  place,  and  which,  if  it  were  to  continue,  would  spoil  them.  Now  I 
think  this  is  a  mattoKof  more  consequence  than  it  may  appear  to  be,  for  the 
following  reason  |/it  is  usual  to  supply  the  navy  with  preserved  food  of  dif- 
ferent kinds,  and  I  am  informed  by  a  distinguished  officer  of  the  Antartic 
expedition,  under  Sir  James  Ross,  that  although  all  the  preserved  meats  used 
on  that  occasion  wdptexcellent,  and  there  was  not  the  slightest  ground  for 
any  complaint  of  tneir  quality,  yet  the  crew  became  tired  of  the  meat,  but 
were  never  tired  of  the  vegetables.  This  should  show  us  that  it  is  not 
sufficient  to  supply  ship's  crews  with  preserved1  meat,  but  that  they  should  be 
supplied  with  vegetables  also,  the  means  of  doing  which  is  now  afforded. 

I  have  only  a  word  or  two  to  say  about  M.  Brocchieri's  scheme.  Those 
who  are  acquainted  with  his  proposal  will  remember  that  cakes  and  other 
articles  of  food  made  from  blood  were  -exhibited  in  the  building.  In  some 
cases  those  cakes  have  undergone  no  change  ;  in  others  they  became  putrid. 
The  object  of  M.  Brocchieri  was  to  utilise  the  blood  of  animals  in  abattoirs. 
Now,  as  we  are  led  to  believe  that  abattoirs  will  be  constructed  in  London, 
it  is  an  important  question  whether  the  blood  of  the  numerous  animals  there 
killed  can  be  utilised  or  not.  M.  Brocchieri  thought  it  could ;  and  by  some 
unknown  method  he  separated  the  serum  from  the  crassamentum,  and  ob- 
tained a  hard,  dry  substance,  the  nature  of  which  I  can  scarcely  describe;  it 
was  perfectly  insipid,  and  with  nothing  disagreeable  about  it  whatever.  Per- 
haps it  was  very  like  dry  black  bread,  or  something  of  that  sort.  If  the  name 
had  not  been  unfortunate,  people  would  have  looked  at  it  with  more  interest. 
It  is  a  question,  however,  whether  it  is  desirable  thus  to  utilise  the  blood 
collected  in  abattoirs;  or  whether  it  may  not  be  better  to  let  it  go  into  the 
refuse,  to  be  employed  as  manure;  for  it  appears  from  the  best  evidence  that 
can  be  obtained,  that  blood  is  admirably  adapted  for  that  purpose.  It  is 
proved  that,  supposing  unmanured  land  will  yield  threefold,  then  land  manured 
with  bullocks'  blood  will  yield  fourteen  fold  ;  therefore  we  have  direct  evi- 
dence that  the  blood  of  animals  has  a  very  powerful  action  as  manure,  and 
it  may  be  more  profitable  to  obtain  our  food  from  it  in  that  indirect  manner 
than  to  use  blood-cakes  prepared  after  M.  Brocchieri's  method. 

Preserved  Meats  are  out  of  favour  just  now.  We  hear  of  little  except 
condemned  canisters,  which  the  Admiralty  unfortunately  have  in  store.  It 
is  the  more  proper,  then,  to  state  that  the  evidence  before  the  jury  wen#to 
show  that  it  is  possible  to  preserve  meat  in  canisters  without  undergoing  any 
change,  for  a  great  length  of  time.  We  had  hashed  beef,  which  was  excellent, 
dating  back  to  1836  ;  we  had  boiled  beef  fifteen  years  old,  preserved  in  can- 
isters, and  many  other  specimens,  none  of  which  were  changed.  It  is  clear, 
therefore,  that  the  canister  process  of  preserving  is  good,  provided  you  keep 
a  sharp  eye  on  the  contractors,  and  upon  those  who  act  under  them. 

What  is  more  important  than  all  other  preserved  provisions,  is  the  article 
to  which  I  mast  next  request  attention.  A  great  deal  of  interest  was  excited 
when  the  contents  of  the  Exhibition  first  became  known, — and  it  did  not  di- 
minish afterwards, — by  a  certain  Meat-Biscuit,  introduced  among  the 
American  exhibitions  from  Texas,  by  Mr.  Gail  Borden.  We  were  told  that 
its  nutritive  properties  were  of  a  very  high  order;  it  was  said  that  ten  pounds'' 
weight  of  it  would  be  sufficient  for  the  subsistence  of  an  active  man  for  thirty 
days,  that  it  had  been  used  in  the  American  navy,  and  had  been  found  to 
sustain  the  strength  of  the  men  to  whom  it  had  been  given  in  a  remarkable 
degree.  Statements  were  made  to  us,  which  have  since  been  corroborated, 
that  it  would  keep  perfectly  well  without  change,  under  disadvantageous 


circumstances.  Colonel  Sumner,  an  officer  in  the  United  States  dragoons, 
who  had  seen  it  used  during  field  operations,  says  he  is  sure  he  could  live  upon 
it  for  months,  and  retain  his  health  and  strength.  The  inventor,  he  says, 
names  five  ounces  a-day  as  the  quantity  for  the  support  of  a  man  ;  but  he 
(Colonel  Sumner),  could  not  use  more  than  four  ounces,  made  into  soup, 
with  nothing  whatever  added  to  it.  The  substance  of  these  statements  may 
be  said  to  amount  to  this,  that  Borden's  meat-biscuit  is  a  mateiial  not  liable 
to  undergo  change,  is  very  light,  very  portable,  and  extremely  nutritious.  A 
specimen,  placed  in  the  hands  of  Dr.  Playfair  for  examination,  was  reported 
by  him  to  contain  32  per  cent,  of  flesh-forming  principles,  for  it  is  a  compo- 
sition of  meat — the  essence  of  meat — and  the  finest  kind  of  flour.  Dr.  Play- 
fair  stated  that  the  starch  was  unchanged  ;  that,  consequently,  there  could 
have  been  no  putrescence  in  the  meat  employed  in  its  preparation  ;  and  that 
the  biscuit  was  "  in  all  respects  excellent."  It  was  tasted — I  tasted  it — the 
jury  and  others  tasted  it ;  and  we  all  found  nothing  in  it  which  the  most 
fastidious  person  could  complain  of ;  it  required  salt,  or  some  other  condi- 
ment, as  all  these  preparations  do,  to  make  them  savoury.  This  meat-biscuit, 
as  I  said  just  now,  was  reported  to  be  capableof  keeping  well;  and  this  might 
well  be  true,  because  no  foreign  matter  had  been  introduced  into  its  compo- 
sition ;  there  was  no  salt  to  absorb  moisture,  and  nothing  else  to  interfere 
with  the  property  of  flour,  or  of  essence  of  meat.  These  biscuits  are  prepared 
by  boiling  down  the  best  fresh  beef  that  can  be  procured  in  Texas,  and  mixing 
it  in  certain  proportions  with  the  finest  flour  that  can  be  there  obtained;  it  is 
stated  that  the  essence  of  five  pounds  of  good  meat  is  estimated  to  be  con- 
tained in  one  pound  of  biscuit.  That  it  is  a  material  of  the  highest  value 
there  can  be  no  doubt ;  to  what  extent  its  value  may  go  nothing  but  time 
can  decide  ;  but  I  think  I  am  justified  in  looking  upon  it  as  one  of  the  most 
important  substances  which  this  Exhibition  has  brought  to  our  knowledge. 
When  we  consider  that,  by  this  method,  in  such  places  as  Buenos  Ayres, 
animals  which  are  there  of  little  or  no  value,  instead  of  being  destroyed,  as  they 
often  are,  for  their  bones,  may  be  boiled  down,  and  mixed  with  the  flour  which 
all  such  countries  produce,  and  so  converted  into  a  substance  of  such  dura- 
bility, that  it  may  be  preserved  with  the  greatest  ease,  and  sent  to  distant  coun- 
tries, it  seems  as  if  a  new  means  of  subsistence  was  actually  offered  to  us. 
Take  the  Argentine  republic — take  Australia — and  consider  what  they  do 
with  their  meat  there  in  times  of  drought,  when  they  cannot  get  rid  of  it  whilst 
it  is  fresh ;  they  may  boil  it  down,  and  mix  the  essence  with  flour  (and  we  know 
they  have  the  finest  in  the  world),  and  so  prepare  a  substance  that  can  be 
preserved  for  times  when  food  is  not  so  plentiful,  or  sent  to  countries  where 
it  is  always  more  difficult  to  procure  food.    Is  not  this  a  very  great  gain  ? 

A  LOST  APT. 

(From  Babbage's  "  Economy  of  Manufactures.") 
PRINTING    FROM    COFFER    PLATES    WITH    ALTERED    DIMENSIONS. 

Some  very  singular  specimens  of  an  art  of  copying,  not  yet  made  public, 
were  brought  from  Paris  a  tew  years  since.  A  watchmaker  in  that  city,  of 
the  name  of  Gonord,  had  contrived  a  method  by  which  he  could  take  from 
the  same  copper -plate  impressions  of  different  sizes,  either  larger  or  smaller 
than  the  original  design.  Having  procured  four  impressions  of  a  parrot, 
surrounded  by  a  circle,  executed  in  this  manner,  I  showed  them  to  the  late 
Mr.  Lawry,  an  engraver,  equally  distinguished  for  his  skill,  and  for  the  many 
mechanical  contrivances  with  which  he  enriched  his  art.  The  relative  di- 
mensions of  the  several  impressions  were  5-5,  6'3,  8'4,  15*0,  so  that  the 
largest  was  nearly  three  times  the  linear  size  of  the  smallest ;  Mr.  Lawry 
assured  me  that  he  was  unable  to  detect  any  lines  in  one  which  had  not 
corresponding  lines  in  the  others.  There  appeared  to  be  a  difference  in  the 
quantity  of  ink,  but  none  in  the  traces  of  the  engraving  ;  and  from  the 
general  appearance,  it  was  conjectured  that  the  largest  but  one  was  the 
original  impression  from  the  copper  plate. 

The  means  by  which  this  singular  operation  was  executed  have  not  been 
published  ;  but  two  conjectures  have  been  formed  at  the  time  which  merit 
notice.  It  was  supposed  that  the  artist  was  in  possession  of  some  method  of 
transferring  the  ink  from  the  lines  of  a  copper  plate  to  the  surface  of  some 
fluid,  and  of  re-transferring  the  impression  from  the  fluid  to  paper.  If  this 
could  be  accomplished,  the  print  would,  in  the  first  instance,  be  of  exactly  the 
same  size  as  the  copper  from  which  it  was  derived ;  but  if  the  fluid  were 


1852.] 


Revie 


ws. 


201 


contained  in  a  vessel  having  the  form  of  an  inverted  cone,  with  a  small 
aperture  at  the  bottom,  the  liquid  might  be  lowered  or  raised  in  the  vessel 
by  gradual  abstraction  or  addition  through  the  apex  of  the  cone ;  in  this 
case,  the  surface  to  which  the  printing  ink  adhered  would  diminish  or  en- 
large, and  in  this  altered  state  the  impression  might  he  re-transferred  to 
paper.  It  must  be  admitted  that  this  conjectural  explanation  is  liable  to 
very  considerable  difficulties,  for  although  the  converse  operation  of  taking 
an  impression  from  a  liquid  surface  has  a  parallel  in  the  art  of  marbling 
paper,  the  possibility  of  transferring  the  ink  from  the  copper  to  the  fluid  re- 
quires to  be  proved. 

Another  and  more  plausible  explanation  is  founded  on  the  elastic  nature 
of  the  compound  of  glue  and  treacle,  a  substance  already  in  use  in  transfer- 
ring engravings  to  earthenware.  It  is  conjectured  that  an  impression  from  a 
copperplate  is  taken  upon  a  large  sheet  of  this  composition  ;  that  this  sheet 
is  then  stretched  in  both  directions,  and  that  the  ink  thus  expanded  is  trans- 
ferred to  paper.  If  the  copy  is  required  to  be  smaller  than  the  original,  the 
elastic  substance  must  first  be  stretched,  and  then  reeeive  the  impression 
from  the  copper-plate :  on  removing  the  tension,  it  will  contract,  and  thus 
reduce  the  size  of  the  design.  It  is  possible  that  one  transfer  may  not  in  all 
cases  suffice,  as  the  extensibility  of  the  composition  of  glue  and  treacle, 
although  considerable,  is  still  limited.  Perhaps  sheets  of  India-rubber,  of 
uniform  texture  and  thickness,  may  be  found  to  answer  better  than  this 
composition  ;  or  possibly  the  ink  might  be  transferred  from  the  copper-plate 
to  the  surface  of  a  bottle  of  this  gum,  which  bottle  might,  after  being  ex- 
panded by  forcing  air  into  it,  give  up  the  enlarged  impression  to  paper.  As 
it  would  require  considerable  time  to  produce  impressions  in  this  manner, 
and  there  might  arise  some  difficulty  in  making  them  all  of  precisely  the 
same  size,  the  process  might  be  rendered  more-.certain  and  expeditious  by 
performing  that  part  of  the  operation  which  depends  on  the  enlargement  or 
diminution  of  that  design  only  once  ;  and  instead  of  printing  from  the  soft 
substance,  transferring  the  design  from  it  to  stone;  thus  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  work  would  be  reduced  to  an  art  already  well  known,  that  of 
lithography.  The  idea  receives  some  confirmation  from  the  fact  that,  in 
another  set  of  specimens,  consisting  of  a  map  of  St.  Petersburgh,  of  several 
sizes,  a  very  short  line,  evidently  an  accidental  defect,  occurs  in  all  the 
impressions  of  one  particular  size,  but  not  in  any  of  a  different  size.  • 

REVIEWS. 

The  Naval  Dry  Docks  of  the  United  States.  By  Charles  B.  Stuart, 
Engineer  in  Chief  of  the  U.  S.  Navy.  New  York :  C.  B.  Norton. 
London  :  John  Weale, 

American  mechanical  works  have  not  been  received  with  much 
favour  in  this  country  hitherto,  owing  to  the  prevalent  practice  of  draw- 
ing largely  on  English  works  of  a  similar  character,  and  in  most  cases 
without  any  acknowledgment  of  the  source  whence  the  information  is 
derived.  That  an  ample  fund  of  original  information  exists  in  the 
United  States  there  can  be  no  doubt,  but  it  is  rarely  the  information  is 
presented  in  such  a  practical  form  as  to  render  it  valuable.  Not  that 
we  lay  any  stress  on  expensive  engravings  or  letter  press,  but  we  pro- 
test against  the  substitution  of  mere  pictorial  representations  for  bond 
fide  working  plans.  We  rejoice  to  notice  a  few  exceptions,  amongst 
which  we  "may  mention  Bartol's  Marine  Boilers,  Colburn's  Locomotive 
Engines,  and  the  work  before  us.  Mr.  Stuart's  work  gives  us  the  history 
and  details  of  construction,  and  cost  of  the  various  dry  docks  built  for 
the  United  States'  government,  and  which  are  not  surpassed  in  size  or 
importance  by  any  others  in  the  world.  The  work  is  most  expensively 
got  up,  all  the  plates  being  on  steel  and  very  highly  shaded,  whilst  the 
typography  and  paper  is  superior  to  anything  ordinarily  issued  from  the 
American  press.  Mr.  Stuart's  official  position  has  given  him  access  to 
all  the  information  which  the  navy  records  are  capable  of  affording,  and 
they  seem  to  have  been  selected  with  judgment  and  care.  That  portion 
of  the  work  which  presents  the  greatest  novelty  to  English  engineers 
is  the  description  of  the  floating  dry  docks,  a  method  of  which  we  have 


no  examples  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.     The  following  condensed 
description  (from  the  Franklin  Journal)  will  be  found  interesting  :— 

"  The  United  States  Dry  Dock  at  this  port  having  recently  been  com- 
pleted, was  successfully  tested  during  the  past  month  by  the  lifting  and 
hauling  out  of  the  steam-ship  City  of  Pittsburg,  of  2,530  tons  burthen. 
This  dock  and  appendages  being  the  largest  in  the  world,  merits  more 
than  a  passing  notice.  The  lifting  power  consists  of  nine  sections, 
six  of  which  are  105  feet  long  inside,  and  148  feet  over  all,  by  32  feet 
wide,  and  1 1|  feet  deep;  three  of  them  are  of  the  same  length  and  depth 
as  the  others,  but  2  feet  less  in  width;  the  gross  displacement  of  the  nine 
sections  is  10-037  tons,  gross  weight  4,145  tons,  leaving  a  liftiug  power 
of  5,892  tons,  which  far  exceeds  the  weight  of  any  vessel  yet  contem- 
plated. The  machinery  for  pumping  out  the  sections  consists  of  two 
engines  of  20,  and  two  of  12  horsepower.  In  connection  with  the 
sections  (which  form  the  lifting  power  of  the  dock)  is  a  large  stone 
basin,  350  feet  long,  226  feet  wide,  and  12  feet  9  inches  deep,  with  a 
depth  of  water  of  10  feet  9  inches  at  mean  high  tide. 

"  At  the  head  of  this  basin  are  two  sets  of  ways,  each  being  350  feet 
long  and  26  feet  wide.  These  ways  are  level,  and  consist  of  the  bed 
pieces,  which  are  three  in  number,  and  firmly  secured  to  a  stone  foun- 
dation ;  the  central  way  supports  the  keel,  while  the  side  ways  receive 
the  weight  of  the  bilge ;  these  ways  are  of  oak,  and  are  finished  off  to 
a  smooth  surface.  On  the  top  of  the  bed-pieces  or  fixed  ways  comes 
the  sliding  ways  or  cradle,  which  are  also  350  feet  long  and  2G  feet 
wide,  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  being  adjusted  to  the  length  of  any 
vessel. 

"  The  operation  of  the  doek  is  as  follows  : — The  sections  are  sunk  so  as 
to  allow  the  vessel  to  be  [floated  in ;  as  soon  as  she  is  secured  in  the 
proper  position,  the  pumps  are  put  in  operation,  when  the  sections 
begin  to  rise  ;  and  as  soon  as  they  come  to  a  bearing  on  the  keel,  the 
bilge  blocks  are  run  in  until  they  fit  the  ship.  When  all  is  secure,  the 
sections  are  pumped  out  until  the  keel  is  some  two  or  three  feet  above 
the  water.  If  repairs  that  will  only  require  a  short  time  arc  contem- 
plated, the  vessel  is  kept  on  the  sections,  and  no  other  portions  of  the 
dock  used.  But  the  Pittsburg  was  taken  up  for  the  purpose  of  testing 
the  several  parts  of  the  dock,  and  after  she  was  lifted  out  of  the  water 
the  sections  carrying  the  ship  were  floated  into  the  basin  in  line  with 
one  of  the  sets  of  ways.  When  this  is  accomplished,  the  sections 
are  filled  with  water,  and  rest  on  the  bottom  of  the  basin,  which  is  of 
stone.  Bed  ways  are  now  laid  on  the  sections,  in  line  with  hose  be- 
fore mentioned.  When  they  are  secured,  they'  are  greased,  and  the 
cradle  is  now  slid  under  the  ship,  and  she  is  blocked  up  on  the  cradle, 
and  the  blocks  on  the  sections  are  removed.  At  this  point  of  the  opera- 
tion a  new  instrument  of  power  is  brought  forward,  for  the  purpose  of 
hauling  the  ship  from  the  sections  on  to  the  bed  ways  in  the  navy-yard. 
It  consists  of  a  large  hydraulic  cylinder,  having  a  ram  of  15  inches  dia- 
meter and  8  feet  stroke,  and  a  power  of  800  tons.  On  the  top  of  this 
cylinder,  and  attached  to  it,  are  two  vertical  direct-acting  engines,  with 
cylinders  16  inches  in  diameter  and  16  inches  stroke,  connected  at  right 
angles  to  one  shaft,  on  which  are  four  eccentrics  for  working  four 
hydraulic  pumps  of  1J  inches  bore,  and  6  inches  stroke;  the  tank 
which  carries  the  water  for  the  press  is  also  on  the  top  of  the  cylinder, 
and  forms  the  bed  on  which  the  pumps  are  secured.  The  boiler  which 
supplies  these  engines  with  steam  is  on  a  sliding  cast-iron  bed  way, 
some  12  or  15  feet  ahead  of  the  hydraulic  cylinder,  and  connected  to 
it  by  two  cast-iron  rods.  This  boiler  is  of  the  usual  locomotive  form, 
and  has  85  tubes  of  2  inches  diameter,  and  9  feet  long.  To  get  readj 
for  operation,  the  hydraulic  cylinder  is  slid  down  to  the  edge  of  the  basin, 
its  ram  is  run  in,  and  a  connection  made  by  means  of  two  side-rods  of 
wronght-iron  from  the  cross-head  of  the  ram  to  the  sliding-enullr  which 
carries  the  ship.  The  central  bed  way  has  key-holes  mortised  through 
it  horizontally  every  8  feet,  and  there  nre  projections  from  the  hydraulic 


202 


Reviews. 


[September, 


cylinder,  which  have  corresponding  key-holes  in  them.  Two  cast-iron 
keys,  24  inches  wide  and  6  inches  thick,  are  slid  through  the  key-holes 
on  small  wheels  ;  these  keys  secure  the  cylinder  to  the  central  bed  way. 
The  engines  and  pumps  being  now  put  in  operation,  a  pressure  is  brought 
on  the  15-inch  ram,  and  as  soon  as  the  pressure  overcomes  the  resist- 
ance, the  vessel  must  move.  The  estimated  weight  of  the  Pittsburg 
was  2,800  tons,  exclusive  of  the  sliding  ways  and  blocking ;  the  power 
required  to  start  this  weight  on  a  level,  greased  surface  was  250  tons. 
As  soon  as  the  vessel  has  been  moved  eight  feet,  the  keys  which  hold 
the  cylinder  to  the  central  way  axe  withdrawn,  and  by  means  of  a  screw 
which  is  attached  to  the  head  block  of  the  ram,  and  driven  from  the 
engine,  the  cylinder  and  boiler  are  in  their  turn  rapidly  slid  ahead  (the 
water  in  the  cylinder  being  allowed  to  escape  into  the  tank),  when  the 
east-iron  keys  are  again  slid  in  place,  and  the  vessel  moved  another  eight 
feet.  After  the  first  starting  of  the  Pittsburg,  the  power  required  to  re- 
move her  was  but  150  tons,  and  she  was  moved  260  feet  in  6  hours.  To 
push  the  vessel  off,  the  cylinder  and  appendages  are  moved  to  the  head 
of  the  ways,  put  on  a  turn-table,  and  reversed,  when  it  is  again  brought 
down  to  the  cradle,  and  the  cylinder  being  secured,  as  before,  the  head 
of  the  ram  is  applied  directly  to  the  cradle,  and  the  vessel  shoved  back 
on  to  the  sections,  which  requires  the  same  time  and  power  as  to  haul 
them  off.  In  docking  and  hauling  out  the  Pittsburg,  every  part  of  the 
work  gave  the  most  entire  satisfaction,  no  portion  showing  the  least 
defect,  and  the  time  required  to  go  through  the  various  operations  being 
less  than  was  expected.  But  six  sections  were  used  for  lifting  in 
this  operation,  leaving  three  unemployed.  It  will  at  once  be  seen  that 
the  capacity  of  this  dock  exceeds  that  of  the  stone  docks  at  New  York, 
Boston,  and  Norfolk  combined  ;  for,  united,  they  can  take  but  three 
vessels,  while  here,  two  of  our  longest  war-steamers  may  be  hauled  out 
on  the  ways,  and  two  frigates  lifted  on  the  sections.  The  advantages 
that  must  result  from  the  facilities  of  repairing  a  vessel  elevated  into 
light  and  air  above  one  sunk  in  a  stone  dock,  are  very  great,  and  have 
only  to  be  seen  to  be  appreciated." 

On  a  future  occasion  we  will  discuss  some  other  points  suggested  by 
this  important  work,  which  reflects  the  greatest  credit  on  the  American 
engineering  profession  generally,  and  will  serve  as  a  standard,  which  we 
hope  to  see  future  works  attain,  but  which  they  can  hardly  surpass. 


The  Practical  Examinator  of  Steam  and  the  Steam  Engine.     By  W. 
Templeton,  Engineer.     London  :  Atchley  and  Co. 

This  work  is  an  enlarged  and  improved  edition  of  Incitements  to  the 
Study  of  Steam  and  the  Steam  Engine,  by  the  same  author,  which  will 
be  found  reviewed  in  our  vol.  for  1848,  p.  175.  Without  being  a  per- 
fect catechism  of  the  steam  engine,  it  contains,  in  a  compendious  form, 
a  variety  of  useful  information  on  those  points  which  the  practical  man 
ought  to  be  master  of.  Amongst  these  rnay  be  mentioned: — Calcula- 
tions of  the  effect  of  refrigerators — Working  expansively — Adjustment 
of  the  slide  valve,  parallel  motion,  &c. — Contents  of  pumps — Loga- 
rithms— Tables  of  areas  (progressing  both  by  eighths  and  tenths  in  one 
column) — Diameters  of  cylinders  for  given  powers — Foreign  weights, 
measures,  money,  &c.  One  of  Mr.  Templeton's  tables  we  must  protest 
against,  viz. —  Table  of  Nominal  Velocities  for  the  Pistons  of  Steam 
Engines,  which,  if  given  at  all,  for  which  we  know  no  reason,  should 
have  been  accompanied  by  some  counteracting  remarks,  to  show  its 
absurdity. 

Reports  by  the  Juries  of  the  Great  Exhibition. 

The  issue  of  this  work,  which  has  been  anxiously  looked  for  by  the  ex- 
hibitors as  well  as  by  the  public,  has  been  delayed  so  long,  that  we  appre- 
hend there  is  considerable  danger  of  its  sharing  the  fate  of  the  Illustrated 
Catalogue,  to  which  it  should  form  a  supplement.    In  spite  of  many  and 


great  defects,  inseparable,  probably,  from  any  book  produced  by  a  number 
of  individuals  working  each  in  his  own  fashion,  these  reports  embrace  a 
vast  amount  of  valuable  information,  from  which  it  is  difficult,  however, 
to  abstract  with  much  satisfaction.  We  have  attempted  to  do  so  at  another 
page,  and  as  soon  as  the  voluminous  nature  of  the  task  will  admit,  we 
will  proceed  to  criticise  some  of  the  salient  points  of.  We  ought  not  to 
omit  to  caution  our  Continental  readers  against  accepting  the  verdicts  of 
the  juries  as  exactly  representing  the  opinions  of  the  practical  men  of 
this  country.  As  an  example,  we  may  mention  a  "notice  "  of  the  high- 
pressure  steam  engine  of  M.  Flaud,  which  concludes  as  follows  : — "  The 
high  pressure  (75  lbs.  per  square  inch)  at  which  it  is  proposed  to  work 
this  engine  is,  however,  to  be  deprecated,  as  attended  with  great  risk, 
and  with  great  loss,  by  reason  of  the  high  temperature." 

French  engineers,  in  their  simplicity,  perhaps  think  that  the  pressure 
is  a  question  depending  rather  on  the  boiler  than  the  engine,  and  that 
high  pressures  are  attended  with  an  economy  which  more  than  counter- 
balances any  loss  by  radiation. 

The  Illustrated  London  Drawing  Book.     By  Robert  Scott  Burn.     8vo. 

pp.  146. 
The    Illustrated  London    Geography.     By    Joseph    Guy,    jun.     8vo. 

pp.  132.     Office  of  the  Illustrated  Library :  London. 

These  are  two  volumes  of  the  series  entitled  the  Illustrated  London 
Library,  although  why  the  distinctive  appellation  "  London"  should  be 
kept  up  we  are  at  a  loss  to  imagine.  Mr.  Burn  is  already  favourably 
known  to  the  readers  of  The  Artizan,  and  it  is'sufficient  for  us  to  say 
that  his  treatise  is  distinguished  by  the  same  practical  tone  which  cha- 
racterises the  other  productions  of  his  pen.  The  pupil  is  led  by  an  easv 
gradation  from  the  simple  outline  to  the  perfect  figure.  Ordinary  and 
isometrical  perspective  are  carefully  explained,  and  an  outline  given  of 
the  arts  of  copperplate  and  wood-engraving.  This  work  will  form  an 
excellent  handbook  for  the  class  teacher. 

Mr.  Guy's  Geography  is  adapted  for  children  of  a  much  younger  age, 
and  will,  we  doubt  not,  be  found  useful.  The  author  makes  some  very 
judicious  remarks,  in  the  preface,  on  the  impolicy  of  placing  maps  of 
inadequate  size  and  construction  before  children,  and  we  hope  that  his 
readers  will  take  the  hint  more  readily  than  his  publishers  appear  to 
have  done. 

The  Builders'  Pocket  Book  of  Reference.    By  Henry  Malpas,  Surveyor. 
London :  Rouse  and  Co. 

This  is  a  useful  little  work  by  a  practical  man.  The  leading  con- 
tents are  : — Tables  of  the  strengths  of  wood  and  iron  beams,  straps  and 
bolts,  and  other  building  materials ;  the  adhesive  power  of  nails.  &c, 
accompanied  by  some  judicious  remarks  on  roofing,  and  flooring,  and 
the  value  of  leasehold  and  freehold  property.  As  a  matter  of  justice  to 
the  author,  we  think  we  ought  to  give  him  a  hint  that  the  high  price 
attached  to  his  work  will  materially  diminish  its  sale. 

The  Engineers'  and  Contractors'  Pocket  Book  for  1S52-3.      London: 
John  Weale. 

This  is  just  one  of  those  kinds  of  books  of  which  no  adequate  idea  can 
be  given  without  specifying  all  its  contents.  We  need  only  say  that  it 
contains  a  large  mass  of  useful  information,  which  may  be  found  floating 
in  a  library  of  mechanical  works,  but  which  is  here  presented  in  an  ac- 
cessible form. 

The  Colonial  and  Asiatic  Review  for  July.     London  :  John  Mortimer. 

This  journal  is  the  result  of  an  amalgamation  of  the  Colonial  Magazine 
and  the  Asiutic  Journal,  and,  judging  from  a  first  number,  appears  not 
to  lack  well-directed  energy.    If  any  interest  in  the  empire  need  a  repre- 


18-52.] 


Correspondence. 


203 


sentative,  it  is  ouv  colonies.  Debarred  from  representatives  in  the  legis- 
lature, their  complaints  and  wants  excite  no  attention,  until  rebellion 
extorts  that  redress  which  is  denied  to  mere  remonstrance. 

Many  events  seem  to  point  to  the  present  moment  as  the  commence- 
ment of  a  new  era  in  our  intercourse  with  our  colonies ;  and  the  Colonial 
and  Asiatic  Review,  if  duly  supported  by  those  whom  it  is  intended  to 
serve,  may  perform  no  unimportant  part  in  the  diffusion  of  sound  infor- 
mation, and  the  removal  of  that  dense  ignorance  which  prevails  in  this 
country  on  all  colonial  matters. 

CORRESPONDENCE. 


will  thus  be  effectually  kept  out;  the  lid,  A,  is  provided  for  the  purpose 
of  keeping  in  the  water,  when  it  is  necessary  to  clean  the  boats.  India 
rubber  has  now  been  used  for  several  years  for  marine-engine  air-pump 
buckets,  in  an  exactly  similar  manner,  with  the  most  perfect  success  ; 
and  there  can  be  no  reason  why  it  should  not  act  in  the  present  case. 

Yours  obediently, 

"Navalis." 


To  the  Editor  of  the  Artizan. 

Sir, — The  recent  sacrifice  of  life  which  attended  the  loss  of  the 
Amazon  and  Birkenhead  has  called  forth,  among  other  inventions, 
that  of  a  self-acting  plug  for  the  boats. 

The  valve  of  Lieutenant  Stevens*  has  been  put  in  practice,  but  it  is 
disapproved  of  by  some,  in  consequence  of  the  centre  bolt  getting 
screwed  too  tight,  or,  from  the  swelling  of  the  leather  disc,  the  upper 
table  of  the  valve  cannot  be  turned  round ;  after  trial,  they  were  rejected 
by  the  West  India  Mail  Company  for  this  defect. 

Anither  valve  (or  plug)  has  been  invented  by  Mr.  Lisabe,  which 
consists  of  a  brass  box  perforated,  containing  a  ball,  which,  when  the 
boat  is  immersed,  is  pressed  against  an  India-rubber  seating,  and  the 
water  is  thus  kept  out  of  the  boat ;  and  when  the  boat  is  suspended  in 
the  davits,  the  ball  falls  by  its  own  gravity,  and  allows  the  water  to 
escape. 

As  this  design  is  very  similar  to  one  which  I  formed  some  months 
a°-o,  in  connection  with  a  scheme  for  lowering  ships'  boats,  I  am  tempted 
to  commit  it  to  print,  because  I  think  it  is  less  complicated  in  its  con- 


PARKER  AND  FIELD'S  IMPROVED  REVOLVER  PISTOL. 

The  great  demand  for  these  very  useful  weapons,  revolvers — "  six- 
shooters" — has  led  many  of  our  makers  to  further  improvements. 
Amongst  these,  is  a  neat  modification  of  the  ramrod,  which  has  been 
registered  by  Messrs.  Parker  and  Field,  the  eminent  gun  makers,  of 
London,  which  is  represented  in  the  accompanying  engraving.  Fig.  1 
is  a  side  elevation  of  the  pistol,  one-third  the  full  size ;  and  fig.  2  is  a 
sketch  of  the  ramrod,  detached.  The  ramrod  is  contained  in  a  small 
cylindrical  case,  fastened  by  screws  to  the  side  of  the  barrel,  and  is  con- 
nected to  a  spiral  spring  in  the  case,  so  that,  after  ramming  down  the 
charge,  the  ramrod  returns  to  its  position  in  the  case  as  soon  as  it  is 
released.  The  outer  end  is  furnished  with  a  T  handle,  which  admits  of 
beino-  turned  out  of  the  way,  when  not  required  for  loading,  as  shown 
in  fig.  1. 

To  prevent  the  issue  of  smoke  from  the  joint  between  the  barrel  and 
the  revolving  chamber,  the  mouths  in  the  latter  are  coned  out,  and  the 
end  of  the  barrel  is  coned  to  fit  them.  Whilst  the  pistol  is  at  half- 
cock,  the  chamber  is  drawn  back  to  allow  it  to  revolve  clear  of  the 
barrel,  but  when  the  hammer  is  descending  on  the  nipple,  the  chamber 
is,  by  the  action  of  the  lock,  moved  forward,  so  as  to  bring  the  two 
cones  together,  and  make  a  tight  joint.  This  arrangement  obviates  the 
difficulty  felt  with  many  of  the  revolvers,  which,  when  worn  a  little 


Fig.  2. 

struction  than  that  of  Mr.  Lisabe's.  Fig  1  is  a  sectional  elevation  and 
fig  2  a  plan,  with  the  upper  lid,  A,  removed.  The  lower  casting  forms 
a  "shield  and  face  to  the  India-rubber  disc,  B,  and  flanch  for  bolting  to 
the  bottom  planks  of  the  boat ;  the  upper  face  is  screwed  into  the  lower 
one,  as  shown,  whilst  the  lid,  A,  fits  into  the  top  of  the  upper  face  or 

shield.  ...  „  ..        . 

When  the  boat  is  suspended  in  the  davits,  the  disc,  B,  will  fall  on  to 
the  lower  face,  and  allow  the  water  to  escape  through  the  sides,  ,n  the 
direction  of  the  curved  arrows;  and  when  the  boat  is  in  the  water,  the 
disc  will  be  floated  andpressed_against  the  upper  face^nd^water 

*  See  Artizan,  1850,  p.  259. 


slack,  do  not  always  bring  the  barrel  and  chamber  in  an  exact  line.  The 
hammer  is  raised  as  in  an  ordinary  pistol,  and  is  set  on  one  side,  so  as 
to  allow  of  an  accurate  aim  being  taken  along  the  barrel. 


REMARKS  ON  H.  B.  M.  SCREW  STEAM  FRIGATE  ARROGANT. 
By  Chief  Engineer,  B.  F.  Isiiekwood,  U.  S.  Navy. 
The  Arrogant  has  long  been  considered  the  most  successful  application 
of  an  auxiliary  screw  to  a  war  steamship.  Having  been  furnished  directly 
from  her  chief  engineer  with  a  number  of  her  indicator  cards,  and  accom- 
panying data  of  speed,  revolutions  of  screw,  &c.,  I  thought  it  might  bo  of 
interest  to  steam  engineers  and  ship  constructors,  to  publish  these  results, 
giving  additionally  the  full  dimensions  of  hull,  emjincs,  bodcrs,  and  screw, 
obtained  from  the  chief  engineer  of  the  vessel  and  other  sources,  In  order 
that  a  correct  opinion  might  be  formed.  As  these  results  may  he  relied  on, 
thev  will  co  far  to  correct  some  very  exaggerated  reports  of  the  performance 

27 


204 


Remarks  on  H.  B.  M.  Screw  Steam  Frigate  "  Arrogant" 


[September, 


of  this  vessel,  as  well  as  to  show  the  latest  manner  of  using  steam  in  the 
British  navy. 

Hull. 

Length  between  perpendiculars        200  feet. 

Length  of  keel  for  tonnage ..    172    „    9§  inches. 

Breadth,  extreme         .  •         •  •  •  •  •  •  . .     45    „    8|     „ 

Breadth,  moulded 44    „    4       „ 

Depth  of  lower  hold    ..         ..         .-         ..  ..      15    „    1       „ 

Mean  draft,  half  coal  in,  and  all  other  weights  full. .      19    „    0      „ 

Burthen 1872  tons. 

Displacement  at  19  feet  draft 2470    „ 

Immersed  amidship  section  at  19  feet  draft  . .         . .    587  square  feet. 

Engines. — Two  of  Penn's  horizontal  trunk,  condensing  engines,  placed 
on  board  at  Woolwich  in  1848.     The  exhaust  pipe,  which  is  the  highest 
part  of  the  engines,  is  4  feet  8  inches  below  the  water  line  ;  the  tops  of  the 
cylinders  are  6  feet  1 1  inches  below  water  line. 

Diameter  of  cylinder,  60  inches  1    equivalent  to  a  diameter  of 

„  trunks,    24     „       J  55  inches. 

Stroke  of  piston  . .  . .  . .         . .         . .       3  feet. 

Space  displacement  of  both  pistons  per  stroke        . .      98-99  cubic  feet. 
Diameter  of  main  steam  pipe  . .  . .  . .  18  inches. 

Leading  into  steam  pipe  of  diameter  of       . .  . .      14    „ 

Diameter  of  eduction  pipes     ..         ..         ..  18     „ 

Diameter  of  overflow  pipes      ..         ..  ..  ..      18    „ 

Extreme  length  of  engine  and  boiler  rooms,  bulkhead 

to  bulkhead  . .  . .         . .  . .  '       . .  56  feet. 

Slide  Yalves. 

Lead  on  top  lid,  or  lid  to  cylinder  cover  . .  . .         T3S  inch. 

Lead  on  bottom  lid  . .  . .  . .  . .         is    » 

Carries  steam  on  top  stroke     . .  . .  . .  28  inches. 

„  bottom  stroke  . .  . .  26      „ 

Lead  of  exhaust  on  top  lid  of  valve  . .  . .  . .        7\    „ 

„  bottom  lid  of  valve  ..  ..       7£,  „ 

Length  of  slide  faces    . .  . .  . .  . .  . .        9      „ 

Length  of  ports. .  . .         . .  . .  . .  . .       5-^   „ 

Exhaust  ports  at  bottom         . .  . .  . .  . .       3f    „ 

top 3£    „ 

Note. — When  steam  is  admitted  into  the  top  end  of  the  cylinder,  the 
exhaust  port  is  open  3}§  inches  ;  and  when  admitted  into  the  bottom  end, 
the  exhaust  port  is  open  3|  inches.  The  lead  at  the  crank  end  of  the 
cylinder  is  -^  inch,  and  at  the  cylinder  cover  end  fs  inch. 

Shafting. 

Diameter  of  shaft  at  main  bearing     . .         . .  .  .  10j  inches. 

„           connecting  shaft  bearing            . .  . .       9^     „ 

„           screw  propeller  shaft  at  large  end  . .  14      „ 
„                „                „                small  end  . .        9      „ 
Length  of  shafting  from  inside  of  stern  post  to  for- 
ward part  of  coupling  on  crank  shaft        . .  . .  69  feet  1  inch. 

Boilers. — Pour  horizontal  tubular  boilers,  placed  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  top  of  the  steam  chest  is  3  feet  4  inches  below  the  water  line. 
Number  of  tubes  in  each  boiler  . .         . .         . .    264 

Outside  diameter  of  tubes       . .  . .         . .  . .       2\  inches. 

Length  of  tubes  5  feet  6  inches. 

Length  of  each  boiler  . .  . .         . .         . .         . .      12    „    3     „ 

Breadth 10    „    7     „ 

Height 7    „    4     „ 

Number  of  furnaces  in  each  boiler     . .  . .  . .       3 

Length  of  each  furnace,  that  is,  of  grate  bars  in  each 

furnace  5  feet. 

Breadth . .         . ,  .       . .         . .         . .         . .  . .       3    „ 

Area  of  total  grate  surface 180  square  feet. 

„  heating    „     in  tubes  . .  3800-544  sq.ft. 

»  „  „    furnaces,  &c.  634-000    „ 

Area  of  total  heating  surface  iu  the  4 

boilers  4434-544  sq.  feet. 

/ 


Extreme  height  of  chimney  when  up  above  grates . .     44  feet. 

Length  of  upper  or  sliding  part  of  chimney . .         . .      15  feet  8  inches. 

Diameter  of  lower  or  fixed  part  of  chimney . .         ..       5    „    3|   „ 
„  upper  or  sliding  part        „       . .  . .        5    „    \\   „ 

Weight  of  water  in  boilers      . .  . .         . .  39  tons. 

Consumption  of  English  bituminous  coal  per  24  hours, 
working  with  full  power  at  sea  with  steam  alone, 
in  good  weather,  boiler  pressure  5  pounds  per 
square  inch,  cut  off  at  fths  the  stroke  from  the 
commencement,  making  44§  double  strokes  of  pis- 
ton per  minute,  initial  cylinder  pressure  18  pounds 
per  square  inch         . .  . .  . .  . .  32  tons. 

Sea  water  evaporated  under  the  above  circumstances 
by  one  pound  of  coal,  inclusive  of  loss  by  blowing 
ofl*  at  3-32,  and  by  waste  of  steam  in  clearance  and 
nozzles  . .  . .  . .  . .         . .  . .       6-836  pounds. 

Coal  consumed  per  hour  per  square  foot  of  grate 

surface  ..  ..         .-  ..  ..         ..      16"600       „ 

Weight  of  coal  carried  in  bunkers,  260  tons,  or  sufficient  for  8  days'  steam- 
ing at  full  power. 

Screw. — One  true  screw,  placed  at  the  stern  in  a  sliding  frame,  so  as  to 
be  raised  out  of  the  water  when  the  ship  is  under  sail  alone. 

Diameter  ..         ..  ..         ..  ..  ..      15  feet  6  inches. 

Pitch 15    „    0      „ 

Length  on  axis. .         . .  . .         . .         . .  . .       2    „    6     „ 

Number  of  blades        . .  . .  . .         . .  . .       2 

Helicoidal  area  of  screw  . .  . .         . .  . .    136  square  feet. 

Area  of  screw  projected  on  a  plane  at  right  angles  to 

axis    ..  ..  ..  ..         ..  ..  ..      61-85        „    • 

Ebsults. 

Speed  of  vessel  at  sea  under  steam  alone,  in  good 
weather,  working  at  the  reduced  power  used  in 
calms  and  smooth  water,  viz. :  cutting  off  at  about 
|th  from  commencement  of  stroke,  and  having  a 
mean  effective  pressure  per  square  inch  of  pistons 
throughout  the  stroke  of  7f  pounds,  making  33§ 
double  strokes  of  piston  per  minute        . .      3-833  knots  of  6082§feei. 

Horse  power  developed  by  engines  under  the  above 

circumstances  ..         ..  ..  ..  ..  223-99 

Speed  of  vessel  at  sea  under  steam  alone,  in  good 
weather,  working  with  full  power,  viz.:  an  initial 
pressure  in  cylinder  of  18  pounds  per  square  inch, 
cutting  off  at  |ths  the  stroke  from  the  commence- 
ment, giving  a  mean  effective  pressure  throughout 
the  stroke  of  13-J  pounds  per  square  inch  of 
pistons,  making  44§  double  strokes  of  piston  per 
minute  5-08  knots  of  60S2|  feet. 

Horse  power  developed  by  engines  under  the  above 

circumstances  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..    520-96 

Slip  of  the  screw  under  the  above  circumstances     ..      23  04  per  cent. 

Indicator  Diagrams  from  Steam  Cylinders.     Scale,  10  pounds  to 

the  INCH. 

No.  1. — Taken  August  4th,  1851.  Sea  smooth,  and  variable  head  airs; 
speed  by  patent  log,  3 -70  knots  per  hour;  revolutions  of  the  screw,  33  per 
minute;  mean  effective  pressure  per  square  inch  of  piston,  S-14  pounds.  Slip 
of  the  screw,  24-22  per  cent. 

No.  2. — Taken  August  5th,  1851.  Moderate  head  swell,  and  airs  ahead; 
speed  by  patent  log,  4  knots  per  hour;  revolutions  of  the  screw,  34  per 
minute;  mean  effective  pressure  per  square  inch  of  piston,  7-43  pounds.  Slip 
of  the  screw,  20-49  per  cent. 

No.  3. — Taken  August  4th,  1851.  Sea  smooth;  fore  and  aft  sails  set; 
speed  by  patent  log,  5-8  knots  per  hour;  revolutions  of  the  screw,  34  per 
minute;  mean  effective  pressure  per  square  inch  of  piston,  7-69  pounds. 
Negative  slip  of  the  screw,  15-29  per  cent. 

No.  4. — Taken  August  5th,  1851.  Sea  smooth;  calms  and  head  airs; 
.  speed  by  patent  log,  3-80  knots  per  hour;  revolutions  of  the  screw,  34  per 


1852.] 


Remarks  on  H.  B.  M.  Screw  Steam  Frigate  "  Arrogant." 


205 


minute;  mean  effective  pressure  per  square  inch  of  piston,  7-35  pounds.  Slip 
of  the  screw,  24*46  per  cent. 

No.  5.-Taken  May  4th,  1850.  Sea  and  wind  not  noted;  speed  by  patent 
log,  4-20  knots  per  hour;  revolutions  of  the  screw,  40  per  minute ;  mean 
effective  pressure  per  square  inch  of  piston,  8'08  pounds.  Slip  of  the  screw 
29-04  per  cent.  ' 


Fig.  7. 

No.  6.— Taken  August  5th,  1851.  Sea  and  wind  not  noted;  speed  by 
patent  log,  4-20  knots  per  hour;  revolutions  of  the  screw,  51  per  minute; 
mean  effective  pressure  per  square  inch  of  piston,  12-99  pounds.  Slip  of  the 
screw,  44*34  per  cent. 

No.  7.— Taken  August  2nd,  1851,  leaving  Gibraltar  for  Lisbon.  Sea 
smooth,  strong  free  wind,  and  all  sails  set;  speed  by  patent  log,  10-60  knots 
per  hour;  revolutions  of  the  screw,  64  per  minute;  mean  effective  pressure 
per  square  inch  of  piston,  13-88  pounds.  Negative  slip  of  the  screw,  11-94 
per  cent. 

All  the  above  diagrams,  excepting  No.  5,  were  taken  on  a  passage  from 
Gibraltar  to  Lisbon,  with  a  mean  draft  of  about  19  feet,  and  show  the  per- 
formance of  the  vessel  under  the  most  favourable  circumstances,  having  a 
smooth  sea  and  short  run. 

Under  these  favourable  circumstances,  the  mean  performance  at  sea,  under 
steam  alone,  was  for  full  power;  that  is,  a  mean  effective  pressure  of  13| 
pounds  per  square  inch  of  piston,  and  44§  double  strokes  of  piston  per 
minute,  5 '08  knots;  and  for  the  reduced  power  used  in  calms  and  fine  wea- 
ther, viz.,  a  mean  effective  pressure  of  7f  pounds  per  square  inch  of  piston, 
obtained  by  cutting  off  at  about  |-th  the  stroke  from  the  commencement,  and 
33-|  double  strokes  of  piston  per  minute,  a  speed  of  3-833  knots  per  hour. 
These  are  slow  speeds,  and  would  not  by  anjr  means  be  considered  satisfac- 
tory in  our  navy.  Every  war  steamship  with  us  having  a  less  average  sea 
speed  than  9  knots  per  hour  is  pronounced  a  failure,  without  regard  to  the 
comparative  power  of  the  machinery,  consumption  of  fuel,  and  size  of  vessel. 
It  is  thus  that  nearly  all  our  navy  steamships  are  failures;  but  fairly  com- 
pared relatively,  power  with  power,  fuel  with  fuel,  and  size  of  vessel  with 
size  of  vessel,  I  believe  our  navy  war  steamships  will  be  found  to  give  higher 
results,  both  in  the  generation  of  steam,  its  mode  of  use  in  the  engine,  and 
application  to  the  propelling  instrument,  than  can  be  found  elsewhere,  at 
home  or  abroad. 
These  diagrams  also  show  in  a  very  striking  manner  the  effect  of  using 


sail  in  conjunction  with  the  screw,  and  the  existence  of  what  is  termed 
negative  slip.  A  few  remarks  on  this  subject  may  be  of  use  in  this  connec- 
tion, sufficient  data  being  luckily  furnished  by  a  trial  of  the  Arrogant  in  the 
Thames  river. 

January  8th,  1849,  the  Arrogant,  drawing  16  feet  10  inches  forward,  and 
18  feet  9  inches  aft,  was  tried  at  the  measured  mile  in  the  Thames  river, 
and  made  at  the  rate  of  7-25  knots  per  hour;  revolutions  of 
the  screw,  63  per  minute;  mean  effective  pressure  per  square 
inch  of  pistons  by  indicator,  13-31  pounds;  horse  power  de- 
veloped by  the  engines,  672-7.  Slip  of  the  screw,  22-23  per 
cent. 

August  2nd,  1851,  the  Arrogant,  leaving  Gibraltar  for 
Lisbon,  made,  in  smooth  water,  strong  free  wind,  and  all  sail 
set,  10-60  knots  per  hour  by  patent  log;  revolutions  of  the 
screw,  64  per  minute;  mean  effective  pressure  per  square  inch 
of  pistons  by  indicator,  13-88  pounds;  horse  power  developed 
by  the  engines,  767-45.  The  screw  had  now  what  may  be 
termed  a  negative  slip  of  11-94  per  cent.;  that  is,  the  speed  of 
the  vessel  was  11-94  per  cent,  greater  than  the  speed  of  the 
screw. 

It  may  now  be  supposed  that  the  screw,  instead  of  assisting 
the  progress  of  the  vessel,  was  retarding  it  by  dragging. 
That  this  was  not  the  case,  however,  and  that  the  screw  under 
the  above  conditions  was  still  actually  propelling  the  vessel, 
will  become  evident  from  a  consideration  of  the  performance 
of  the  vessel  in  the  Thames  river,  as  given  in  the  paragraph 
above. 

During  that  performance,  with  63  revolutions  of  the  screw 
per  minute  (slightly  less  than  64),  and  a  mean  effective 
pressure  of  13-31  pounds  per  square  inch  of  pistons  (slightly 
less  than  13-38  pounds),  there  was  developed  by  the  engines 
sufficient  power  (672-7  horses),  after  overcoming  the  screw 
resistances  of  the  front  edges  of  the  blades,  and  surface  fric- 
tion on  the  water,  and  engine  resistances  of  friction  and  load 
on  air  pump,  and  also  friction  of  load  on  the  engines,  to 
I  drive  the  vessel  7'25  knots  per  hour. 
During  the  performance  on  the  2nd  of  August,  when  the  screw  made  64 
revolutions  per  minute,  the  above-named  screw  and  engine  resistances  may 
be  considered  practically  the  same  as  with  63  revolutions.  The  power  now 
developed  by  the  engines  was  767-45  horses.  But  if  the  speed  of  the  screw 
were  now  really  less  than  the  speed  of  the  vessel,  and  retarding  it  by  drag- 
ging, the  screw  would  be  assisted  in  its  revolutions  by  the  reaction  of  the 
water  caused  by  that  greater  speed  of  the  vessel;  consequently,  there  would 
not  be  required  to  be  exerted  by  the  engines,  in  order  to  overcome  the  screw 
and  engine  resistances,  as  much  power  as  was  required  when  making  the  63 
revolutions  in  the  Thames  river;  yet  the  total  power  now  developed  by  the 
engines  was  greater  than  before,  viz.,  767-45,  instead  of  672-7,  while  a  less 
power  than  before  was  required  to  overcome  the  screw  and  engine  resistances. 
What  then  has  become  of  the  large  remainder  of  this  power?  It  must  havo 
been  expended  on  some  resistance,  and  the  only  resistances  opposed  to  the 
power  of  a  steam  engine,  in  propelling  a  vessel  by  a  screw,  arc  the  screw  and 
engine  resistances,  the  friction  of  the  load,  and  the  resistance  of  the  vessel 
itself.  We  have  seen,  however,  that  but  a  small  portion  of  the  power  de- 
veloped by  the  engines  was  absorbed  in  overcoming  the  screw,  engine,  and 
friction  resistances;  the  remainder,  therefore,  must  have  been  expended  in 
overcoming  the  resistance  of  the  vessel — that  is,  in  propelling  the  vessel — 
notwithstanding  that  the  vessel  was  apparently  going  faster  than  the  screw, 
and  could  not  therefore  be  propelled  by  it.  A  little  attention  to  what  takes 
place  in  the  passage  of  a  body  through  water  will  reconcile  the  contra- 
diction. 

It  is  familiar  to  all,  that  when  a  body  passes  through  water,  it  leaves  a 
vacuity  behind,  which  is  filled  by  the  in-rushing  water.  It  is  impossible,  in 
any  case,  that  this  vacuity  can  be  made  and  filled  simultaneously;  time  is 
required  for  the  operation,  and  the  effect  of  time  is  to  generate  a  current,  or 
give  velocity  to  the  in-rushing  water;  for  as  the  water  falls  into  the  vacuity 
by  its  gravity,  the  speed  of  its  current  or  its  velocity  will  be  proportional  to 


206 


Dimensions  of  Steamers. 


[September, 


tbe  time  required  for  the  water  thus  to  fall  in.  No  matter  how  fine  the  after 
lines  of  a  vessel  may  be,  or  how  slow  its  speed,  it  must  have,  when  in  motion, 
some  following  current,  and  this  current  will  he  in  some  proportion  to  the 
fineness  of  the  after  lines  and  the  speed  of  the  vessel.  The  finer  the  lines 
and  the  less  the  speed,  the  less  will  be  the  velocity  of  the  following  current, 
because  less  time  will  elapse  before  the  following  water  will  have  fallen  in; 
or  in  other  words,  the  following  water  will  have  a  less  distance  to  flow  before 
it  fills  the  vacuity. 

An  illustration  of  the  same  thing  may  be  had  by  observing  the  eddy  at 
the  back  end  of  a  bridge  pier  placed  in  a  current  of  water.  A  chip  thrown 
into  the  current  at  the  front  end  of  the  pier,  close  beside  it,  will  not  be 
carried  straight  on,  but  will  close  in  behind  the  pier,  and  remain  at  rest. 

With  a  hull  of  the  Arrogant's  proportions,  moving  through  the  water  at 
the  high  velocity  of  10-60  knots  per  hour,  it  is  very  probable  the  following 
current  had]  a  considerable  velocity  ;  and  as  the  screw  acted  in  and  against 
this  following  current,  it  might  have  had  a  very  positive  slip,  comparing  the 
speed  of  the  screw  with  the  vessel's  speed  diminished  by  the  speed  of  this 
current;  while  it  had  a  negative  slip,  compared  with  the  vessel's  absolute 
speed  through  the  water,  supposing  no  following  current  to  exist,  and  that 
the  vessel  and  screw  moved  through  the  water  in  the  same  condition. 

If  the  water  were  passing  the  screw  at  the  vessel's  speed  it  would  pass  at 
the  rate  of  10-60  knots  per  hour  ;  but  if  there  were  a  following  current  of  say 
1*60  knots  per  hour,  the  water  would  only  pass  the  screw  at  the  rate  of  9 
knots  per  hour.  The  speed  of  the  screw  should  therefore  be  compared  with 
the  latter  rate,  which,  if  it  could  be  ascertained,  would  give  the  true  slip  of 
the  screw,  a  slip  that  would  always  be  found  a, positive  one. 


It  must  here  be  distinctly  remembered,  that  a  negative  slip  can  only  hap- 
pen when  the  vessel  has  a  high  speed,  and  owes  a  considerable  portion  of  it 
to  a  power  additional  to  that  applied  to  the  screw,  that  of  the  sails,  for  in- 
stance ;  though  it  has  frequently  been  reported  to  exist,  when  the  vessel  was 
being  propelled  by  the  screw  alone.  In  these  cases,  it  was  manifestly  the 
result  either  of  inaccurate  observations  of  distance  gone,  and  revolutions 
made,  or  of  a  mistake  in  the  pitch  of  the  screw,  reckoning  it  less  than  it  ac- 
tually was. 

Supposing  the  motion  of  the  vessel  through  the  water  to  leave  no  vacuity 
behind  it,  the  resistance  of  the  vessel  would  occasion  a  certain  positive  slip 
of  the  screw.  Now,  suppose  this  vacuity  to  exist,  the  bow  resistance  of  the 
vessel  would  be  increassd  by  it,  and  by  consequence  the  slip  of  the  screw 
would  be  increased.  Now,  suppose  also,  that  by  reason  of  this  vacuity,  a 
following  current  be  .generated,  which,  striking  the  screw,  diminishes  again 
the  increased  slip,  it  is  evident  that  this  following  current  cannot  impart 
more  power  than  was  absorbed  in  generating  it ;  that  is  to  say,  that  its  addi- 
tional resistance  to  the  screw  can  only  equal  the  additional  resistance  at  the 
bow  thrown  upon  the  screw  by  the  generation  of  this  current.  Under  the 
most  favourable  circumstances,  then,  the  slip  would  remain  the  same,  either 
with  or  without  the  following  current ;  but  in  practice  it  cannot  at  all  retain 
this  equality,  for  the  whole  of  the  power  bestowed  in  generating  the  following 
current,  and  resident  in  it,  cannot  be  re-applied  to  the  screw  ;  in  fact,  but  a 
small  quantity  can  be  so  regained.  To  say,  that  in  a  vessel  propelled  by  a 
screw  alone,  the  vessel's  speed  could  surpass  that  of  the  screw,  would  be  to 
say,  that  in  the  case  of  a  man  wheeling  a  wheelbarrow,  the  speed  of  the 
wheelbarrow  surpassed  that  of  the  man. — Franklin  Journal. 


SHIPBUILDING  ON  THE  CLYDE. 

GREENOCK,    1852. 

Messrs.  John  Scott  and   Sons  have  upon    the 
stocks,  nearly  ready  to  launch,  a  13  years',  A  1, 
ship  for  the  foreign  trade;  flush  on  deck. 

Dimensions.  ft.    ins. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake    ..         ..      110    0 

Breadth  of  beam  ..  ..  ..       24    0 

Depth  of  hold 15     6 


Tonnage 
And  is  a  fine  model  for  fast  sailing. 


29315  tons. 


ft. 

ins 

168 

0 

30 

0 

20 

0 

They  have  just  laid  down  thekeel  of  an  ironclipper 
ship  for  Messrs.  Andrew  Orr  and  Co.,  merchants, 
Greenock,  for  the  East  India  trade;  to  have  a  poop 
and  top-gallant  forecastle. 

Dimensions. 
Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake     . . 
Breadth  of  beam 
Depth  of  hold 
Tonnage 718||  tons. 

Frames  5x3x1  inches,  and  15  inches  apart  ; 
stem  and  keel,  9  x  2 J  inches;  stern-post,  9  x  3| 
inches;  plates  from  ||  to  {^  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

Also  an  iron  clipper  ship  for  Messrs.  James  and 
William  Stewart,   merchants,   Greenock,   for  the 
East  India  trade;  to  have  a  poop  and  top-gallant 
forecastle. 

Dimensions.  ft.     ins. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake  . .  ..        168     0 

Breadth  of  beam  . .         . .  . .         30    6 

Depth  of  hold    . .  . .  . .  . .  20     0 

Tonnage  746^  tons. 

Frames,  &c.  all  similar  to  the  former  vessel. 

Also  another  iron  clipper  ship  for  Messrs.  H. 
More  and  Co.,  merchants,  Liverpool,  for  the  East 
India  trade;  to  have  a  poop  and  top-gallant  fore- 
castle, &c. 

Dimensions.  ft.     ins. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake. .  ..        187     0 

Breadth  of  beam  . .  . .  . .  34     0 

Depth  of  hold 22     6 

Tonnage  1025s-;[tons. 

Frames  5x3x|  inches,  and  15  inches  apart; 
plates,  J  to  f  of  an  inch;  keel  and  stem,  9  x2' 
inches ;  stern-post,  9  x  3.^  inches. 


They  are  also  laying  down  the  keel  of  a  paddle- 
wheel  steam  vessel  for  South  Australia. 

Dimensions.  ft.     ins. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake. .          ..  140    0 

Breadth  of  beam        ..          ..         ..  18     0 

Depth  of  hold 8     9 

Length  of  engine-space          . .          . .  34     0 

Tonnage.  Tons. 

Hull 222jjf 

Engine-space  . .         . .          . .          . .  58$} 


Register 


164«f 


A  pair  of  inclined  engines,  the  cylinders  facing 
each  other,  of  88  horse  (nominal)  power;  diameter 
of  cylinders,  37  inches  x  3  feet  6  inches  stroke; 
paddle-wheels,  diameter  effective  15  feet;  tubular 
boiler.  Frames,  3±x2^  x|  inches,  and  2  feet  apart; 
plates,  jg  to  -fa  of  an  inch  thick;  stem,  5  x  1| 
inches;  keel,  4  x  1^-  inches;  stern-post,  4^  x  l| 
inches.  Built  with  a  clipper  bow,  and  break  deck 
90  feet  long  and  2  feet  high.  The  machinery,  &c, 
is  by  Messrs.  Scott,  Sinclair  and  Co.,  Greenock. 

On  January  the  21st,  there  was  launched  from 

this  building-yard  the  sloop  Vulcan  (of  Greenock), 

the  property  of  the  builders,  for  coasting  trade,  &c. 

Dimensions.  ft.    tenths. 

Length  on  deck  63     2 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships      . .  . .        14     9 

Depth  of  hold,  do 6     7 

Tonnage  . .  . .         . .         . .   53^  tons. 

Do.  (Act  for  foreign  vessels)      . .  48^    „ 

On  June  the  21st  was  also  launched  by  this  firm 
(after  being  lengthened  32^  feet),  the  iron  paddle- 
wheel  steam-vessel  Magnet,  the  property  of  the 
Waterford  Commercial  Steam  Navigation  Com- 
pany. The  engines  and  boilers  were  refitted  by 
Messrs.  Seott,  Sinclair  and  Co.;  she  has  sailed  for 
London,  to  ply  from  that  port  to  Copenhagen 
and  St.  Petersburgh,  under  the  command  of  Mr. 
Thomas  Collyer. 

On  July  the  3rd  was  launched  a  very  handsome 
paddle-wheel  steam  vessel,  named  the  Duke  of 
Argyll,  with  a  clipper  bow,  for  the  Glasgow  and 
Lochfine  Steam  Packet  Company,  of  255-^  tons, 
and  1 65  horse  (nominal)  power.  One  steeple  engine, 
with  4  tubular  boilers,  and  2  funnels,  by  Messrs. 


Scott,  Sinclair  and  Co.,  to  ply  as  a  consort  to  the 
Mary  Jane. 

Messrs.  Robert  Steele  and  Co.  launched  from 
their  building  yard,  on  the  21st  of  June,  the  steam 
vessel  Arabia  (late  the  Persia).  At  the  time  ap- 
pointed, i  past  2,  p.m.,  as  the  vessel  began  to  move, 
she  was  named  tbe  Arabia  by  Miss  Louisa  Myles, 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Myles,  of  Glasgow. 
Amongst  the  gentlemen  present  at  the  launch  were 
the  Messrs.  Burns,  of  Glasgow,  Mr.  M'lvor,  of 
Liverpool,  &c. 

Dimensions.  ft.  tenths. 

Length  on  deck  . .  . .         . .       284     2 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships      . .         . .         37     3 

Depth  of  hold,  do.      ..  ..  ..         27     6 

Tonnage.  Tons. 

Sectional  act      . .  . .  . .  . .     239342- 

Act  for  foreign  vessels  . .  . .  . .     2250-fg; 

A  pair  of  sway-beam  engines,  by  Mr.  Robert  Na- 
pier, Vulcan  and  Lancefield  foundries,  Glasgow,  of 
910  horse  (nominal)  power;  diameter  of  cylinders, 
103  inches  X  9  feet  length  of  stroke  ;  diameter  of 
paddle  wheels,  37  feet;  having  tubular  boilers,  and 
2  funnels,  &c. 

The  builders  have  taken  a  hint  from  Brother 
Jonathan,  and  moulded  the  Arabia  sharper  forward 
than  any  of  the  Company's  vessels  that  have  been 
previously  built,  and  the  after-run  is  probably  one  of 
the  finest  and  most  elegant  series  of  curves," from  a 
vertical  straight  line  to  a  long  flat  floor  and  full 
round  bilges,  ever  seen.  The  desiderata  of  a  fine 
entrance  and  run  have  been  attained,  consistently 
with  large  available  space  and  tonnage,  owinj:  to 
the  great  length,  which  is  7  times  the  breadth,  while 
there  is  ample  space  for  a  midship  line,  without 
injuring  the  easy  curves  at  either  extremity,  so 
requisite  to  ensure  fast  sailing.  From  the  great 
length,  and  the  immense  weight  of  the  machinery 
to  be  put  on  board,  she  required  to  be  more  than 
usually  rigid.  This  extra  strength  has  been  at- 
tained by  two  series  of  diagonal  iron  bracing, 
extending  from  the  ma.in-deck  beams  down  to  the 
bilges.  Tbe  braces  are  bolted  by  through  bolts 
to  every  timber  which  they  cross.  The  first  series 
of  braces  are  sunk  or  checked  flush  into  the  timber, 
tbe  second  series  lying  over  them.  No  amount  or 
disposition  of  timber  could  possibly  give  the  strength 
or  rigidity  which  this  complete  system  of  iron 
bracing  effects. 


1852.] 


The  sleeping  accommodations  are  all  arranged 
under  the  main  deck,  and  extend  the  whols 
length  of  the  vessel  fore  and  aft.  There  are  two 
berths  to  every  state  room,  placed  fore  and  aft, 
an  advantage  and  comfort  which  voyagers  alone 
can  fully  appreciate.  The  state  rooms  are  thoroughly 
ventilated  by  spacious  louvres,  fitted  with  glass, 
opening  into  the  passages,  and  they  communicate' 
in  their  whole  length,  with  the  open  air  above] 
through  a  continuous  lateral  opening  under  the 
seats  on  each  side  of  the  saloon  on°deck.  The 
saloon  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  vessel, 
affording  an  unbroken  promenade  from  stem  to 
stern.  This  is  a  great  improvement  upon  the  de- 
tached houses  on  deck,  as  hitherto  adopted,  and 
affords  a  vastly  increased  accommodation,  without 
interfering  with  the  ship-shape  of  the  vessel,  or 
the  requisite  facilities  for  handling  or  working  her. 
The  Arabia  is  owned  by  the  British  and  North 
American  Royal  Mail  Steam  Navigation  Company, 
and  is  to  ply  between  Liverpool  and  New  York. 

DESCRIPTION. 

A  bust  female  figure  head,  no  galleries,  round 
sterned,  and  carvel-built  vessel,  three  decks  (flush), 
stationary  bowsprit,  two  masts,  brig  rigged,  port  of 
Glasgow.  Commander  Mr.  Charles  Henry  Evans 
Judkins.  Arrived  at  Lancefield  Quay,  Glasgow, 
from  Greenock,  to  receive  the  machinery,  &c. 

On  July  the  21st  there  was  launched  by  this  firm 
a  very  handsomely  modelled  screw  steam  vessel, 
named  the  Lady  Le  Marchant. 

Dimensions.  ft.      ins. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake    ..  ..      110  11 

Breadth  of  beam  ..  ..         ..        21     lA 

Tonnage,  O.M 212^  tons. 

Fitted  with  oscillating  geared  engines,  by  Messrs. 
Caird  and  Co.,  engineers,  Cartsdyke  Foundry, 
Greenock.  The  screw  is  brass,  with  three  blades, 
8  feet  in  diameter;  to  have  a  tubular  boiler.  Has 
accommodation  for  about  46  passengers,  and  is  to 
ply  on  the  station  from  St.  John  to  Harbour  Grace, 
Newfoundland.  Classed  13  years,  A  1;  launching 
draught  of  water,  with  screw  and  shaft  in  their 
places,  was  5  feet  10  inches  forward,  and  8  feet  2 
inches  aft. 

DESCRIPTION. 

A  bust  female  figure  head,  no  galleries,  round 
sterned,  and  carvel-built,  standing  bowsprit,  two 
masts,  schooner  rigged.  Port  of  St.  John,  New- 
foundland.   Commander,  Mr.  Andrew  Welsh. 

Also  on  the  stocks,  and  in  frame,  a  brig  for  the 
West  India  trade,  classed  13  years,  A  1,  flush  on 
deck. 

Dimensions.  ft.      ins. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake    ..  ..      105     0 

Breadth  of  beam  22     0 

Depth  of  hold 13    3 

Tonnage  23654  tons. 


3 


CARTSDYKE    (GREENOCK). 

Messrs.  Scott  and  Co.,  iron  shipbuilders,  have 
just  laid  down  the  keels  of  two  iron  paddle-wheel 
clipper  steamers,  for  the  Riga  aud  Lubeck  Steam 
Company. 

Dimensions.  ft.       in. 

Lengtli  of  keel  and  fore-rake     ..  ..      165     0 

Breadth  of  beam. .  . .  . .  . .       24     6 

Depth  of  hold 13     6 

Tonnage 483jf  tons. 

A  pair  of  oscillating  engines,  by  Messrs.  Caird 
and  Co.,  of  204  horse  (nominal)  power.  Diameter 
of  cylinders,  54  inches  x  4  feet  6  inches  lengtli  of 
stroke,  with  tubular  boilers  and  feathering  paddle 
wheels,  &c,  with  a  half-poop  50  feet  long  and  3 
feet  in  height. 


Dimensions  of  Steamers. 


DUMBARTON. 

Messrs.  Archibald  M'Millan  and  Son  launched 
from  their  yard,  on  the  17th  of  November  last,  the 
sloop  Elizabeth  (of  Greenock),  for  the  coasting 
trade. 

Dimensions.  ft.    tenths. 

Length  on  deck         59      3 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships   ..          ..  5      0 

Depth  of  hold,  do 5      9 

Tonnage.  Tons. 

Register  44-^ 

Owners,  Messrs.  Douglass  and  Graham,  Brymncr. 

Also,  launched  from  this  yard,  on  the  26th  of 
last  month,  the  barque  Isabella  Kerr  (of  Greenock). 
Owners,  Messrs.  John  Kerr  and  Co.,  merchants. 
Flush  on  deck;  classed  9  years,  A  1.   For  the  West 
India  trade. 

Dimensions-  ft.  tenths. 

Length  on  deck..  ..  ..  ..      119     3 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships       . .  . .        24     2 

Depth  of  hold,  do.  ..  ..        18     0 

Tonnage  442^  tons. 

Also,  by  this  firm,  on  the  21st  of  February,  1852, 
a  barque,  the  Three  Sisters,  the  property  of  Messrs. 
Peter  and  Thomson  Aitkman,  merchants,  Glasgow, 
for  the  San  Francisco  (California)  trade;  classed 
8  years,  A  1  ;  flush  on  deck,  with  roundhouse. 

Dimensions.  ft.   tenths. 

Length  on  deck  ..  ..         ..       117     1 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships     . .  . .         24     2 

Depth  of  hold,  do 18     9 

Tonnage  467J$  tons. 

With  a  full  female  figure-head. 

Also,  by  this  firm,  on  the  2nd  of  August,  the 
13  years  A  1  ship,  Catherine  Mitchell,  the  pro- 
perty of  John  Mitchell,  Esq.,  merchant,  Glasgow. 
Has  a  poop  and  top-gallant  forecastle,  and  'tween 
decks  8  feet  in  height,  with  a  full  female  figure- 
head ;  no  galleries.  Will  sail  on  the  first  voy- 
age from  Liverpool  to  Port  Phillip,  through  the 
agency  of  Messrs.  Miller  and  Thomson. 

Dimensions.  ft.  tenths. 

Length  on  deck  ..  ..  ..     150     0 

Breadth  of  do.,  amidships        . .  . .       29     4 

Depth  of  hold  do 21     5 

Tonnage  ..  ..  ..  . .  851TJ|(  tons. 

And  is  the  largest  vessel  built  by  this  firm. 

Also  on  the  stocks,  and  nearly  planked,  a  9  years, 
A  1,  ship,  flush  on  deck,  for  the  West  India  trade. 
Dimensions.  ft.      in. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake  . .  ..       120     0 

Breadth  of  beam  26     9 

Depth  of  hold    ..          ..        "..          ..  18     3 

Tonnage  396§j,  tons. 

Also,  just  laid  down,  the  keel  of  a  13  years,  A  1, 
ship,  flush  on  deck,  for  the  East  India  or  Austra- 
lian trades. 

Dimensions.  ft.      in. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake  . .  ..        165     0 

Breadth  of  beam  32     6 

Depth  of  hold  216 


Tonnage 


823^  tons. 


CASTLE-GREEN. 

Messrs.  Denny  and  Rankine,  ship-builders,  have 
just  completed  five  iron  luggage-boats,  for  the 
Danube  Steam  Navigation  Company.  After  being 
fitted  up,  they  are  painted  red,  blue,  green,  brown, 
and  white,  respectively  ;  then  marked  in  a  proper 
manner,  taken  to  piecis,  and  shipped  to  Hamburg. 


Dimensions. 
Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake 
Breadth  of  beam 
Depth  of  hold 
Tonnage 


207 


ft.       in. 

180     0 

25     0 

9     0 

•  552£j  tons. 


PENINSULAR   AND  ORIENTAL  COMPANY'S  STEAMERS, 
"  MADRAS  "   AND  "  BENTINCK." 

"  MADRAS." 
Built  by  Messrs.  Tod  and  M'Gregor,  of  Glasgow.     Engines 
by  do.,  of  280  horse  (nominal)  power. 
Dimensions.  ft.  tenths. 

Length  on  deck  233     0 

Breadth  of  beam         ...  31     5 

Depth  of  hold  at  do 21     3 

Tons  register,  N.M 1184  tons. 

Two  overhead  beam-engines,  geared  with  wheel 
and  pinion.  Lamb  and  Summers'  patent  flue 
boilers.  Diameter  of  cylinders,  5  feet  3\  inches; 
length  of  stroke,  5  feet;  diameter  of  screw,  14  feet; 
pitch  of  do.,  18  feet;  blades  of  do.,  3;  number  of 
boilers,  2;  number  of  furnaces,  8;  breadth  of  do., 
2  feet  11  inches;  length  of  fire-bars,  6  feet;  num- 
ber of  flues,  64;  length  of  do.,  6  feet  8  inches; 
load  on  safety- valve,  in  pounds,  per  square  inch, 
10  lbs.;  average  pressure  on  piston,  15'6  lbs.  ; 
gross  indicated  power,  746  horse  power;  con- 
sumption of  coals  per  hour,  20  cwt.;  date  of 
trial,  March  25th,  1852;  average  revolutions, 
25  ;  speed  in  knots  with  tide,  11  726  ;  ditto 
against  tide,  10-651.  Mortise  wheel  has  96  teeth; 
pitch  divided  into  four  sets  of  cogs,  each  9  inahes 
on  face;  pitch  of  cogs,  4  inches.  The  pinion  of 
cast-iron  has  42  teeth,  so  that  when  engines  make 
25  revolutions,  screw  makes  57  revolutions.  The 
screw-shaft  is  enclosed  by  a  tunnel  casing,  with 
semicircular  top,  measuring  5  feet  wide  X  "  feet 
6  inches  clear  height  X  78  feet  long. 

"BENTINCK." 

Built  by  Messrs.  Wilson,  of  Liverpool.     Engines  by  Messrs. 
Fawcett  and  Preston  ;  of  520  horse  (nominal)  power. 

Dimensions.  ft.  tenths. 

Length,  extreme         ...         ...         ...       217     0 

Breadth  of  beam         36     0 

Depth  of  hold  30     4 

Tons  register,  N.M 2,090  tons. 

Side-lever  engines;  new  boilers  on  Lamb  and 
Summers'  patent  ;  diameter  of  cylinders,  6  feet  t"> 
inches;  length  of  stroke,  8  feet;  diameter  of  paddle- 
wheel  over  boards,  31  feet  2  inches,  leathering  ; 
length  of  boards,  10  feet  2  inches;  depth  of  do.,  4 
feet;  number  of  do.  18;  number  of  boilers,  4; 
length  of  do.,  13  feet  8  inches;  breadth  of  do., 
10  feet  ;  height  of  do.,  including  steam-chests, 
14  feet  6  inches;  cubic  feet  in  steam-chests,  2,000; 
number  of  furnaces,  16  ;  breadth  of  do..  2  feet  '.» 
inches;  length  of  fire-bars,  6  feet;  number  of  flues, 
128;  length  of  do.,  6  feet  3  inches;  diameter  of 
chimney,  5  feet  4  inches;  height  of  do.,  44  feet 
from  top  of  boiler;  load  on  safety-valve  in  pounds, 
per  square  inch,  12  lbs.  ;  average  pressure  on  pis- 
ton, 20-6  lbs.  per  square  inch  ;  gross  indicated 
power,  1,550  horse  power;  area  of  immersed  sec- 
tion, 596  square  feet;  contents  of  bunkers,  in  tons, 
620  tons;  consumption  of  coals  per  hour,  38  cwt.; 
date  of  trial,  November  12th,  1851 ;  draft  forward, 
17  feet  7  inches;  do.  aft,  18  feet  2  inches;  average 
revolutions,  16;  speed  in  knots,  10'7. 

The  average  speed  at  sea  of  Bentinck,  in  the 
four  voyages  made  to  Alexandria  since  her  alter- 
ations, has  been  10-5  nautical,  or  12-09  statute 
miles  per  hour.  Her  consumption  of  coal  has  been 
more  per  hour,  but  less  considerably  per  voyage,  than 
before.  The  patent  boilers  of  Messrs.  Lamb  and 
Summers  give  her  ample  steam. 


Ericsson's  Caloric  Engine. — We  gave  a  plate  and  description  of  this 
invention  in  the  Artizan  for  August,  1851.  The  following  details  of  its  ap- 
plication on  a  large  scale  may  be  useful: — "The  regenerator  in  the  60* 
horse  engine  measures  26  inches  in  height  and  width  internally.  Each  disc 
of  wire  composing  it  contains  676  superficial  inches,  and  the  net  has  10 


meshes  to  the  inch.     Each  superficial  inch,  therefore,  contains  100  meshes, 

which,  multiplied  by  676,  give  67,600  meshes  in  each  disc;  and  as  200  discs 
are  employed,  it  follows  that  the  regenerator  contains  13,520,000  meshes; 
and,  consequently,  as  there  are  as  many  small  spaces  between  the  discs  as 

there  are  meshes,  we  find  that  the  air  within  is  distributed  in  about  27,000,000 


208 


Notes  on  American' Inventions. 


[September, 


minute  cells.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  nearly  every  particle  of  the  whole 
volume  of  air,  in  passing  through  the  regenerator,  is  brought  into  very 
dose  contact  with  a  surface  of  metal  which  heats  and  cools  alternately. 
The  wire  contained  in  each  disc  is  1,140  feet  long,  and  that  contained  in 
the  regenerator  is,  consequently,  228,000  feet  or  41  £  miles  in  length, 
the  superficial  measurement  of  which  is  equal  to  the  entire  surface  of 
four  steam-boilers,  each  40  feet  long  and  4  feet  in  diameter;  and  yet  the 
regenerator,  presenting  this  great  amount  of  heating  surface,  is  only  about  2 
feet  cube— less  than  ^  of  the  bulk  of  these  four  boilers.  This  engine,  ac- 
cording to  the  account  from  which  we  quote,  has  been  run  at  full  speed  for 
24  hours,  with  a  consumption  of  only  960  lbs.  of  coal.  After  feeding  the  fires, 
it  continues  to  run  three  hours  without  replenishment,  and  after  withdraw- 
ing them  from  the  grates  it  operates  with  full  power  for  an  hour,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  astonishing  action  of  the  regenerator  alone."  A  good  autho- 
rity on  the  spot  tells  us,  he  has  no  doubt  the  boat  will  go,  but  he  does  doubt 
her  effective  power  and  speed. 


Effect  of  Size  on  the  Speed  of  Vessels. — At  the  present  moment 
the  following  calculation,  from  Bourne's  Treatise  on  the  Screw  Propeller, 
may  be  found  useful : — 

"I  shall  now  consider  what  would  be  the  speed  that  would  be  attained  by 
a  vessel  of  the  same  form  as  the  Fairy,  and  the  same  proportion  of  power  to 
tonnage,  but  of  3  times  the  length,  and  consequently  of  9  times  the  area  of 
immersed  section,  27  times  the  capacity,  and  9  times  the  power.  The 
length  of  such  a  vessel  would  be  434  feet,  the  breadth  63  feet  4£  inches,  the 
draught  of  water  about  16^  feet,  the  area  of  the  immersed  section  about  729 
square  feet,  and  the  power  1,080  horses.  Now,  as  the  lengths  of  the  Fairy 
and  of  the  new  vessel  are  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  3,  the  speeds  will  be  in 
proportion  of  the  square  root  of  1  to  the  square  root  of  3,  or,  in  other  words, 
the  speed  of  the  large  vessel  will  be  1-73  times  greater  than  the  speed  of  the 
small  vessel.  If,  therefore,  the  speed  of  the  Fairy  be  13  knots,  the  speed  of 
the  new  vessel  will  be  22-49  knots,  although  the  proportion  of  power  to  sec- 
tional area  is,  in  both  vessels,  precisely  the  same.  If  the  speed  of  the  Fairy 
herself  had  to  be  increased  to  22-49  knots,  the  power  would  have  to  beincreased 
in  the  proportion  of  the  cube  of  13  to  the  cube  of  22-49,  or  5-2  times,  which 
makes  the  power  necessary  to  propel  the  Fairy  at  that  speed,  624  horse  power." 

Caution  to  Water  Companies.— An  action  was  recently  brought 
against  the  Bristol  Water- Works  Company  by  a  cabinet  maker,  whose 
premises  and  stock  were  destroyed  by  fire,  owing  to  the  company  not  having 
provided  fire-plugs,  and  the  mains  being  empty.  The  defence  was,  that  if 
the  water  were  turned  on  by  night  there  would  not  be  enough  by  day,  and 
that  as  the  works  were  not  completed,  the  act  of  parliament  did  not  apply. 
The  judge  overruled  this  legal  point,  and  the  facts  being  clearly  proved,  the 
jury  gave  a  verdict  against  the  company  for  £531  18s.  7d. 

NOTES  ON  AMERICAN  INVENTIONS. 
Fire-Bars  of  Eire  Clay.— Mr.  P.  P.  Dimpfel,  of  Philadelphia,  has 
patented  in  the  U.  S.,  fire-bars,  composed  of  fire-clay,  soapstone,  or  other 
refractory  substance,  either  alone  or  supported  by  a  metallic  casing.  The 
objection  to  this  plan  for  steam  boilers  appears  to  be  the  difficulty  of  making 
them  thin  enough  to  give  a  good  draught.  Thin  bars  and  narrow  spaces 
give  plenty  of  air  and  space,  prevent  the  small  coal  from  falling  through, 
and  are  economical  of  fuel.  Eire-  clay  bars,  however,  may  prove  useful  for 
"•as  retorts,  and  furnaces  of  various  descriptions  where  spaee  is  not  an 
object. 

Flour-Packing  Machines.— We  observe  that  machinery  is  used  in 
America  for  packing  flour  in  casks,  the  object  being,  we  presume,  to  obtain 
a  dense  mass,  not  easily  affected  by  air  or  moisture,  as  well  as  to  economise 
space.  As  far  as  we  can  learn,  it  is  a  conical  spiral  plate,  which  forces  the 
flour  into  the  barrel.  The  barrel  may  be  supported  by  a  varying  balance 
weight  or  a  spring,  to  allow  it  to  descend  as  it  is  filled,  or  the  spiral  might 
rise  in  the  same  way.    An  object  being  to  pack  it  uniformly,  we  observe  that 


Mr.  N.  Finman,  of  New  York,  has  patented  a  friction  clutch,  as  applied  to 
such  a  machine,  to  equalise  the  pressure. 

Improved  Brushes. — Brushes  made  with  fixed  handles  are  inconvenient 
for  many  purposes.  Mr.  F.  Murrow  has,  therefore,  patented  the  fixing  of 
the  handle  by  a  ball  and  socket  joint,  so  that  the  handle  can  be  set  at  any 
angle  suitable  for  whitewashing,  painting,  &c.  The  handle  is  also  made  of 
the  telescopic  form,  to  admit  of  its  length  being  varied  as  required. 

Improved  Cart. — To  facilitate  the  unloading  of  carts,  the  bottom  is 
composed  of  "slats,"  i.e.,  in  the  Venetian  blind  form,  so  that  by  their  being 
opened,  the  load  is  permitted  to  fall  through.  It  is  obvious  that  this  is  only 
applicable  to  certain  cases,  amongst  which  we  may  suggest  the  distribution 
of  dry  manure  and  the  materials  for  mending  roads. 

Manufacture  of  Boiler  Tubes. — Messrs.  T.  Prosser  and  Sons,  of 
New  York,  have  commenced  the  manufacture  of  tubes  intended  to  withstand 
external  pressure,  in  which  the  junction  is  effected  by  simple  mechanical 
pressure,  without  brazing  or  welding.  The  advantages  claimed  for  them  are 
increased  strength  and  diminished  probability  of  corrosion,  owing  to  the 
preservation  of  the  surfaces  of  the  original  boiler  plate  from  which  the  tubes 
are  made,  which,  in  the  ordinary  plan,  are  abraded  by  passing  through 
dies. 

Improved  TUzor  Strop. — This  strop  is  made  to  revolve  by  being  hung 
at  the  ends  on  centres,  and  so  that  it  cannot  be  soiled  by  touching  the  case. 
We  would  suggest  that  it  be  made  of  a  triangular  section,  so  as  to  give  three 
stropping  sides,  varying  in  fineness,  and  inserted  in  a  rectangular  box,  divided 
along  the  middle,  to  form  the  bottom  and  lid. 

New  Smoothing  Iron. — These  irons  are  heated,  not  by  the  insertion  of 
a  heater,  or  by  being  placed  on  a  stove,  but  by  being  actually  converted  into 
portable  furnaces  heated  with  charcoal.  The  interior  is  made  hollow,  and 
provided  with  regulators  for  the  admission  of  air  to  support  the  combustion 
of  the  charcoal. 

Hollow  Saw  Frames  of  metal  have  been  patented  by  Mr.  W.  C.  Brouson, 
of  New  York.  The  object  is  to  obtain  more  rigidity  with  less  weight  of 
moving  parts,  and  thus  admit  of  higher  speeds  being  used.  This  plan  is  in 
use  at  the  shipbuilding  yard  of  Messrs.  Wigram,  London;  the  frames  for 
sawing  curved  timbers,  on  Hamilton's  patent,  being  constructed  by  Messrs. 
Fox,  Henderson  &  Co.    For  description,  see  Artizan,  1850. 

Improved  Boot-Jack. — This  boot-jack,  patented  by  Mr.  S.  Thompson, 
is  provided  with  a  "heel  gripper,"and  a"stirrup"for  the  toe;  the  latter  being 
pulled  down  over  the  toe  (as  we  conclude)  by  a  lever  held  in  the  hand  during 
the  operation. 

Instrument  for  Opening  Boxes. — The  object  of  this  instrument  is  to 
open  packing  cases  with  as  little  injury  to  them  as  possible.  As  far  as  we  can 
gather,  it  consists  of  two  jaws  which  meet  in  a  wedge  shape,  and  are  driven 
in  between  the  case  and  the  lid.  A  notch  is  cut  in  each,  shallower  in  the 
upper  jaw,  which  takes  the  nail  when  the  jaws  are  forced  open,  and  prevents 
the  nail  being  drawn  through  the  lid.  The  opening  of  the  jaws  may  be 
effected  by  a  screw,  or  a  wedge  driven  sideways. 

Anti-Bug  Mattress. — Mr.  T.  G.  Clinton,  of  Cincinnati,  has  patented 
the  use  of  hide  hair,  steeped  with  hides  in  a  tanner's  lime  vat,  with  or 
without  other  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  whereby  a  new  result  is  attained, 
(which  we  must  give  in  the  words  of  the  inventor),  viz.,  "An  article  ob- 
noxious to  bed-bugs,  without  the  necessity  of  any  temporary  application  of 
poisonous  mixtures  thereto;  thus  furnishing  the  world  with  a  harmless  anti- 
dote to  a  great  nuisance,  and  abolishing  the  necessity  for  a  great  peril  to 
human  life  in  the  domestic  circle !  " 


GODDAED'S  IMPROVED  GA.S  STOVES. 

The  use  of  gas  in  private  houses  is  extending  so  rapidly,  that  in  many 
places  where  the  price  of  gas  has  been  reduced,  the  companies  can  hardly 
keep  pace  with  the  demand.  Its  adaptation  to  cooking  is  so  perfect,  that 
the  only  wonder  is  that  it  was  never  introduced  before.     Had  all  the  com- 


1852.] 


Notes  from  Correspondence. 


panies  been  as  wise  as  the  Ipswich  Gas  Company,  we  should  have  had  gas  in 

every  house.  Their 
system  is  to  supply 
and  fix  the  fittings, 
charging  a  moderate 
rent  for  use  and  de- 
preciation, a  policy 
which  induces  hun- 
dreds of  persons  to 
use  gas  who  would 
never  think  of  lay- 
ing out  a  large  sum 
on  an  article  which 
was  not  absolutely 
necessary.  Their 
jrj„   j  able  engineer,    Mr. 

Goddard,  has  taken  care  to  supply  them  with  stoves  of  the  most  efficient 
description,  and  has  favoured  us  with  engravings  of  his  new  Registered 
Asbestos  Stove,  which,  unlike  the  ordinary  stoves,  gives  that  cheerful  blaze, 

out  of  sight  of  which  no 
Englishman  is  supposed 
to  be  capable  of  endur- 
ing a  winter.  Kg.  1 
represents  the  stove, 
which  has  a  burner  of 
the  gridiron  form,  over 
which  is  sprinkled  a  few 
asbestos  shavings,  which 
ignite  and  sparkle  in  a 
most  warmth-suggestive 
manner.  Fig.  2  shows 
the  burner,  and  fig.  3 
the  same  stove  shut  up. 
The  backs  and  sides  of 
these  stoves  are  lined 
with  porcelain,  which 
reflects  the  heat,  and  is 
easily  kept  clean. 

Any  of  our  readers 
who  have  ever  experi- 
enced the  discomfort 
usually  attendant  on 
ordering  "  a  fire  to  be 
lighted  in  my  bedroom,"  will  appreciate  these  smokeless,  dirtless,  and 
troubleless,  gas  stoves.  They  may  be  seen  in  operation  in  London  at 
Messrs.  Hare  and  Co.'s,  Arundel-street,  Strand. 


Wrotjght-Ikon  Whippletrees. —  A  very  elegant  adaptation  of  wrought 
iron  was  exhibited  by  Messrs.  Ransome  and  Sims  at  the  Lewes  show,  which 
we  have  engraved.  The  trussed  form  gives  great  strength  with  the  mini- 
mum of  weight,  as  compared  with  the  clumsy  wooden  ones  generally  used, 
whilst  the  material,  if  galvanised,  or  kept  well  painted,  is  indestructible  by 
fair  usage.  This  invention  received  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society's  silver 
medal  at  Southampton,  and  was  "  highly  commended"  at  Lewes  show. 


Savage's  Invisible  Door  Spring. - 

Fig.  1.  Jamb. 


Fig.  2.        Jamb. 


===» 


^° 


209 

This  is  a  very  simple  and  efficacious 
contrivance,  and 
supplies  a  want 
which  we  have 
often  experienced. 
A  hole  is  bored 
in  the  jamb,  into 
which  is  fastened* 
by  a  flange,  a 
metal  tube,  shown 
in  section  in  fig. 
1,  and  an  outside 
view  in  fig.  2. 
This  contains  a 
spiral  spring,  to 
which  a  rod  is  at- 
tached. A  simi- 
lar piece  of  tube 
is  let  into  the 
door,  and  in  it 
works  a  lever  with 
a  friction  roller. 
The  outer  end  of 
P«fi  this  lever  is  of  a 

Door°Pen-  cam  shape,  and  is 

connected  by  a  joint  with  the  spring.  The  face  of  the  cam  also  runs  on 
friction  roller,  and  the  shape  of  the  cam  is  such,  that  the  opening  of  the  door 
extends  the  spring.  A  notch  is  made  in  the  cam,  which  fits  the  roller  when 
the  door  is  at  right  angles  to  the  jamb,  as  in  fig.  2,  and  serves  to  hold  the 
door  open.  The  spring  is  easily  fixed  without  disfiguring  the  door,  and  they 
can  be  applied  to  doors  swinging  both  ways,  so  as  to  dispense  with  hinges 
altogether. 

NOTES    PROM     CORRESPONDENCE. 

*#*  "We  cannot  insert  communications  from  anonymous  correspondents. 

"J.  G.,"  Halifax. — We  should  recommend  him  to  make  one  of  his  indi- 
cators, as  we  think  his  plan  a  very  ingenious  one,  but  an  adequate  opinion 
of  its  real  value  can  hardly  be  formed  without  actual  trial. 

"  A  Paper  Maker  and  Constant  Reader." — We  can  say  nothing  without 
seeing  an  indicator  diagram,  and  knowing  the  present  speed  of  the  engine. 
An  abstract  of  the  specification  can  he  procured  for,  say,  a  guinea.  Our 
correspondent  had  better  address  direct. 

"L." — The  plan  alluded  to  is  Pettitt's  patent,  dated,  we  think,  1843. 
"G.  W.  H.,"  Birmingham.— We  are  informed  that  a  factory  for  the 
manufacture  of  Colt's  pistols  is  being  established  in  London. 

Greenstreet's  Ornamented  Zinc. — The  zinc  is  etched  with  an  acid, 
and  colouring  matter  let  in.  The  specimens  we  saw  were  hardly  up  to  the 
mark,  but  experience  will  no  doubt  improve  it.  Our  correspondent  should 
see  it,  and  judge  for  himself. 

"  C.  E." — The  facts  are  so  evident,  that  we  did  not  think  it  would  have 
any  useful  effect  to  engrave  the  exploded  boiler,  but  a  sketch  of  it,  and 
notes  of  the  evidence  on  the  inquest,  may  be  inspected  at  our  office. 

"  A  Stoker  "  should  have  given  his  name.  The  only  special  work  on  the 
locomotive  is  the  new  edition  of  Tredgold,  which  we  fear  is  too  expensive 
for  him.  An  English  translation  of  a  French  work,  entitled,  the  Students 
Guide  to  the  Locomotive,  can  he  got  for  about  Ss.,  bul  the  illustrations  are 
out  of  date  by  this  time.  Mr.  Clark's  work  is  worth  his  reading,  if  he  can 
obtain  the  use  of  a  cop}'. 

Paddle  ash  Screw  Comiuned. — 
A  correspondent  has  favoured  us 
with  a  curious  pamphlet!  ci. tiled  The 
Balance  Engine,  by  George  Overend; 
in  which  tiie  writer  falls  into  t lie 
error  of  imagining  that  a  Bingle-act- 
ing  engine  will  only  burn  hall'  the  fuel 
per  horse  power  that  a  double-acting 
one  does  !    lie   also  proposes  to   add    a 

Bcrew  propeller  to  a  paddle-wheel 
steamer,  but  with  characteristic  per- 
verseness,  makes  the  .-team  from  the 
paddle-wheel  engines  drive  the  screw 
engines.  We  do  not  think  it  likely 
that  cither  Mr.  Bourne  or  himself  bad 
any  knowledge  of  each  other's  pro- 
jects. 


210 


List  of  Patents. 


[September,  1852. 


LTST  OF  ENGLISH  PATENTS, 
Fhom  24th  of  July  to  19th  August,  1852. 
Six  months  allowed  for  enrolment,  unless  otherwise 
Eenrv  Bessemer,  of  Baxter  House,  Old  St.  Pancras-road,  for  improvements  in  the  manu- 
facture,' refining,  and  treating  sugar,  part  of  which  improvements  are  applicable  tor  evapo- 

''lienrv'lImUdsworti/and  Janies  Houldsworth,  both  of  Manchester,  silk  manufacturers, 
for  certain  improvements  in  the  fixing,  extending,  and  holding  of  cloth  to  receive  embroi- 
derv,  and  tn  apparatus  applicable  thereto.    July  27. 

James  Denton  of  Oldham,  Lancaster,  spindle  and  fly-maker,  for  certain  improvements 
in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  preparing  cotton  and  other  fibrous  materials.    July  29. 

Frederick 'Winter  of  Eldnn -street,  Finsbury,  roche  manufacturer,  for  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  construction  of  machinery  for  supplying  rotatory  motion  to  carriages,  vessels, 
and  water  mills.    July  29.  ,...-,,.*..«.■ 

John  Martin,  of  Banner,  Norfolk,  farmer,  for  improvements  in  implements  for  hoeing. 

Julv  29 

Au"uste  Edonard  Loradoux  Bellford,  of  Castle-street,  Holborn,  for  certain  improvements 
in  the  manufacture  of  sheet  iron.     (Being  a  communication.)     July  29. 

Pierre  Armand  Lecomte  de  Fontainemoreau,  of  South-street,  Finsbury,  for  certain  im- 
provements in  the  construction  of  taps  and  cocks  for  fluids  and  liquids.  (Being  a  commu- 
nication.)   July  29.  . 

Henry  VViekens,  of  Carlton-chambers,  Regent-street,  Westminster,  gentleman,  for  im- 
provements in  obtaining  motive  power.     (Being  a  communication.)    July  31. 

Samuel  Starkey,  of  Clapton,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  machinery  for 
washing  minerals,  and  separating  them  from  other  substances.    July  31. 

Jolin^Gerald  Potter,  of  Over  Darwen,  Lancaster,  carpet-manufacturer,  and  Matthew 
Smith,  of  the  same  place,  manager,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets, 
rugs,  and  other  similar  fabrics.    July  31. 

Willi  im  Edward  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements 
in  the  construction  of  wheels  for  carriages.     (Being  a  communication. )    July  31. 

William  Ackroyd,  of  Birkenshaw,  near  Leeds,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of 
yarn  and  fabrics,  when  cotton,  wool,  and  silk  are  employed.    July  31. 

William  Hetherington,  of  Hansworth,  near  Birmingham,  gentleman,  for  improved  ma- 
chinery for  stamping  or  shaping  metals.    (Being  a  communication.)    August  3. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  me- 
tallic fences,  which  improvements  are  also  applicable  to  the  manufacture  of  verandahs,  to 
truss  frames  for  bridges  and  to  other  analogous  manufactures.  (Being  a  communication.) 
August  7. 

Roger  Hind,  of  Warrington,  engineer,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
machinery  or  apparatus  applicable  to  weighing  machines,  weigh  bridges,  railway  turn- 
tables, cranes,  and  other  similar  apparatus.     August  7. 

Alexander  Mills  Dix,  of  Salford,  Lancaster,  brewer,  for  certain  improvements  in  artificial 
illumination,  and  in  the  apparatus  connected  therewith,  which  improvements  are  also  appli- 
cable to  heating  and  other  similar  purposes.    August.  7. 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  the  firm  of  J.  C.  Robertson  and  Co.,  of  Fleet-street,  patent 
agent,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  manure.  (Being  a  communication.) 
August  10. 

Edward  Joseph  Hughes,  of  Manchester,  for  improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for 
spinning  and  weaving  cotton,  wool,  and  other  fibrous  substances,  and  also  in  machinery  or 
apparatus  for  stitching  either  plain  or  ornamentally.    August  10. 

Robert  Weare,  of  Plumstead-common,  Kent,  electrical  engineer,  for  improvements  in  gal- 
vanic batteries.    August  12. 

Melchior  Colson,  of  Finsbury-square,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  certain  improvements 
in  the  construction  of  vehicles.    August  12. 

Daniel  Adamson  and  Leonard  Cooper,  of  Newton- wood  Iron-works,  near  Hyde,  Cheshire, 
for  certain  improvements  in  the  construction  of  steam-engines  and  steam-boilers,  also  in  the 
method  of  using  and  rarefying  steam,  part  of  which  improvements  are  applicable  to  marine, 
locomotive  and  other  boilers,  and  marine  architecture  in  general,  as  well  as  in  cisterns, 
tanks,  and  articles  of  a  like  nature.    August  12. 

Richard  Laming,  of  Millwall,  Middlesex,  chemist,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture 
and  the  burning  of  gas,  in  the  treatment  of  residual  products  of  such  manufacture,  and  of 
the  distillation  of  coal,  or  similar  substances,  and  of  the  coking  of  coal.    August  12. 

Nathaniel  Jones  Amies,  of  Manchester,  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  braid,  and  in  the  machinery  or  apparatus  connected  therewith.    August  12. 
Francois  Bernard  Bekaert,  of  Cecil-street,  Strand,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture 
of  zinc  white.    (Being  a  communication.)    August  12. 

James  Lowe,  of  Charlotte-place,  Upper  Grange-road,  Bermondsey,  mechanic,  and  Thomas 
Eyre  Wych,  of  George-street,  Mansion-house,  London,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in 
propelling  vessels.    August  19. 

William  Palmer,  of  Sutton-street,  Clerkenwel],  Middlesex,  manufacturer,  for  improvements 
in  the  manufacture  of  candles  and  candle-lamps,  and  in  packing  candles  and  night-lights. 
August  19. 

Thomas  Hunt,  of  Leman-street,  Goodman 's-fields,  Middlesex,  gun-maker,  for  improvements 
in  tire-arms.    August  19. 

Henry  Rawson,  of  Leicester,  for  improvements  in  preparing  and  straightening  wool  and 
other  fibrous  materials.    August  19. 

Henry  Spencer,  of  Rochdale,  Lancaster,  manager,  for  certain  improvements  in  machinery 
or  apparatus  for  preparing,  spinning,  and  weaving  cotton  and  other  fibrous  substances. 
August  19. 

Charles  Butler  Clough,  of  Tyddyn  Mold,  Flint,  gentleman,  I.  P.,  for  certain  improvements 
in  machinery  or  apparatus  applicable  to  the  purposes  of  brushing  and  cleaning.     Aug.  19. 

Pierre  Armand  Lecomte  de  Fontainemoreau,  of  South-street,  Finsbury,  Middlesex,  patent 
agent,  for  certain  improvements  in  cutting  schistus  for  slates.  (Being  a  communication,). 
August  19. 

Samuel  Nichols,  of  Coldham-street,  Nottingham,  mechanic,  John  Livesey,  of  New  Lenton, 
in  the  same  county,  draughtsman,  and  Edward  Wroughton,  of  New  Lenton,  in  the  county 
aforesaid,  mechanic,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics,  and  in  ma- 
chinery for  producing  such  fabrics.    August  19. 


LIST  OF  SCOTCH  PATENTS, 
Fkom  22nd  of  June  to  the  22nd  of  July,  1852. 

John  Davie  Morries  Stirling,  Esq.,  of  Black-grange,  N.  B.,  for  certain  alloys  and  combi- 
nations of  metals.    June  22. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  im- 
provements in  separating  substances  of  different  specific  gravities.  (Communication.) 
June  23. 

John  Henry  Johnson,  of  Lincoln's-Inn-fields,  Middlesex,  and  of  Glasgow,  N.  B.,  gentle- 
man, for  improvements  in  steam  engines.    (Communication.)    June  28. 

John  Linton  Arahin  Simmons,  of  Oxford-terrace,  Hyde-park,  Middlesex,  captain  in  the 
Royal  Engineers,  and  Thomas  Walker,  of  the  Brunswick  Iron  Works,  Wednesbury,  Stafford, 
Esq.,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  ordnance,  and  in  the  construction  and  manu- 
facture of  carriages  and  traversing  apparatus  for  manufacturing  the  same.  June  28  ;  four 
months. 

Frederick  Sang,  of  Pall-Mall,  Middlesex,  artist  in  fresco,  for  improvements  in  machinery 
or  apparatus  for  cutting,  sawing,  grinding,  and  polishing.    June  30. 

Peter  Bruff,  of  Ipswich,  Suffolk,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
the  permanent  way  of  rail,  tram,  or  other  roads,  and  in  the  rolling  stock  or  apparatus  used 
therefor.    July  5. 


George  Laycock,  of  Albany,  in  the  United  States  of  America,  dyer,  but  now  of  Doncaster, 
York,  tanner,  for  improvements  in  tanning  and  unhairing  skins.     July  6  ;  four  months. 

Robert  John  Smith,  of  Islington,  Middlesex,  for  certain  improvements  in  machinery  or 
apparatus  for  steering  ships  or  other  vessels.    July  7  ;  four  months. 

James  Higgin,  of  Manchester,  Lancaster,  manufacturing  chemist,  for  certain  improve- 
ments in  bleaching  and  scouring  woven  and  textile  fabrics  and  yarns.    July  8. 

William  Beckett  Johnson,  of  Manchester,  Lancaster,  manager  for  Messrs.  Ormerod  and 
Son,  engineers  and  ironfounders,  for  improvements  in  railways,  and  in  apparatus  for  gene- 
rating steam.    July  12. 

Richard  Paris,  of  Long-Acre,  Middlesex,  modeller,  for  improvements  in  machinery  or 
apparatus  for  cutting  and  shaping  cork.    July  12. 

Peter  Armand  Le  Comte  de  Fontainemoreau,  of  South -street,  Finsbury,  London,  Middle- 
sex, for  improvements  in  the  apparatus  for  kneading  and  baking  bread,  and  other  articles 
of  food  of  a  similar  nature.     (Communication.)    July  13  ;  four  months. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  im- 
provements in  machinery  for  cutting  soap  into  slabs,  bars,  or  cakes.  (Communication.) 
July  15. 

Richard  Laming,  of  Millwall,  Middlesex,  chemist,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture 
and  the  burning  of  gas,  in  the  treatment  of  reMdual  products  of  such  manufacture,  and  of 
the  distillation  of  coal  or  similar  substances,  and  of  the  coking  of  coal,  and  in  the  applica- 
tion of  a  certain  substance  which  may  be  obtained  from  such  treatment  to  the  manufacture 
of  paper.    July  13. 

William  Reid,  of  University-street,  electric  telegraph  engineer,  and  Thomas  Watkins 
Benjamin  Brett,  of  Hanover-square,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  electric  telegraphs. 
July  19. 

Emery  Rider,  of  Bradford,  Wilts,  manufacturer,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  or 
treatment  of  India-rubber  and  gutta  percha,  and  in  the  applications  thereof.    July  19. 

Charles  Augustus  Preller,  of  Abehureh-lane,  London,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in 
the  preparation  and  preservation  of  skins  and  animal  and  vegetable  substances.    July  19. 

Peter  Armand  Le  Comte  de  Fontainemoreau,  of  South-street,  Finsbury,  London,  for 
certain  improvements  in  railways  and  locomotive  engines,  which  said  improvements  are 
also  applicable  to  every  kind  of  transmission  of  motion.  (Communication.)  July21  ;  four 
months. 

Joseph  Maudslay,  of  the  firm  of  Maudslay,  Sons,  and  Field,  of  Lambeth,  Surrey,  engi- 
neers, for  improvements  in  steam  engines,  which  are  also  applicable  wholly,  or  in  part,  to 
pumps  and  other  motive  machines.    July  21. 

William  Septimus  Losh,  of  Wreay  Syke,  Cumberland,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in 
obtaining  salts  of  soda.    July  21. 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  the  firm  of  J.  C.  Robertson  and  Company,  of  16G,  Fleet- 
street,  London,  patent  agents,  for  improvements  in  the  purification  and  decoloration  of  oils, 
and  in  the  apparatus  employed  therein.     (Communication.)    July  21. 

Robert  Hesketh,  of  Wimpole-street,  Marylebone,  Middlesex,  for  improvements  in  appa- 
ratus for  reflecting  light  into  rooms,  and  other  parts  of  buildings  and  places.    July  22. 

Edward  Maitland  Staples,  of  Cheapsidc,  for  improvements  in  cutting  mouldings, tongues, 
and  other  forms,  and  planing  wood.    July  22. 


LIST  OF  IRISH  PATENTS, 
From  the  25th  of  May  to  the  16th  of  July,  1852. 

Julian  Bernard,  now  of  Guilford-street,  Russell-square,  late  of  Green-street,  Grosvenor- 
square,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  leather,  or  dressed 
skins  of  the  materials  to  be  used  in  lieu  thereof,  of  boots  and  shoes,  and  in  materials, 
machinery  and  apparatus  connected  with  or  to  b^  employed  in  such  manufactures.  May  25. 

Stewart  M'Glashen,  of  Edinburgh,  sculptor,  for  the  application  of  certain  mechanical 
powers  to  lifting,  removing;  and  preserving  trees,  houses,  and  other  bodies.     May  26. 

Jean  Theodore  Coupier,  and  Marie  Amediie  Charlies  Mellier,  both  late  residing  at  Maid- 
stone, Kent,  at  present  of  Golden  Bridge  Mills,  near  Dublin,  gentlemen,  for  certain  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  paper.    June  2. 

Peter  Fairbairn,  of  Leeds,  York,  machinist,  and  Peter  Swires  Horsman,  of  Leeds,  afore- 
said, flax  spinner,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  process  of  preparing  flax  and  hemp  for 
the  purpose  of  heckling,  and  also  machinery  for  heckling  flax,  hemp,  China  grass,  and 
other  vegetable  fibrous  substances.    June  3. 

William  Hindman,  of  Manchester,  Lancaster,  gentleman,  and  John  Warhurst,  of  Newton 
Heath,  near  Manchester,  cotton  dealer,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  method  of  gene- 
rating or  producing  steam,  and  in  the  machinery  or  apparatus  connected  therewith. 
June  3. 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  the  firm  of  J.  C.  Robertson  and  Company,  of  166,  Fleet- 
street,  London,  patent  agents,  for  improvements  in  pi  esses  and  pressing,  in  centrifugal 
machinery,  and  in  apparatus  connected  therewith,  part  or  parts  of  which  are  applicable  to 
various  useful  purposes.     (Communication.)    June  3. 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  the  firm  of  J.  C.  Robertson  and  Company,  of  166,  Fleet- 
street,  London,  patent  agents,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  preparation  and  treatment 
of  fibrous  and  membraneous  materials,  both  in  the  raw  and  manufactured  state,  in  apply- 
ing electro-chemical  action  to  manufacturing  purposes,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  saline 
and  metallic  compounds.     (Communication.)    June  4. 

William  Cardwell  M'Bride,  of  Alistragh,  Armagh,  farmer,  for  certain  improvements  in 
machinery  for  scutching,  or  otherwise  preparing  flax  and  other  like  fibrous  materials. 
June  4. 

William  Watt,  of  Glasgow,  Lanark,  N.  B.,  manufacturing  chemist,  for  improvements  in 
the  treatment  and  preparation  of  flax  or  other  fibrous  substances,  and  the  application  of 
some  of  the  products  to  certain  purposes.    June  15. 

Richard  Christopher  Mansell,  of  Ashford,  Kent,  for  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
railways,  railway  rolling  stock,  and  in  the  machinery  for  the  manufacturing  the  same. 
June  21. 

John  Harcourt  Brown,  of  Aberdeen,  and  John  Mackintosh  of  the  same  place,  for  im  • 
provements  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  and  articles  of  paper.    June  21. 

Thomas  Twells,  of  Nottingham,  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  looped  fabrics.    June  30. 

Peter  Bruff,  of  Ipswick,  Suffolk,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in  the  construction  in 
the  permanent  way  of  rail,  tram,  or  other  roads,  and  in  the  rolling  stock  or  other  apparatus 
used  thereof.    July  16. 

DESIGNS  FOR  ARTICLES  OF  UTILITY, 
Fkom  23kd  of  July  to  the  19th  of  August,  1852. 
July  23,  3341,  T.  A.  Readwin,  Winchester-buildings,  "Revolving  cutter  and  scythe- 
reaping  machine." 
„    28,  3342,  G.  Wnatton  and  D.  Reading,  Chambers-street,  "  Roller  box  for  ships' 

blocks  and  various  kinds  of  axles,  &c." 
„    30,  3343,  John  Crosby,  Fakenham,  "  Safety  sea-bathing  machine." 
„    30,  3344,  Richards  and  Company,  Bishopsgate->treet,  "  Gold-washing  machine." 
„    30,  3345,  H.  E.  Thompson,  Oxford-street,  "  Portable  metallic  bedstead." 
August       2,  3346,  G.  B.  Davies,  Halifax,  "  Coat." 

„      3,  3347,  W.  Dray  and  Company,  London-bridge,  "  Box-gearing." 

„      6,  3348,  J.  Lee,  Birmingham,  •'  Combination  gold-digging  tool." 

„     12,3349,  P.  Rigby,  Liverpool,  "Washing  apparatus  for  separating  metals  from 

sand,  &c. 
„     12,  3350,  H.  Bennett,  Liverpool,  "  Double  diamond  tooth  for  hone  mills." 
„     17,  3351,  S.  R.  English,  Birmingham,  "Embossing  press." 
„     19,  3352,  E.  Goddard,  Ipswich,  "  Gas  stove." 


THE     ARTIZAN. 


No.  X.— Vol.  X.— OCTOBER  1st,  1852. 


THE   EVENTS   OF   THE   MONTH. 


RAILWAYS  IN  INDIA. 

Upon  the  subject  of  improving  the  internal  communication  of  India  we 
have  always  endeavoured  to  keep  our  readers  well  informed,  as  well  from 
a  sense  of  its  importance  to  the  great  manufacturing  interests  of  this 
country,  as  from  the  conviction  that  a  heavy  responsibility  rests  upon 
those  who,  having  conquered  by  the  sword,  rely  upon  it  alone  for  the 
stability  of  their  empire.  Were  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  swept  to-morrow 
from  the  face  of  India,  what  institutions,  what  public  monuments,  would 
survive  to  hand  down  to  future  generations  a  tradition  of  the  glory  of 
the  present  rulers  of  the  East?  With  an  immense  revenue,  unlimited 
power,  and  a  certainty  of  a  pecuniary  return  sufficient  to  satisfy  the 
most  exacting,  we  have  done  literally  nothing  for  India,  when  its  extent 
is  taken  into  consideration.  After  ten  years  of  talking,  we  can  only 
show  in  India  a  few  river  steamers,  and  a  few  miles  of  half-finished 
railway.  It  is  not  our  province  to  point  out  the  causes  which  have  led 
to  such  a  state  of  things — a  state  which  may  be  attempted  to  be  pal- 
liated, but  cannot  be  denied ;  we  would  rather  cheer  ourselves  with 
the  hope  that  the  dawn  of  a  brighter  day  is  at  hand,  and  that  India  is 
about  to  feel  that  revivifying  influence  which,  it  has  been  well  said, 
has  made  Old  England  young  again,  and  Young  America  a  man. 

Of  the  position  and  prospects  of  the  established  railway  companies  in 
India,  we  have  but  little  to  say.  At  Calcutta,  Bombay,  and  Madras, 
short  lines  are  in  progress ;  but  however  valuable  they  may  be,  as  afford- 
ing a  field  for  experience,  they  will  exert  little  influence  on  the  country 
at  large  until  they  are  linked  to  the  great  marts  of  commerce  in  the 
interior.  If  the  reader  will  turn  to  the  Artizan  for  June,  1851,  p.  121,  he 
will  find  aresume  of  the  plans  which  were  proposed  to  run  from  Calcutta. 
As  will  be  seen  by  a  reference  to  the  map,  the  Ganges  forms  an  arc,  hav- 
ing Calcutta  at  one  end,  and  Mirzapore  at  the  other;  the  chord,  a  distance 
of  450  miles,  being  formed  by  the  East  Indian  Railway,  should  that 
line  ever  be  carried  out  on  its  original  plan.  As  the  Ganges  is  easily 
navigable  as  far  as  Mirzapore,  this  line  will  have  to  bear  the  competition 
of  the  river ;  but  it  will  be  some  years  before  it  has  the  chance  even  of 
doing  that — so  we  may  dismiss  it  for  the  present. 

In  the  meantime,  however,  Upper  India,  the  districts  of  the  Upper 
Ganges  and  the  Jumna,  are  left  still  dependent  on  the  difficult  and  haz- 
ardous navigation  of  these  rivers.  Under  these  circumstances,  aline  has 
been  projected,  which,  apart  from  the  facilities  offered  for  its  execution 
by  the  nature  of  the  country,  has  the  singular  advantage  of  connecting 
together,  within  a  moderate  distance,  the  important  points,  Allahabad 
(the  confluence  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna),  Cawnpore,  Agra,  and  Delhi, 
with  the  opportunity  of  a  continuation  to  Lahore  and  the  banks  of  the 
Indus.  As  we  have  said,  the  country  is  remarkably  favourable,  the  course 
lying  between  the  Ganges  and  the  Jumna.  Indeed,  when  we  read  the 
report  of  the  director  of  the  railway  department  of  the  Indian  government, 


Major  J.  P.  Kennedy,  the  only  wonder  is,  that  the  government  did  not 
make  this  the  starting-point.  He  says,  "  Between  Allahabad  and  Delhi 
there  is  no  engineering  question  of  difficulty  whatever,  as  the  beautiful 
flat  bed  (extending  for  several  hundred  miles  in  the  direction  of  the 
line,  in  the  Dooab,  between  the  rivers  Ganges  aud  Jumna),  with  its 
numerous  commercial  towns,  offers  perhaps  the  most  singularly  inviting 
district  for  laying  down  a  railway  that  can  be  found  in  the  world,  free 
as  it  is  from  inundation,  from  hills,  from  river-crossings — in  short, 
from  any  impediment  and  almost  every  source  of  expenditure  in  rail- 
way construction." 

We  may  compare  such  a  line,  in  fact,  to  a  "  North-Western,"  having 
London,  Birmingham,  Manchester,  and  Liverpool  for  its  termini,  but 
without  its  enormous  cost  of  construction — that  millstone  which  sinks 
so  many  promising  schemes.  Like  the  tradesman  (immortalised  by 
Moliere)  who  had  lived  forty  years  without  knowing  that  he  talked 
prose,  railway  promoters  have  only  just  found  out  that  it  is  the  cost  of 
railways  which  mainly  determines  the  rate  of  dividend  which  they  will 
yield.  The  secret  of  the  success  of  the  American  lines  is  their  low  cost; 
and  if  it  be  objected  that  the  greater  distance  between  the  termini  coun- 
teracts the  economy  of  cost  per  mile,  it  is  equally  true  that  the  railway 
improves  so  much  the  greater  area,  from  which,  when  so  improved,  it 
will  draws  its  traffic. 

The  following  extracts  from  the  prospectus  of  the  company  are,  we 
believe,  below  the  mark,  instead  of  being  above  it : — 

"  Allahabad  is  an  ancient  and  populous  city  of  great  fame  and  im- 
portance in  the  East.  Crowds  of  pilgrims  resort  to  its  sacred  shrines 
and  temples  ;  it  is  the  entrepot  for  the  traffic  by  the  steamers  and  the 
larger  country  craft,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  civil  and  military  stations. 
Cawnpore  is  the  largest  military  station  in  India. 

"There  is,  both  by  steamers  and  country  craft,  a  continuous  permanent 
water  communication  between  Calcutta  and  Allahabad.  The  yearly  ton- 
nage of  the  lower  Ganges  is  1,500,000,  by  the  country  craft  alone.  The 
number  of  passengers  is  also  very  great.  Deep  water  ceases  at  Allaha- 
bad, and,  consequently,  it  is  at  this  important  city  that  the  real  difficulty 
and  expense  of  transit  begin ;  the  sand-banks  of  the  upper  Ganges  and  the 
sharp  ledges  of  rock  of  the  Jumna  rendering  the  navigation  by  even 
the  smaller  country  craft  slow  and  precarious. 

"The  insurance  of  merchandise  and  property  from  Agra  to  Allahabad, 
by  the  river  route,  in  consequence  of  the  danger  and  difficulty  of  the 
navigation,  is  as  high  as  from  Calcutta  to  England,  the  distance  in  the 
one  case  being  300,  in  the  latter  15,000,  miles. 

"  Above  Allahabad,  notwithstanding  the  defective  river  navigation, 
and  the  rude  and  expensive  land  carriage,  which  costs  from  Ad.  to  8d. 
per  ton  per  mile,  moving  at  the  slow  rate  of  ten  miles  in  twenty-four 
hours,  there  is  an  officially-ascertained  traffic  of  above  1,000,000  tons, 
and  a  land-passenger  traffic,  by  various  conveyances,  exceeding  100,000 
per  annum,  besides  passengers  by  boats,  and  about  300,000  travellers 
on  foot." 

28 


212 


Beet  Sugar  Manufacture. 


[October, 


BEET  SUGAR  MANUFACTURE, 

WITH  PLANS  OF  SUGAR  WORKS,  AS  CONSTRUCTED  BY  M. 
DEWILDE,  ENGINEER. 

Translated  for  Tlie  Arlizan  from  the  French  of  M.  Annengaud  Aine. 

Illustrated  by  Plates  11  and  12. 

(Continued  from  page  189.) 

In  order  to  give  the  reader  a  correct  idea  of  the  condition  of  the 
two  great  sugar-producing  interests,  we  will  lay  down  an  estimate  of 
the  cost  of  production  of  sugar,  both  in  France  and  in  the  colonies. 

Cost  of  manufacturing  beet-root  sugar  under  favourable  conditions 
of  cultivation,  rotation  of  crops,  and  coal : — 

Beet-roots,  .4,921  tons  (deducting  for  the  heads  and 
,  leaves),  at  5*.  6d.  per  cwt.  . .  ....         . .     £2,708 

Labour,  14,0,00  days'  work  (men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren), at  7id.         875 

Coal,  1,500  tons,  at  10s.       , 750 

Bone  charcoal  ..  ..  ...  ...  ...  500 

Interest : — 
Machinery,  .£6,250,  at  10  per  cent         ..         ...  625 

Floating  capital,  £2,080,  at  5  per  cent.  ...  r!04 

Rent,  repairs,  management,  and  incidental  expenses        1,032 


£6,594 


Value  of  residuum  to  be  deducted: — 
Molasses,  59  tons,  at  7s.  7d.  per  cwt. 
Scum,  residue  of  charcoal 
Pulp,  1,107  tons,  at  7s.  7d.  per  ton 


Produce,  5,906  cwt.,  at  19s.  Q^d.  per  cwt. 

Cost:— 
One  cwt.  of  sugar  in  factory 
Carriage,  storage,  discounts,  &c. 
Duty,  per  cwt. 


£450 

96 

422 


968 


£5,626 


Selling  price  . 
Profit  per  cwt. 


£0  19 

0i 

0 

6 

4h 

1 

0 

111 

£2 
2 

6 

\x 

10 

9h, 

. .  £0    4    5 


Profit  in  a  season  of  100  days  . .         . .       £1,312  10    0 

When  the  selling  price  of  raw  sugar  falls  to  £2  6s.  4\d.  per  cwt.,  there 
is  no  profit ;  but  if  the  manufacturer  prepares  the  sugar  at  once  in 
loaves,  by  the  aid  of  systematic  liquoring,  his  expenses  are  scarcely 
increased,  or,  at  least,  are  compensated  in  a  great  measure  by  the  dimi- 
nution of  the  expense  of  carriage,  storage,  leakage,  &c. ;  and  the  differ- 
ence in  the  selling  price  leaves  a  larger  and  more  certain  profit.  In 
fact,  instead  of  one  cwt.  of  good  raw  sugar,  he  obtains — 

89-6    lbs.  of  loaf  sugar,  value  net        . .         ..     £2  .14    2 

12-32    „      (vergeoises)  ..     £0    4     7£ 

10-08    „      molasses  ..         0    0  11J 

■. 0    5    7 


Additional  cost  and  duty 

Deduct  cost,  as  before 
Profit  per  cwt. 


£2  19 
0    4 

9 
3 

£2  15 
2    6 

6 
4| 

£0    9 

H 

Or  nearly  double  the  former  amount. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  the  colonial  sugar  estate,  the  balance-sheet  of 
which  would  stand  somewhat  as  in  next  column. 


CAPITAL. 

371  acres  (canes  and  vegetables  for  food) 
150  slaves*  at  £45  16s. 
Buildings  and  cattle 

Interest  on  . .  . . 

Annual  expenses 


PRODUCE. 

Sugar,  2,362  cwts.,  at  14*.  9f  d.      . . 
Molasses  and  rum 


£8,333 
6,875 
3,125 

£18,333      £916 
1,012 


£1,928 


£1,749    0    0 
179    0    0 

£1,928    0    0 


The  cost  price,  therefore,  in  the  colonies,  may  be  taken  at  14s.  9-75cJ. 
per  cwt.  The  carriage  and  leakage  amount  to  7s.  7'43d.  per  cwt. 
The  tares,  discounts,  commissions,  &c,  to  5*.  6d.,  and  the  duty  to 
20s.  ll"43d.j  in  all  £2  8s.  10-61d,  which  is  so  near  the  selling  price 
of  the  colonial  raw  sugar  on  an  average,  that  scarcely  any  profit  is  left 
to  the  grower,  and  any  fall  in  the  market  price  entails  a  loss. 
(To  be  continued.) 


NOTES   ON  THE  BEET  ARTICLE  IN  THE  NO.  OF  JULY, 

1852,  "THE  ARTIZAN," 

By  E.  Burel,  C.E., 

IN    THE    DESCRIPTION    OP   THE    WASHING    PROCESS. 

"Instead  of  inclining  the  cylinder,  it  may  be  made  of  a  conical 
form,  which  produces  the  same  effect."  This,  on  the  contrary,  was  a 
decided  improvement  (brought  out,  I  think,  by  CrespiL  if  I  recollect 
well),  for  the  difference  of  speed  applied  to  the  process,  from  the  be- 
ginning to  the  end  of  the  conical  drum,  assists  the  mud  and  other 
impurities  to  fall  freely  during  the  former  revolutions  of  the  roots, 
where  they  run  slowly;  whereas,  when  they  come  to  the  further  end, 
they  meet  with  cleaner  water,  through  which  they  pass  quicker,  the 
consequence  being  an  increase  of  the  cleaning  power  by  the  increase  of 
friction.  Another  advantage  is  to  admit  of  the  axle  being  set  horizon- 
tally, and  close  to  the  water  throughout  its  whole  length,  as  near  as  to 
clear  the  hearings.  Partitions  are  likewise  admitted  to  be  more  success- 
fully placed  under  the  drum  in  the  tank,  so  as  to  separate  the  muddy 

parts,   and  prevent  them 
from  mixing,  from  one  end 


to  the  other.  The  last 
division,  A,  is  constantly 
supplied  with  a  spring  of 
fresh  water,  while  the  dirty 
one  is  escaping  under  its 
natural  pressure.      The  cylindrical  plan  is  now  entirely  given  up. 

A  very  important  and  valuable  pattern  of  press  is  omitted  in  the 
article ;  that  is,  the  one  patented  by  M.  Facquet  Aine,  of  Arras,  in 
1850.  Its  peculiarity  lies  in  the  performance  of  the  process  of  squeezing 
within  a  closed  apparatus,  thus  doing  away  with  the  mode  of  putting 
the  pulp  into  bags.  The  press  is  composed  of  a  cylinder,  standing  in 
the  middle  of  the  four  columns,  and  open  at  both  ends.  The  one  at  the 
bottom  rests  upon  its  edge  in  such  situation  as  to  correspond  to  the 
piston  (made  to  fit) ;  the  top  end  is  terminated  by  a  flange  distant  about 
10  inches  from  the  crown-piece  of  the  press.  A  ring  little  less  than  10 
inches,  to  complete  the  space,  is  fitted  to  that  flange,  in  such  a  way 
as  to  be  easily  disconnected,  and  removed  instantly. 

Suppose  now,  this  additional  ring  to  be  removed  from  the  press ;  the 


*  The  abolition  of  slavery  will  increase  the  price  of  labour  in  the  French  colonies,  as  it 
has  done  in  the  English. 


1852.] 


Cotton  and  its  Manufacturing  Mechanism. 


213 


cylinder  is  filled  up  with  pulp  ;  the  additional  ring  is  fitted  up  like- 
wise with  a  temporary  bottom,  made  of  a  plain  sheet  of  iron.  It  is 
then  put  on  in  its  place,  the  false  bottom  removed  by  sliding,  and 
transposed  to  the  top,  close  to  the  crown-piece.  This  is  done  with  a 
perfect  facility,  by  means  of  a  side  lever  assisting  these  different  mo- 
tions. The  performance  of  the  press  is  thus  easily  understood.  The 
piston  rises  and  squeezes  the  pulp,  when  the  juice  exudes  through  the 
numerous  apertures  provided  in  the  best  situation  throughout  the  entire 
surface,  but  np|;  large  enough  to  allow  the  pulp  itself  to  escape.  After 
the  pressing  is  finished,  the  additional  ring  is  removed,  and  a  few  strokes 
of  the  pump  push  out  of  the  oylinder  the  dry  pulp,  which  is  taken  away 
in  a  lump ;  then  the  piston  is  allowed  to  go  dawn,  and  whatever  may 
be  the  time  of  its  descent,  this  time  is  not  losj^  as  the  cylinder  may  be 
filled  up  again  while  the  piston  is  going  doyen.. 


COTTON  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURING  MECHANISM, 
By  Robert  Scott  Burn,,  M.E.,  M.S.A. 

(Continued  from  page,  172.) 
In  plate  XV.  we  give  a  series  of  sketches  of  the  "  drawing  frame," 
reduced  from  plans  furnished  us  by  Mr.  Mason,  of  Rochdale ;.  they 
comprise  end,  back,  and  front  elevations  and  section.  The  operation 
of  the  machine,  the  rationale  of  which  we  have  already  described,  may 
be  gathered  from  an  inspection  of  the  drawings  and  the  following  brief 
description.  In  the  section,  the  sliver  froin  the,  can,  p  p,  taken  from 
the  carding  engine,  is  delivered  to  the  set  of  .drawing  rollers,  h  h,  the 
lower  ones  of  which  are  fluted,  as  at  m  m,  in  the  front  elevation,  and 
the  upper  ones,  i  i,  covered  with  leather ;  the  rollers,  are  cleaned  from 
their  adhering  wool,  by  means  of  the  clearer  board,  g,  the  under  side  of 
which  is  covered  with  flannel  and  rests  in  contact  with  the  upper  rollers. 
The  sliver,  after  being  drawn,  is  passed  to  the  calender  rollers,//,  from 
between  which  it  passes  to  the  presser  plate,  t  t,  which  is  made  to 
revolve  by  the  lying  shaft,  s  s,  furnished  with  appropriate  gearing ;  the 
sliver,  after  passing  from  the  plate,  is  coiled  within  the  can,  v  v,  which 
is  kept  revolving  by  the  gearing  on  the  low  shaft,  n.  In  the  event  of 
any  of  the  slivers  breaking  in  the  passage  from  the  can,  p  p,  to  the 
rollers,  h  k,  the  machine  is  instantaneously  stopped  by  a  very  ingenious 
and  simple  mechanism,  known  as  "  Houldsworth's  Patent  Stop  Motion," 
A  lying  shaft  at  k  (see  end  elevation),  is  made  to  oscillate,  or  have  an 
alternate  motion,  by  means  of  the  crank  k,  and  small  connecting  lever 
h ;  a  brass  lever,  m  (section),  is  nicely  balanced  at  the  side  of  the  frame ; 
the  top  part  of  this  lever  is  furnished  with  a  flat  groove,  over  which  the 
sliver  passes ;  as  long  as  the  connection  is  kept  up  between  the  rollers, 
//,  and  can,  p,  by  means  of  the  sliver,  the  friction  of  the  passing  sliver 
keeps  the  head  of  the  lever,  m,  up ;  but  as  soon  as  the  sliver  breaks,  the 
lever,  m,  drops,  the  hook  at  its  lower  end  catches  the  alternating  lever,  k  ; 
this  throws  forward  a  fork  lever,  which  passes  the  driving-belt  from  the 
fast  to  the  loose  pulley ;  the  whole  range  of  rollers  is  thus  stopped, 
until  the  attendant  pieces  up  the  broken  ends,  and  starts  the  machine 
by  passing  the  belt  from  the  loose  to  the  fast  pulley.  This  immediate 
stoppage  of  the  whole  set  of  rollers  is  desiderated  from  the  fact,  that 
the  uniformity  of  the  slivers  thereafter  passed  to  the  machine  next  in 
sequence  would  be  much  impaired,  from  one  can  having  more  material 
than  its  neighbour.  Such  is  the  advanced  state  of  the  manufacture, 
that  every  stage  is  reduced  to  such  a  matter  of  exact  calculation,  that 
the  failure  of  any  one,  even  of  what  might  be  looked  upon  as  of  minute 
importance,  deteriorates  and  damages  the  perfection  of  the  after  pro- 
cesses. The  manufacture  may  be  likened  to  a  chain,  the  failure  of  the 
smallest  link  of  which  impairs  its  working  efficiency.  The  following 
brief  reference  to  the  drawings  in  the  plate  may  be  useful  still  further 
to  elucidate  the  operation  of  this  machine.  In  the  "  end  elevation,"  a  a 
is  the  framing,  b  b  the  fast  and  loose  pulley  on  the  main  driving-shaft, 


bl  bl  ;  motion  is  given  to  the  speed  pulleys,  c,  on  the  standard,  d,  by  the 
strap,  c  (front  elevation) ;  the  presser  plates  are  driven  by  bevel  gearing, 
s  s,  on  the  lying  shaft  beneath  the  framing,  driven  by  means  of  the 
gearing,  e  ef  (end  elevation).  The  cans,  v  v,  receive  motion  from  the 
lying  shaft,  n  n,  driven  by  bevel  gearing  on  the  vertical  shaft,  o  o,  which 
derives  its  motion  from  the  presser  wheel  driving-shaft  by  the  mitre- 
wheels,  s  s;  weights,  o  o,  give  the  necessary  pressure  to  the  sliver  as  it 
passes  through  the  drawing  rollers.  From  the  small  space  at  disposal, 
part  only  of  the  back  elevation  has  been  given. 

A  few  historical  notes  relative  to  the  introduction  and  invention  of 
the  two  last  machines  treated  of — the  carding-engine  and  drawing- 
frame — may  not  be  uninteresting  to  many  of  our  readers.  The  original 
carding  apparatus  in  use  in  the  primitive  days  of  cotton  manufacture 
was  very  simple ;  the  cotton  was  spread  upon  the  surface  of  a  series  of 
teeth  projecting  from  a  piece  of  wood;  another  similarly-furnished 
piece  was  used  to  comb  the  cotton  thus  placed  between  them.  The 
operation  was  repeated  until  the  fibres  were  all  lying,  as  near  as  could 
be  effected,  parallel  to  one  another.  This  method,  so  far  as  correct  in- 
formation has  been  obtained,  is  supposed  to  have  been  in  use  un  to 
about  17/9.  It  was  in  1748  that  the  first  grand  improvement  in  the 
process  was  effected,  which  placed  it  on  a  permanent  and  efficient  basis. 
This  improvement  was  carried  out  by  Lewis  Paul,  of  Birmingham,  who 
patented  it  on  the  30th  of  August  of  the  above-mentioned  year ;  it  con- 
sisted of  the  application  of  rotatory  power  to  the  carding-teeth  and 
surfaces.  This  formed  the  key  to  all  the  improvements  which  have 
since  been  effected  in  this  beautiful  machine.  The  card  fillets  were 
placed  lengthways,  in  strips,  on  the  surface  of  a  cylinder,  to  which  mo-, 
tion  was  imparted  by  a  winch  or  handle.  Beneath  the  cylinder,  a  con- 
cave frame,  lined  internally  with  cards,  and  fitting  exactly  the  lower 
half  of  the  cylinder,  is  placed.  The  wool  was  passed  between  the  sur- 
face of  the  cards  upon  the  cylinder  and  those  contained  in  the  concave 
frame,  and  when  the  handle  was  turned,  and  the  cylinder  put  in  motion, 
the  cards  upon  the  cylinder  and  concave  frame  worked  against  each 
other,  and  carded  the  wool.  The  wool  was  stripped  from  the  cylinder 
"  by  means  of  a  stick  with  needles  in  it,  parallel  to  one  another,  like 
the  teeth  of  a  comb."  These  are  the  words  used  in  the  specification. 
And  this  needle-stick,  and  the  stripping-comb  of  the  present  day,  are 
identical,  beyond  mistake;  in  fact,  as  before  stated,  Paul's  carding- 
engine  is  in  principle  the  same  as  that  now  in  use,  with  this  difference, 
that  the  concave  frame  of  flat  cards  is  now  placed  shove,  instead  of 
beneath,  the  carding  cylinder.  Obvious  as  are  the  advantages  to  be 
obtained  by  the  use  of  this  machine  over  the  slow  and  defective  process 
of  "  stock-cards,"  it  is  to  be  noted,  that  it  had  been  patented  twenty 
years  before  it  had  come  into  practical  use.  It  was  not  introduced  into 
Lancashire  much  before  1760.  One  of  the  first  was  erected  for  Mr. 
Peel,  of  Blackburn,  by  James  Hargreaves,  the  inventor  of  the  spinning- 
frame.  This  machine,  it  appears,  had  two  or  more  carding  cylinders 
working  in  contact;  more  work  was  thus  done  in  a  shorter  time;  but 
both  the  feeding  of  the  cotton  and  the  taking  off  the  carded  fleece 
were  performed  by  hand.  In  Lewis  Paul's  machine,  the  length  of  the 
fleece  was  only  equal  to  the  length  of  the  cylinder.  To  join  these  separate 
pieces  into  a  perpetual  card,  he  placed  them  in  a  flat  broad  ribbon, 
which  was  extended  between  two  short  cylinders,  and  which  wound 
upon  one  cylinder  as  it  unwound  from  the  other.  When  the  carding 
was  placed  in  the  ribbon,  the  turning  of  one  of  the  cylinders  wound  the 
ribbon  and  carding  upon  it;  and  length  being  joined  to  length,  the 
carding  was  made  perpetual,  and  wound  up  in  a  roll  ready  for  the 
spinning-machine.  The  defects  of  Paul's  machine  were  the  want  of  a 
self-acting  feeder,  by  which  the  cotton  could  be  applied  continuously 
and  regularly  to  the  carders.  Again,  the  "  needle-comb,"  was  move- 
able, this  taking  the  cardings  separately  as  the  cylinder  was  filled.  The 
machine  only  worked  at  intervals.     The  next  improvement  recorded  is 


214 


Bottiei^s  Paper  Cutting  Machine. 


[October, 


that  of  a  John  Lees,  of  Manchester,  and  consisted  of  the  adaptation  of 
an  endless  feed-cloth,  continually  moving.  A  given  weight  of  wool  being 
spread  on  this,  it  was  carried  forward,  and  the  earder  supplied  con- 
tinuously. The  celebrated  Sir  Richard  Arkwright  next  essayed  his  im- 
provements, and  in  17/5  he  took  out  his  patent  for  the  same.  The 
cotton  was  supplied  continuously  from  the  surface  of  a  cylinder,  round 
which  it  was  lapped,  and  which  revolved  slowly  on  its  axis ;  a  second 
carding  cylinder  was  also  added,  this  revolving  in  a  contrary  direction 
to  the  main  one,  but  having  their  teeth  in  contact.  The  cotton  was 
stripped  from  off  the  main  cylinder,  and  delivered  in  a  continuous 
fleece.  Much  uncertainty  prevails  as  to  whether  Arkwright  did  really 
invent  this  last  improvement,  inasmuch  as  there  appears  evidence  to 
prove  that  two  manufacturers  used  a  finishing  card  completely  covered 
with  teeth,  by  which  the  fleece  was  perpetual,  at  least  the  year  before 
Arkwright  took  out  his  patent.  This  important  addition  was  termed  a 
"  doffer/'  or  "finishing  cylinder ;"  it  is  now  universally  known  by  the 
former  name.  The  beautifully-effective  method  of  stripping  the  fleece 
from  the  doffer  cylinder,  by  means  of  the  crank  and  comb  previously 
described,  has  also  been  elaimed  by  Sir  Richard  Arkwright  as  his  in- 
vention: he  claimed  it,  at  all  events,  in  his  patent  of  1755.  The  other 
claimant  is  James  Hargreaves,  the  inventor  of  the  spinning-jenny ;  but 
the  recorded  evidence,  we  think,  goes  to  prove  that  Sir  Richard  was  the 
inventor ;  at  least,  this  merit  must  be  allowed  to  him,  that  he  brought 
his  usual  talent  and  judgment  in  combination  to  bear  upon  the  suc- 
cessful practical  adaptation  of  the  carding-engine,  with  all  its  improve- 
ments ;  and  in  this  he  fully  succeeded. 

(To  lie  continued:) 

BOTTIER'S  PAPER  CUTTING  MACHINE. 

.  At  page  4  we  have  given  an  engraving  of  Day's  Patent  Cutting 
Press,  in  which  the  knife  moves  radially  in  the  segment  of  a  circle. 
This  is  not  the  best  arrangement  possible,  but  a  parallel  motion  involves 
difficulties  of  manufacture  not  so  easily  overcome.  A  very  elegant 
modification,  however,  is  constructed  by  M.  Bottier,  of  Paris,  of  which 
we  give  an  engraving  in  perspective.  In  this  machine,  which  is  in  ge- 
neral use  in  France,  the  knife  is  always  parallel  with  the  table,  but  it  has 
a  "  drawing  cut "  imparted  to  it  by  its  also  having  an  oblique  motion, 
as  will  be  readily  seen.  The  steel  cutting  blade,  D,  is  held  firmly  by  set 
screws  in  a  cast-iron  plate,  as  is  usual,  which  is  guided  by  two  adjust- 
able dovetail  guides,  fixed  obliquely  to  the  frame  of  the  machine.  On 
the  plate  carrying  the  cutting  blade  are  cast  two  racks,  placed  ^it  the 


same  angle  as  the  guides,  and  motion  is  communicated  to  them  by  the 
pinions,  C  C,  by  means  of  the  wheel  B,  and  a  pinion  worked  by  a  handle 
A.  The  pinions,  C  C,  are  of  such  a  form  and  width,  that  the  horizon- 
tal motion  of  the  cutter  does  not  draw  the  racks  out  of  gear. 

The  paper,  or  other  material  to  be  cut,  is  held  firmly  on  the  table  of 
the  machine  by  the  plate,  E,  which  is  moved  by  the  screw  and  hand- 
wheel,  F,  as  in  an  ordinary  screw  press. 

This  press  appears  to  us  to  combine  all  the  advantages  that  can  be 
desired,  whilst,  from  the  nature  of  the  motion  of  the  knife,  the  edge  cf 
it  is  preserved. 


STEAM  BORING-MACHINE  FOR  MINES,  QUARRIES,  &c, 

BY    M.    CAVE,    ENGINEER,  PAEIS. 

The  reputation  of  M.  Cave  as  an  engineer  is  well  known,  and  he  has 
lately  turned  his  attention  to  the  subject  of  boring,  for  mining  and 
similar  purposes,  by  steam 
or  other  power.  Those  of 
our  readers  who  are  practi- 
cally acquainted  with  mining 
operations  are  well  aware  of 
the  important  benefits  which 
a  good  mechanical  system, 
as  a  substitute  for  manual 
labour,  would  confer  both  on 
the  working  miner  and  the 
adventurer.  In  hard  ground, 
the  expense  of  sinking  a 
shaft  or  driving  a  level  is 
almost  incredible.  The  pre-" 
sence  of  impure  air,  the  con- 
fined space,  and  the  want  of 
light,  all  combine  to  limit 
the  efficiency  of  the  miner, 
whilst  the  impossibility  of 
more  than  three  or  four  men 
working  at  one  end  prevents 
the  work  being  pushed  for- 
ward with  any  greater  ra- 
pidity, however  important 
the  object  to  be  gained  may 
be,  and  however  little  the 
cost  may  be  of  consequence. 


1852.] 


On  the  Use  of  Air-  Vessels  in  Pumps. 


215 


In  metal  mines,  the  cost  of  extraction  does  not  bear  so  large  a  pro- 
portion to  the  value  of  the  material  raised  as  it  does  in  coal  mines ; 
and  attempts  have  been  made  in  the  latter  to  use  circular  revolving 
cutters,  so  as  to  bring  out  the  coal  in  rectangular  masses,  which  would 
increase  its  value  in  point  of  stowage,  and  also,  we  are  inclined  to 
think,  preserve  its  evaporative  powers.  There  is  a  very  manifest  de- 
terioration in  the  quality  of  coal  when  it  has  been  broken  up  and 
exposed  to  atmospheric  influences,  which  immediately  occurs  to  a 
person  visiting  a  coal  district,  and  witnessing  for  the  first  time  the 
rapidity  and  brilliancy  with  which  the  fresh-raised  coal  inflames. 

For  the  great  majority  of  mining,  quarrying,  and  tunnelling  opera- 
tions, boring  and  blasting  is  employed ;  and  it  is  for  this  object  that 

M.  Cave's  machinery 
is  designed. 

It  consists  of  a 
cylinder  and  piston, 
actuated  by  steam, 
compressed  air,  or 
by  the  vacuum  sys- 
tem, the  cutting 
tools  being  attached 
to  the  piston-rod, 
and  acting  by  per- 
cussion. It  thus  re- 
sembles a  Nasmyth's 
steam-hammer;  and 
a  similar  means  is 
employed  to  destroy 
the  momentum  of 
the  piston,  by  enclo- 
sing a  portion  of 
steam  or  air,  which 
acts  as  a  cushion  at 
each  end  of  the  cy- 
linder. To  carry  out 
this  purpose,  the 
inlet  and  exhaust 
passages  are  kept 
quite  distinct,  as  will 
be  seen  on  referring 
to  the  drawings. 

Fig.  1  is  an  elevation  of  the  machine  in  section  through  the  inlet 
passages ;  fig.  2  is  an  elevation  of  the  cylinder  in  section  through  the 
outlet  passages  ;  fig.  3  is  a  front  elevation,  showing  the  passages ;  and 
fig.  4  is  a  plan  in  section  through  the  passages.  J  is  the  cylinder,  con- 
taining the  piston,  K,  to  the  rod  of  which  is  attached  a  cross-head,  N, 
to  which  is  also  fixed  the  chisel,  M.  The  cross-head  and  chisel  are 
guided  by  the  guide-rods,  0  0,  which  are  fixed  in  a  plate  dovetailed 
into  the  cylinder  cover,  in  such  a  manner,  that  it  can  be  freely  turned 

round  (with  the  piston)  by  means  of 
the  handles,  P  Q,  and  thus  enable  the 
chisel  to  take  a  fresh  cut  at  every 
stroke,  without  which  it  would  jam. 
The  annexed  sketches  show  the  shape 
of  the  chisel  and  its  cutting  edge. 

The  admission  and  emission  of 
the  compressed  air  or  steam  is  regu- 
lated by  a  four -way  cock,  R,  supplied  by  a  pipe,  T,  as  shown  in  fig.  1. 
The  air  is  admitted  through  the  inlet  passage,  a,  on  the  top  of  the  p1S- 
ton,  which  will  rapidly  descend,  until  it  passes  the  outlet  a',  fig.  2,  when, 
the  further  escape  of  air  being  prevented,  the  piston  is  stopped  by  the 
air-cushion.     On  the  up-stroke,  the  cock  having  been  turned,  the 


compressed  air  enters  by  the  passage  b,  and  escapes  by  the  passage  b'. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  plug  of  the  cock  is  divided  transversely  by 
a  diaphragm,  shown  in  fig.  4,  to  keep  the  passages  distinct,  c  and  d 
answering  to  the  two  inlet  passages,  and  e  and/  to  the  two  outlets. 

The  air  which  escapes  from  the  cylinder  is  led  by  the  pipe  t  to  near 
the  point  of  the  chisel,  and  will  have  the  effect  of  blowing  away  the 
small  chips  loosened  by  the  chisel. 

The  machine  is  shown  in  the  engraving  as  working  vertically  ;  but  it 
could  obviously  be  applied  to  driving  a  level,  by  placing  it  horizontally 
and  mounting  it  on  a  carriage. 

If  it  be  desired  to  bore  a  hole  of  larger  diameter  than  the  width  of  a 
chisel,  the  cutter  can  be  fixed  at  any  desired  distance  from  the  centre 
of  the  piston-rod,  the  revolution  of  which  will  cause  the  cutter  to 
describe  a  circle  of  corresponding  diameter. 

For  sinking  shafts,  a  number  of  cylinders  might  be  employed  simul- 
taneously, working  a  sufficient  number  of  chisels  to  extend  round  the 
shaft;  and  the  same  arrangement  applied  horizontally  would  serve  to 
drive  a  level.  In  vertical  boring,  the  chisels  have  to  be  regularly  with- 
drawn, in  order  to  permit  of  the  extraction  of  the  debris;  but  we  do 
not  find  that  the  author  has  provided  any  special  means  for  effecting 
this  object. 

He  has  suggested  that  electro-magnetic  power  may  be  applied  to 
work  this  machinery ;  but  air  appears  to  offer  the  most  tangible  advan- 
tages. It  can  be  conducted  a  great  distance  without  suffering  con- 
densation, as  steam  does ;  and  it  would  materially  improve  the  atmo- 
sphere of  the  mine,  by  blowing  in  fresh  air,  or,  if  worked  on  the 
vacuum  system,  it  would  be  equally  advantageous  in  coal  mines,  by 
serving  to  draw  off  the  fire-damp.  Although  M.  Cave  has  patented 
this  arrangement,  we  are  not  aware  if  it  has  been  practically  applied. 
We  foresee  some  difficulties,  but  we  apprehend  they  are  not  beyond 
the  ingenuity  of  our  Cornish  miners  to  overcome. 


Fig.  2. 


ON  THE  USE  OF  AIR-VESSELS  IN  PUMPS. 

Some  experiments  have  been  made  by  Messrs.  Kirchweger  and 
Prusman,  engineers,  of  Hanover,  on  the  positive  effect  produced  upon 
the  action  of  pumps  by  the  application  of  air-vessels  on  the  suction 
pipes.  Air-vessels  have  been  applied  for  many  years  on  delivery  pipes, 
but  it  is  only  lately  that  their  value  has  been  properly  estimated,  al- 
though it  is  obvious  that  it  is  of  as  much  importance  that  the  pump 
should  be  filled  with  water,  as  that  the  delivery  should  be  constant. 


j 


Fte.  i. 


The  apparatus  employed  by  the  German  engineers  is  represented  in 
section  in  fig.  1.  A  is  a  reservoir,  which  represents  the  source  whence 
the  pump  draws  its  water,  B  is  the  suction-pipe,  and  C  is  a  valve- 
chest,  containing  a  ball  valve,  surmounted  by  a    cock  discharging  at 


216 


On  the  Use  of  Air-  Vessels  in  Pumps. 


[October, 


the  side.    The  plug  of  the  cock  is  stationary, 
whilst  the  shell  is  moved  by  the  handle  E/ 
D  is  the  air  vessel.     Fig.  2  shows  the  details 
of  the  valve  on  a  larger  scale. 

It  is  obvious  that,  by  causing  the  coek  to  o 
revolve  by  means  of  the  handle  E,  a  certain 
volume  of  water  will  escape  each  time  the 
passage  is  opened,  the  height  of  water  column 
in  the  pipe,  E,  answering  to  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere  in  causing  the  water  to  fill 
the  pump. 

The  result  of  the  trials  was  that,  when  the  air-vessel  was  removed,  and 
the  opening  stopped,  an  increased  velocity  of  rotation  of  the  cock  gave 
less  water;  but  with  the  air-vessel  the  increase  of  velocity  gave  more 
water. 

The  trials  were  made  with  different  speeds  and  different  pressures  of 
water,  with  the  results  shown  in  the  following  table : — 


Fig.  2. 


No.  of  Turns 
per  Minute. 

Gallons  of  Water  delivered  per  Minute,  under  a 
Mean  Pressure  of 

17  feet. 

12J  feet. 

8£  feet. 

2f  feet. 

With  air-vessel 

80 

129 

12-78 

8-79 

2-83 

100 

15-6 

15-43 

11-25 

4-82 

120 

17-15 

1663 

12-23 

5-44 

140 

18-28 

16-75 

12-98 

554 

Without  air-vessel 

80 

9-45 

8-62 

6-902 

2-36 

100 

8-03 

8-G8 

f6-05 

1-98 

120 

6-55 

6-54 

-5-42 

1-88 

140 

5-42 

6-29 

5-17 

1-51 

The  capacity  of  the  air-vessel  is  66  cubic  inches. 

The  weight  of  the  ball-valve  2-315  lbs. 

The  area  of  the  valve-seat  —  11'5  inches. 

The  smallest  diameter  of  the  feed-pipe  is  1*48  inches. 

The  quantities  delivered  at  80  to  100  turns  are  the  mean  of  four  trials; 
those  of  120  and  140  turns  are  the  mean  of  3  only. 

If  these  trials  are  to  be  taken  as  the  exact  result  which  may  be  ex- 
pected under  similar  circumstauces  with  a  pump,  it  is  evident  that  a 
large  increase  of  duty  may  be  expected,  by  adding  an  air-vessel  on  the 
suction  side  of  a  pump,  working  at  a  high  speed.  For,  it  will  be  ob- 
served that,  whilst  at  80  turns  the  increase  is  only  20  per  cent.,  at  1 00 
turns  it  is  133  per  cent.,  at  120  turns  189  per  cent.,  and  at  140  turns, 
266  percent. 

We  have  our  doubts  how  far  this  would  apply  to  a  pump,  and  we 
should  have  preferred  seeing  a  direct  experiment  on  a  pump.  Such  a 
trial  could  easily  be  made  on  a  locomotive,  by  lifting  it  off  the  ground, 
running  it  various  speeds,  and  watching  the  time  occupied  in  filling  up 
the  boiler,  with  and  without  an  air-vessel.  Messrs.  Kirchweger  and 
Prusman,  acting  on  these  experiments,  have  applied  air-vessels  to  loco- 
motive feed  pumps  with  good  results. 

Very  little  attention  has  been  paid  by  engineers  generally  to  the 
question  of  the  proper  area  of  valves,  and  there  is  a  good  deal  of  truth 
in  the  following  remarks  on  this  point  by  the  reporter  of  the  Jury,  Great 
Exhibition. 

"Notwithstanding  the  great  antiquity  of  the  pump  and  its  extensive  use, 
it  is  one  of  our  worst  machines,  considered  in  a  mechanical  sense,  as  a  means 
of  producing  a  given  result  with  the  least  possible  expense  of  power.  Simple 
as  it  is  in  construction,  it  appears,  from  the  experiments  of  M.  Morin,  that  the 
amount  of  power  lost  in  lifting  and  forcing  pnmps  (such  as  fire  engines,  &c.) 
amounts  to  from  55  to  80  per  cent,  of  the  whole;  so  that,  of  the  work  (in 
pounds  one  foot  high)  done  by  the  motive  power  to  drive  the  pump,  only 
45  per  cent,  in  the  best,  and  18  per  cent,  in  the  worst,  pumps,  is  found  to  be 
yielded,  when  the  weight  of  water  actually  raised  in  pounds  is  multiplied  by 
the  height  to  which  it  is  raised  in  feet,  the"  rest  of  the  work  being  lost  in  the 


passage  of  the  water  through  the  pump.  This  fact  cannot  be  too  distinctly 
stated.  There  are  hydraulic  machines  which  yield  in  the  water  raised  from 
75  to  80  per  cent,  of  the  work  done  to  raise  it,  and  60  per  cent,  is  a  common 
proportion  ;  but  so  imperfect  an  instrument  is  the  lift  and  force  pump,  that 
the  best  yields  only  45  per  cent,  the  average  not  yielding  more  than  36  per 
cent. ;  so  that,  if  that  pump  could  be  so  improved  as  to  be  no  more  wasteful 
of  power  than  a  well-made  water-wheel,  or  a  turbine,  or  Mr.  Appold's  centric 
fugal  pump,  then  the  same  power  applied  to  it  would  raise  from  a  given 
depth  nearly  twice  the  amount  of  water  that  it  now  does.  The  causes  of 
this  loss  of  power  are  to  be  sought — 

"  1st.  In  the  small  size  and  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  valves. 

"  2nd.  In  the  proportion  of  the  section  of  the  barrel  to  that  of  the  suction 
and  force  pipes. 

"  3rd.  In  the  form  of  the  suction  pipe  at  the  extremity,  where  the  water 
enters  it,  and  of  the  force  pipe  at  the  extremity,  where  the  water  is  dis- 
charged. 

"  4th.  In  the  forms  of  these  pipes  where  they  unite  with  the  barrel. 

"  5th.  In  the  proportion  of  the  length  of  the  barrel  to  the  depth  from  which 
the  water  is  raised. 

"  It  is  impossible  to  say , to  what  extent  the  loss  of  power  due  to  these  causes 
maybe  removed,  withoutexpei'irnents  directed  expressly  to  that  end;  thismueh 
is,  however,  certain,  that  it  would  be  sensibly  diminished  by  increasing  the  size 
of  the  valves,  or  by  any  other  expedient  which  should  diminish  that  sudden 
variation  in  the  section  of  the  stream  which  the  valves  create.  That  varia- 
tion, attended  as  it  is  by  a  corresponding  sudden  variation  of  the  velocity  of 
the  6tream,  involves  a  loss  of  power  varying  as  the  square  of  the  difference 
of  the  two  velocities,  and  dependent,  therefore,  on  the  ratios  of  the  sections  of 
the  suction  pipe  and  force  pipe  to  the  section  of  the  barrel  From  inatten- 
tion to  this  arises  the  second  source  of  loss  of  power  we  have  enumerated. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  form  of  the  nozzle  by  which  water  is  discharged 
from  a  force  pump  influences  largely  the  amount  of  the  discharge;  but  it  is 
not  equally  well  known  that  the  form  of  the  extremity  of  the  suction  pipe  by 
which  the  water  enters  has  an  equal  effect  in  facilitating  its  ingress.  A 
..similar  remark  applies  to  that  extremity  of  each  pipe  by  which  it  communi- 
cates with  the  barrel,  and  the  neglect  of  it  accounts  for  a  fourth  source  of  the 
loss  of  power  in  pumps.  A  fifth  cause,  to  which  attention  appears  not  hitherto 
to  have  been  directed,  is  the  loss  of  power  due  to  the  communication  of  an 
unnecessary  velocity  to  the  water  raised.  Any  one  who  gives  a  succession 
of  quick  strokes  to  the  piston  of  a  common  suction  pipe,  allowing  sufficient 
time  between  for  all  the  water  which  can  find  its  way  into  the  barrel  to  enter 
it,  will  find  the  discharge  per  stroke  to  be  considerably  greater  than  when 
the  piston  is  raised  slowly.  The  reason  of  this  is  obvious — a  certain  amount 
of  power,  and  no-more,  is  required  to  be  done  on  the  piston,  in  order  to  raise 
enough  water  from  the  well  to  fill  the  barrel.  If  more  than  this  is  done,  the 
surplus  manifests  itself  under  the  form  of  vis  viva,  communicated  to  the  water 
by  which  vis  viva,  if  space  be  afforded  for  it  to  take  effect  (as  in  a  common 
suction  pump,  by  efflux  from  the  spout,  or  by  the  raising  of  the  valve  in  the 
bucket),  more  water  is  brought  into  the  barrel  than  is  due  to  the  volume 
generated  by  the  piston.  Half  the  vis  viva  of  the  water  under  the  piston  at 
the  end  of  the  stroke  measures  this  surplus  work. 

"If  a  sufficient  pause  be  allowed,  and  if  the  head  of  water  above  the  piston 
be  not  considerable,  as  in  the  common  suction  pump,  the  upward  rush  of  the 
water  beneath  it  at  the  end  of  the  stroke  will  lift  its  valve,  and  a  portion  of 
the  surplus  work  (represented  by  half  the  vis  viva)  will  take  effect  in  the 
elevation  of  more  water  into  the  barrel  than  would  fill  the  space  generated 
by  the  piston;  and  thus  is  explained  the  fact  of  the  greater  discharge  from 
such  pumps,  when  worked  by  quick  strokes  with  intervening  pauses,  than 
when  worked  slowly.  If  the  head  of  water  above  the  piston  be,  however, 
considerable,  as  in  the  force  pump,  any  vis  viva  which  may  remain  in  the 
water  at  the  end  of  the  stroke  will  produce  a  shock,  and  a  corresponding  loss 
of  power.  This  shock,  commonly  experienced  in  the  action  of  force  pumps, 
is  accompanied  by  a  violent  and  prejudicial  action  of  the  valves,  especially 
when  they  are  of  metal.  When  the  down  stroke  of  the  piston  follows  so 
rapidly  on  the  up  stroke  as  to  meet  the  ascending  stream  produced  by  the 
preceding  stroke,  the  resistance  to  its  descent  is  increased,  as  well  as  the  loss 
of  power  due  to  the  commotion  of  the  particles  of  the  fluid  it  traverses. 

"  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  proportions  of  a  pump,  to  be  worked  by  a 
given  motive  power,  should  be  such,  that  the  power  to  be  expended  at  every 
stroke  may  just  bring  the  water  raised  to  rest  at  the  end  of  each  stroke. 

"It  is  immaterial  in  what  proportions  this  work  is  distributed  over  the 
stroke,  or  under  what  varying  degrees  of  pressure  it  is  generated,  provided 
that  the  pressure  never  exceeds  that  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  surface  of  the 
piston.  If  this  pressure  be  exceeded,  the  piston  may  separate  itself  from  the 
water  beneath  it  in  the  barrel,  the  pump  drawing  air;  and  this  is  more  likely  i 
to  occur  at  the  commencement  than  at  any  other  period  of  the  stroke,  the  ; 
motion  of  the  water  at  that  point  being  necessarily  slow. 

"To  communicate  a  finite  velocity  to  the  water  at  the  commencement  of  the 
stroke,  or  while  the  space  described  by  the  piston  is  still  exceedingly  small, 
requires  a  much  greater  pressure  than  afterwards;  and  the  greater  as  the 
section  of  the  suction  pipe  is  less  as  compared  with  that  of  the  barrel,  and  as 
the  lift  is  greater.  Thus,  at  the  commencement  of  the  stroke,  a  finite  velocity  I 
of  the  piston  can  only  be  obtained  by  an  extraordinary  effort  of  the  motive 
power,  associated  with  the  chance  of  drawing  air  and  of  a  shock,  if  the  I 
pressure  be  suddenly  applied.    A  remedy  for  some  of  these  evils  in  the  I 


1852.] 


Timber  Sawing  Frame. 


217 


working  of  a  pump  has  been  sought  in  the  application  to  it  of  a  second  air 
vessel,  communicating  with  the  suction  pipe  immediately  below  the  barrel, 
or  with  the  top  of  the  suction  pipe  and  the  bottom  of  the  barrel.  The  com- 
mencement of  each  stroke  is  eased  by  a  supply  of  water  from  this  air  chamber 
to  the  spftce  beneath  it.  The  influx  of  the  water  into  that  space  is  aided  by 
the  pressure  of  the  condensed  air  in  the  air  chamber;  and  when  the  stroke  is 
completed,  the  state  of  condensation  of  this  air  is,  by  the  momentum  of  the 
water  in  the  suction  pipe,  restored;  causing  it  to  rush  through  the  passage  by 
which  that  pipe  communicates  with  the  air  chamber.  Thus,  by  this  con* 
trivance,  the  surplus  work,  or  half  the  vis  viva  which  remains  in  the  water 
of  the  suction  pipe  at  the  conclusion  of  each  stroke,  is  stored  up  in  the  com- 
pressed air  of  the  air  chamber,  and  helps  to  begin  the  next  stroke  of  the 
piston. 

"  The  nature  of  this  action  will  be  best  understood  from  that  of  the  hydraulic 
ram.  The  contrivance,  constitutes,  indeed,  in  some  respects,  a  union  of  the 
action  of  the  ram  with  that  of  the  pump;  and,  besides  accomplishing  the 
object  for  which  it  was  applied,  appears  to  have  the  effect  of  considerably 
economising  the  power  employed  in  working  pumps." 

TIMBER  SAWING  FRAME, 

CONSTRUCTED      BY      MESSRS.     WORSSAM     AND      CO.,     ENGINEERS, 

LONDON. 

(Illustrated  by  Plate  17). 

So  little  information  has  been  published  on  the  recent  improvements 
in  sawing  machinery,  that  we  esteem  ourselves  fortunate  in  being  able 
to  present  our  readers  with  details  of  some  of  the  most  modern  machi- 
nery constructed  by  a  firm  who  have  made  this  branch  of  engineering 
the  especial  object  of  their  attention. 

The  drawing  is  so  self-explanatory,  that  it  leaves  little  to  be  said. 
"We  need,  therefore,  only  enlarge  on  those  points  which  demand  parti- 
cular notice. 

In  arranging  the  building  for  a  heavy  timber  frame,  the  foundations 
are  ordinarily  a  very  heavy  item,  from  the  great  depth  required  by  the 
length  of  the  connecting  rod ;  and  if  this  is  curtailed,  the  evil  is  entailed 
of  excessive  friction  on  the  guides.  In  the  case  before  us,  the  makers 
have  sought  to  reduce  the  height  of  the  machine,  by  making  the  con- 
necting rod  forked,  so  as  to  embrace  the  frame,  to  both  sides  of  which 
it  is  attached  at  the  points,  a  a.  To  admit  the  vibration  of  the  con- 
necting rod,  the  guides  are  suitably  overhung. 

In  the  guides  themselves,  especial  attention  has  been  directed  to 
diminish  the  friction,  which,  in  surfaces  moving  at  such  a  high  velocity, 
consumes  a  large  proportion  of  the  applied  power.*  With  this  object, 
the  back  and  front  guides  are  not  both  V-shaped,  as  usual,  but  whilst 
the  working  side  is  made  so,  the  other  side  is  made  flat,  and  has  a  brass 
plate  pressed  in  contact  with  it,  by  means  of  a  steel  spring,  set  up  by 
adjusting  screws  to  the  exact  pitch  to  keep  the  frame  from  chattering. 

The  lower  saw  buckles  are  of  S  shape,  and  hook  on  to  a  projecting 
feather  on  the  frame.  They  are  set  up  sideways  by  a  longitudinal  screw, 
passing  through  all  the  distance  pieces,  but  not  through  the  saw  buckles, 
so  that  any  saw  can  be  taken  out  in  a  few  minutes. 

The  timber  is  prevented  from  rising,  when  the  saws  are  entering,  by 
the  two  legs,  c  c,  which  are  screwed  (with  double  threads)  into  sockets 
hanging  from  one  of  the  strong  distance  pieces,  between  the  sides  of 
the  framing.  When  adjusted  to  the  proper  length,  they  can  be  fixed 
in  position  by  set  screws. 

Provision  is  made  for  setting  the  log  transversely.  The  frames,  d 
and  e,  on  which  the  ends  of  the  log  are  carried,  are  fitted  up  in  the 
slide-rest  style,  and  can  be  shifted  by  the  screws  across  the  rack-bed. 
They  are  made  to  suit  the  varying  widths  of  timber,  by  one  of  the 
arms,  h,  being  made  a  fixture  on  the  shaft,  s,  whilst  the  other  slides  on 
the  shaft,  and  is  moved  by  a  screw,  i,  to  give  the  requisite  grip  of  the 
wood.  A  balance-weight,  t,  facilitates  the  adjustment.  The  other  end, 
d,  is  provided  with  set  screws  for  the  same  purpose. 


The  feeding-motion  is  as  usual ;  the  eccentric  rod,  n,  taking  on  to  a 
ratehet-wheel,  for  the  feed,  and  a  strap  between  the  riggers,  o  and  p, 
giving  the  quick  return  motion  for  the  rack. 

In  an  ensuing  number  we  shall  give  details  of  the  planing  machinery 
constructed  by  the  same  engineers. 


GALLOWAY'S  PATENT  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  ENGINES  AND 
BOILERS. 

We  were  much  gratified,  a  few  days  sinoe,  by  an  inspection  of  the 
improvements  which  have  been  effected  by  Messrs.  Galloways,  of  Man- 
chester, at  the  zinc  mills,  City-road.  The  steam  power  consists  of  a 
pair  of  40-horse  engines ;  cylinders,  34  inches  diameter  and  6  feet  stroke. 
They  were  formerly  driven  by  three  Butterley  boilers,  and  made  only  1 6 
revolutions  per  minute,  which  was  insufficient  to  overcome  the  severe 
work  which  the  heavy  rolls  threw  on  the  engines.  The  old  boilers  have 
been  replaced  by  two  of  Messrs.  Galloways'  conioal  water-tube  boilers 
(vide  Artizan  1850,  p.  101) ;  the  valves  have  been  altered,  and  a  throt- 
tle-valve added  on  their  patent  plan.  These  improvements  have  effected 
a  most  remarkable  result,  which  is  best  shown  by  the  accompanying 
indicator  diagrams,  with  which  we  have  been  favoured  by  Mr.  R.  Arm- 
strong, C.  E.,  under  whose  surperintendence  the  alterations  have  been 
executed. 

Fig,  1  is  a  diagram  from  the  engines  before  they  were  altered,  the 
speed  being  16  revolutions  per  minute,  and  mean  pressure  10'6S  lbs., 


*  If  some  of  our  readers  could  give  us  particulars  of  the  indicated  power  required  to  drive 
saw-frames,  with  and  without  the  work  on,  they  would  oblige  numerous  correspondents 
who  have  applied  for  information. 


Fig-  1. 


giving  an  indicated  power  of  115  horses.      Consumption  of  coal,  6  lbs. 
per  horse-power  per  hour. 

Fig.  2  is  a  set  of  diagrams,  taken  during  the  present  daily  working 
of  the  engines.  The  medium  line,  b,  has  an  average  pressure  of  157 
lbs.,  and  gives  202  indicated  power  for  both  engines,  the  engines  now 


1-  1   1  .  1   1 

T 
1 



a- 



-_ 
^~---^ 

;-_-.-=.... 

^>> 

V^ 

- 

Fig.  2. 

making  20  revolutions  per  minute ;  and  they  are  doing  this  work  with 
2§  lbs.  of  coal  per  horse-power  per  hour— a  sufficiently  smalj  consump- 
tion, but  which,  we  have  no  doubt,  will  be  still  further  reduced  when 
the  felting-up  is  perfect. 

The  engines  being  rather  light  in  some  of  their  parts,  the  steam  is 
let  on  very  cautiously,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  rounded  induction  cor- 
ner of  the  diagram ;  but  the  good  effect  of  this  is  felt  in  the  absence  of 
any  jolt  or  concussion  in  the  engines.  Although  they  are  subject  to 
the  very  fluctuating  work  of  a  rolling  mill,  their  speed  scarcely  varies, 
so  admirably  does  the  improved  throttle-valve  perform  its  functions. 


218 


Goddard's  Gas  Cooking- Apparatus. 


[October, 


GODDARD'S  GAS  COOKING-APPARATUS. 

In  our  previous  number  we  noticed  Mr.  Goddard's  Asbestos  Stoves, 
and  we  have  now  the  pleasure  of  laying  before  our  readers  the  plans  of 
his  cooking-stoves,  which  are  of  still  greater  importance.  Nothing  will 
do  so  much  to  improve  the  comfort  of  the  Artizan's  cottage  as  the 
introduction  of  gas  for  cooking.  Instead  of  being  obliged  to  make  up 
a  large  coal  fire  for  cooking,  which  renders  the  room  uncomfortably  hot, 
and,  by  the  dirt  and  dust  which  it  creates,  involves  some  labour  before 
the  room  can  be  "  put  to  rights,"  the  proprietor  of  a  gas  cooking-stove 
has  merely  to  turn  on  the  gas  at  the  moment  it  is  wanted,  and  when 
the  culinary  operation  is  completed,  the  gas  is  turned  off,  and  there  is 
an  end  of  it. 

The  impression  that  the  gas  must  •communicate  some  disagreeable 
flavour  to  the  meat  cooked  over  it  is  removed  at  the  first  trial,  whilst 
the  equable  temperature,  impossible  to  be  attained  with  any  ordinary 
fire,  cooks  the  meal  with  less  waste,  and  effects  a  saving  in  the  dripping, 
which  more  than  counterbalances  the  extra  cost  of  the  gas.  In  a  case 
where  a  school  has  to  be  cooked  for,  the  Principal  says,  "  without  it,  it 
would  be  almost  impossible  for  the  work  to  be  done  without  an  addi- 
tional servant," — a  result  which  is  the  first  to  strike  an  observer. 

In  the  early  attempts  at  gas  cooking-stoves,  considerable  loss  of  heat 
was  sustained  by  the  radiation  from  the  sides  of  the  stove.  This  is 
very  neatly  obviated  in  Mr.  Goddard's  stoves,  by  lining  the  roasting 
compartments  with  glazed  porcelain  plates,  which  radiate  the  heat  into 
the  interior  of  the  oven,  and  also  prevent  any  effluvia  which  might 
arise  if  the  fat  were  dropped  on  the  heated  iron.  The  burners  are  also 
of  a  peculiar  form,  which  prevents  the  holes  being  choked  by  the  fat. 

If  the  London  gas  companies  would  only  take  a  hint  from  Ipswich, 
and  put  up  gas  fittings  at  a  rental,  they  would  not  only  immensely  in- 
crease their  sale  of  gas,  but  would  make  a  fair  profit  on  the  manufacture 
of  the  fittings. 

"We  will  now  proceed  to  describe  these  stoves. 

Nos.  1  and  2  differ  only  in  size.  A  is  the  supply  pipe  for  gas.  B,  a 
series  of  Carter's  screw  valves,  which  are  numbered  to  correspond  to  the 
burners  to  which  they  belong.  C,  a  compartment  or  oven,  having  a 
burner  all  round  the  lower  circumference ;  this  is  fitted  with  shifting 
shelves  and  a  gridiron,  and  serves  for  roasting,  baking  or  broiling.  The 


top,  D,  forms  a  hot  plate,  and  has  three  coil-burners,  over  which  sauce* 
pans  can  be  placed, 
when  required.  E  is  the° 
gas-torch,  which  con- 
sists of  a  flexible  tube 
with  a  minute  burner 
at  the  end,  which  serves 
to  light  the  various 
burners.  F  is  a  small 
door  at  the  base,  for  the 
removal  of  the  dripping- 
pan,  which  is  peculiarly 
favoured  by  having  a 
small  burner  under  it, 
by  which  that  pudding 
to  which  we  have  so 
often  done  justice  when 
in  Yorkshire,  is  "  done 
brown." 


Nos.  1  and  2. 


No.  3. 


<0 

1 

No.  4. 


No.  3  is  a  larger  ap- 
paratus. A  is  the  roast- 
ing compartment.  B  a 
similar  one  for  baking, 
&c.  C  a  copper  boiler, 
holding  nine  gallons  of 
water,  and  supplying 
steam  for  the  steamer 
G.  D  a  hot  closet,  using 
up  the  waste  heat  from 
the  burners  of  A,  B,  and 
C.  It  can  be  used  for 
baking  bread,  keeping 
dishes  hot,  &c.  E  the 
supply-pipe.  F  the  hot- 
plate, furnished  with 
coil-burners.  G  a  large 
vessel  for  steaming. 

No.  4  is  an  apparatus 
of  the  largest  kind, 
adapted  to  cook  for  100 
persons  at  a  time,  and 
suited  for  large  schools, 
hotels,  &c.  The  same 
letters  of  reference  ap- 
ply as  in  No.  3. 


1852.] 


Proceedings  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


219 


PORTABLE  STEAM-ENGINE   AND  BOILER, 

AS  CONSTRUCTED  BY  M.  RENNES,  ENGINEER,  PARIS. 

The  numerous  uses  to  which  steam  is  now  every  day  applied,  has 
induced  many  attempts  to  simplify  and  cheapen  the  construction  for 
small  powers.  Many  arrangements  are  admissible  on  the  small  scale 
which  it  would  be  bad  economy  to  attempt  on  the  large ;  and  perhaps 
this  fact  has  been  pushed  to  the  farthest  possible  extent  in  the  example 
before  us,  which  we  find  in  that  very  excellent  journal,  he  Genie  In- 
dustriel. 

Fig.  I  is  an  elevation  and  fig.  2  a  section,  of  the  engine  and  boiler, 
one-tenth  the  full  size.  The  boiler,  E,  is  of  cast-iron,  which  will  stand 
much  better  than  many  of  our  readers  would  suppose.      Messrs.  Hall, 


safety-whistle,  &c.  J  is  a  tank  for  containing  a  supply  of  feed-water. 
Motion  is  communicated  to  the  crank-shaft  from  the  cross-head,  I,  in 
which  is  a  slot,  along  which  the  crank-pin  travels  ;  but  we  do  not  ob- 
serve that  the  maker  has  provided  any  efficient  means  of  counteracting 
the  friction,  which  would  quickly  wear  away  the  crank-pin.  At  page 
250,  Artizan  1850,  we  have  enlarged  upon  this  point,  in  describing 
Mr.  Carrett's  steam-pump,  in  which  the  stroke  is  controlled  on  the  same 
principle  as  in  the  engine  before  us.  A  small  oscillating  cylinder,  with 
the  slide  in  one  of  the  trunnions,  would,  we  think,  have  been  very 
superior  to  the  arrangement  before  us,  and  cost  little,  if  any,  more. 

This  engine  appears  to  have  been  designed  for  small  workshops,  for 
which,  from  its  cheapness  and  portability,  it  appears  well  adapted ;  and 


Kg.  1 


of  Dartford,  for  many  years  made  cast-iron  boilers  on  the  "  elephant  " 
plan;*  and  by  making  them  of  small  diameter  and  ample  surface,  they 
performed  very  satisfactorily.  In  those  days  the  manufacture  of  boiler 
plate  had  not  "reached  its  present  state  of  perfection,  and  engineers 
preferred  using  good  cast-iron,  cast  under  their  own  eyes,  to  wrought- 
iron  of  which  they  had  no  experience. 

The  boiler  is  set  in  brickwork,  G,  which  is  protected  by  a  cast-iron 
casing,  the  combined  weight  of  which  renders  any  other  foundation 
unnecessary.  The  flame  enters  a  short  tube  in  the  boiler,  and  after 
circulating  round  it,  escapes  into  the  chimney.  The  cover  of  the  boiler 
consists  of  a  plate,  A,  on  which  is  cast  the  base  of  the  cylinder,  b,  from 
which  the  steam  is  taken  directly  by  the  pipe,  C,  to  the  slide-valve,  d. 
The  feed-pump,  e,  worked  by  an  eccentric  on  the  crank-shaft,  is  cast 
on  the  plate,  A,  to  which  are  also  attached  the  safety-valve,  float-gear, 

*  See  Artizan  1851,  p.  260. 


Fig.  2. 

it  is  claimed,  as  an  advantage,  that  in  winter  the  heat  radiated  from  the 
boiler  will  be  useful  in  warming  the  apartment  in  which  it  is  placed. 
Only  those  who  know  the  hardships  suffered  by  the  working  classes  in 
France  during  the  winter,  owing  to  the  high  price  of  fuel,  can  properly 
appreciate  this  recommendation. 

PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  INSTITUTION  OF  MECHANICAL 

ENGINEERS, 
28th   July,   1852, 
Joseph  Whitworth,  Esq.,  in  the  chair. 
A   paper  by  Mr.  G.  H.  Bovill,  of  London,  was  read  on  Griffiths' 

Patent  Screw  Propeller. 

(Continued  from  p>ikc  178.) 
A  model,  illustrating  the  principle  of  the  new  propeller,  was  exhibited 
by  the  secretary  (Mr.  Bovill  having  been  prevented  from  attending  the 
meeting.      The  model  showed  an  ordinary  screw  propeller,  which  was 

29 


220 


Proceedings  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


[October, 


divided  into  three  portions,  so  that  one-third  of  the  propeller  in  the 
centre  could  be  removed,  and  a  ball  of  the  same  diameter  substituted, 
upon  which  the  two  blades  forming  the  remainder  of  the  propeller  were 
then  fixed,  in  the  same  relative  position  as  in  the  original  propeller. 

Mr.  Preston  said,  he  had  witnessed  the  experiments  made  on  the 
Weaver  that  were  described  in  the  paper,  and  could  confirm  the  state- 
ment made  as  to  the  superiority  of  the  new  propeller  in  the  diminution 
of  slip,  and  the  increase  of  speed  of  the  vessel.  He  did  not  per- 
ceive an}r  superiority  in  the  amount  of  backwater  produced ;  in  going 
ahead,  the  vessel  dipped  astern  with  both  propellers,  and  he  did  not 
perceive  any  difference ;  but  it  was  a  very  flat  vessel,  and  the  bows  rose 
so  abruptly,  that  the  head  was  forced  up  by  the  action  of  the  water. 
The  experiments  were  tried  in  the  Mersey,  above  Liverpool,  and  the 
effect  of  tide  was  deducted  by  trying  the  experiment  both  ways.  He 
doubted  the  practicability  of  keeping  the  apparatus  for  altering  the 
pitch  in  working  order,  at  sea,  for  any  length  of  time. 

Mr.  Ramsbottom  remarked,  that  if  the  pitch  of  the  blades  in  an 
ordinary  screw  propeller  were  the  same  throughout  down  to  the  centre 
boss,  every  part  of  the  blade  would  have  the  same  advancing  motion 
in  the  water,  and  would  screw  correctly  through  it ;  and  he  could  not 
understand  how  the  centre  portion  of  the  blades  .could  have  the  inju- 
rious flapping  and  centrifugal  action  mentioned  in  the  paper,  when  the 
screw  was  advancing  through  the  water,  as  such  action  could  only  take 
place  if  the  arms  were  to  revolve  whilst  the  vessel  was  stationary. 

Mr.  Appold  observed,  that  the  ball  would  deflect  the  water,  and 
throw  a  body  of  water  on  to  the  blades,  giving  them  more  water  to  act 
upon,  and  preventing  the  water  from  slipping  away  from  the  pressure 
of  the  blades  through  the  centre  of  the  propeller,  as  in  the  ordinary 
form  with  an  open  centre.  Supposing  the  propeller  were  working 
through  a  tube  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  circumference  of  the  arms, 
the  centre  ball  would  occupy  one-third  of  the  diameter  of  the  tube,  and 
reduce  its  effective  diameter,  causing  all  the  water  to  pass  through 
the  reduced  area,  and  so  bringing  more  water  in  contact  with  the 
arms  in  the  sar^e  distance,  and  affording  them  a  more  solid  abutment 
for  their  action. 

Mr.  B.  Gibbons  thought  it  was  to  be  inferred  from  that  argument^ 
that  it  would  be  advantageous  to  enlarge  the  shaft  to  the  size  of  the 
ball,  so  as  to  fill  up  the  displacement  of  the  ball,  and  that  would  avoid 
the  resistance  offered  by  the  front  of  the  ball  being  dragged  through 
the  water. 

Mr.  Appold  suggested  that  a  conical  form  might  be  preferable  for 
the  front  of  the  ball,  to  deflect  the  water  from  the  centre  on  to  the 
arms.  He  had  found  that  best  in  his  centrifugal  pump,  in  which  there 
was  a  similar  action,  and  the  water  entering  at  the  centre  had  to  be 
suddenly  deflected  at  right  angles  into  a  radial  direction ;  he  had  tried 
a  pump  with  the  centre  bell-mouthed  from  the  inside,  with  the  object 
of  affording  a  more  free  entrance  for  the  water,  but  he  found  it  gave 
less  results  than  the  form  he  had  adopted,  having  a  square  edge  inside 
the  opening,  and  the  centre  coned  from  the  spindle  to  the  centre  disc. 

The  chairman  observed,  that  further  experiments  with  the  new  pro- 
peller were  very  desirable  ;  and  he  proposed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr. 
Bovill  for  his  paper,  with  a  request  that  he  would  furnish  to  the  Insti- 
tution the  results  of  further  trials  of  the  propeller,  which  was  passed. 


The  following  paper,  by  Mr.  W.  Keld  "Whytehead,  C.E.,  of  London, 
was  then  read  : — 

ON    A    NEW    DIRECT-ACTING    STEAM-PUMP. 

This  steam-pump  is  of  American  invention,  and  has  been  used  exten- 
sively there  for  feeding  the  boilers  of  marine  engines.  It  is,  however, 
well  adapted  for  any  purpose  where  a  moderate  quantity  of  water  has 
to  be  raised,  and  where  a  rotary  motion  is  not  required.      One  is  fixed 


at  the  Great  Northern  station,  at  King's  Cross,  Loudon,  and  used  for 
supplying  the  station  with  water. 

Its  chief  peculiarity  is  that  the  stroke  of  the  piston  and  of  the  pump 
plunger  is  regulated  without  the  use  of  a  crank,  so  that  the  motion 
of  the  plunger  is  nearly  uniform  for  the  whole  length  of  the  stroke. 
Mr.  Ericsson  (of  Messrs.  Braithwaite's  firm)  made  a  fire-engine  on  this 
principle  some  years  back,  and  Mr.  Penn  formerly  used  the  same  ar- 
rangement for  "  donkey  engines  "  for  steamboats  ;  but  both  of  these 
kinds  of  engine  were  deficient  in  smoothness  of  working — a  difficulty 
which  has  been  overcome  by  Messrs.  Worthington  and  Baker,  the 
patentees  of  the  present  pump,  by  very  simple  and  effectual  means. 
Drawings  and  details  of  this  pump  will  be  found  at  p.  121. 

This  pump  has  been  at  work  for  five  months  at  King's  Cross  station 
very  satisfactorily,  the  only  repairs  necessary  having  been  about  one 
day's  work.  It  has  to  draw  the  water  14  feet  perpendicular,  and 
forces  it  30  feet  perpendicular.  The  usual  speed  is  40  to  50  double 
strokes  per  minute,  but  there  is  no  difficulty  in  working  it  double  that 
speed  if  desired.  The  uniformity  of  the  stream  of  water  delivered  is 
very  remarkable,  and  seems  to  indicate  that  there  is  no  loss  of  power, 
or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  that  there  is  never  an  excess  of  power  to 
impart  an  undue  velocity  to  the  water.  The  small  space  occupied  by 
the  pump  is  an  advantage  of  some  importance  when  used  for  marine 
purposes. 


Mr.  Ramsbottom  observed  that  he  had  seen  the  pump  at  work  at  the 
King's  Cross  station,  and  it  certainly  worked  well,  with  very  little 
vibration,  and  delivered  a  steady  uniform  stream  of  water ;  but  it  was  a 
defect  that  the  economy  of  working  expansively  could  not  be  obtained 
with  a  pump  on  that  principle,  as  the  full  pressure  of  steam  was  re- 
quired to  complete  the  stroke.  There  was  a  simple  contrivance  in  the 
shut-off  valve  of  the  delivery  pipe,  for  changing  the  direction  of  the 
discharge ;  the  valve  was  constructed  with  a  double  face,  and  fitted 
to  shut  the  opening  on  either  side,  so  as  to  pump  into  the  tank,  or 
into  the  fire-hose,  by  screwing  the  valve  spindle  in  one  direction  or 
the  other. 

The  secretary  said  that  Mr.  Whytehead  had  expected  to  have  given 
the  results  of  a  trial  of  the  pump  to  ascertain  the  duty  yielded  by  it,  by 
measuring  the  quantity  of  water  discharged,  nnd  taking  indicator  figures 
from  the  engine;  but  he  had  not  yet  been  able  to  make  the  experi- 
ments. 

Mr.  Preston  remarked,  that  a  direct-acting  steam  pump  had  been 
constructed  by  Mr.  Penn,  for  feeding  marine  boilers,  but  that  he 
adopted  a  crank  motion  now  for  the  purpose,  finding  the  vibration  and 
shock  of  the  tappet  motion  too  great  for  working  the  valve. 

Mr.  Ramsbottom  observed  that  the  steam  buffer  spring  upon  the 
valve  spindle  in  this  pump  appeared  to  be  very  effectual  in  taking  off 
the  shock,  even  when  working  at  a  considerable  speed ;  and  the  equili- 
brium established  between  the  two  ends  of  the  pump,  by  means  of  the 
holes  through  the  plunger,  caused  the  valves  to  close  down  upon  their 
seats  almost  before  the  return  stroke,  and  prepare  the  pump  for  the 
reversed  action  of  the  steam. 

Mr.  Middleton  thought  there  would  not  be  any  advantage  gained 
with  this  pump  in  simplicity  over  a  crank  engine,  and  it  would  not  be 
so  economical  in  power,  from  not  being  able  to  work  the  steam  ex- 
pansively. 

Mr.  Appold  inquired  how  long  the  India-rubber  valves  were  found 
to  last  in  pumps. 

Mr.  Preston  said,  the  India-rubber  valves  answered  very  well  in  the 
air-pumps  of  marine  engines  ;  they  were  always  used  for  screw  vessels, 
on  account  of  the  rapid  action  of  the  valves  with  short-stroke  engines, 
for  which  metal  valves  were  not  applicable.  The  time  they  lasted 
varied  very   much   with  the  circumstances ;    vulcanised  sheet   India- 


1852.] 


Proceedings  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


22i 


rubber  only  should  be  used,  and  might  last  some  months,  perhaps  a 
year,  but  the  canvas  valves  coated  with  India-rubber  soon  decayed. 

Mr.  Clift  remarked  that  a  new  mode  had  been  brought  out  of  pre- 
paring India-rubber  with  sulphuretof  lead,  instead  of  vulcanising  it  with 
sulphur,  which  was  said  to  be  better  and  more  durable ;  but  he  did  not 
know  the  results  of  trial. 

Mr.  Appold  doubted  whether  vulcanised  India-rubber  would  stand  a 
constant  elastic  action  for  a  year,  or  even  a  less  period.  He  had  tried 
some  India-rubber  springs  for  window-shutters,  and  found  they  failed 
in  three  or  four  months ;  it  was  some  years  back,  and  he  did  not  know 
whether  the  process  of  manufacture  had  been  improved  since. 

Mr.  B.  Gibbons  said,  he  had  found  the  elastic  bands  for  papers,  after 
lying  by  for  two  or  three  years,  lost  their  elasticity,  and  became  de- 
cayed. 

Mr.  Adams  inquired  whether  the  vulcanised  India-rubber  rings  in 
railway  carriage  buffers  and  draw-springs  were  found  to  decay. 

Mr.  H.  Wright  said,  he  had  found  the  rings  in  buffers  still  remaining 
good  after  three  or  four  years'  work ;  the  India-rubber  was  subjected 
to  compression  only,  and  was  protected  from  wet.  He  had  several 
hundred  waggons  under  his  charge  working  with  India-rubber  buffers 
and  draw-springs,  which  were  all  doing  very  well ;  the  only  failure  of 
the  India-rubber  rings  that  had  been  experienced  amongst  them  was 
from  the  intermediate  plates  or  washers  between  the  rings,  which  were 
made  at  first  of  cast-iron,  and  too  thin,  becoming  broken,  and  then 
cutting  the  India-rubber ;  but  that  had  been  remedied  by  using  stronger 
wrought-iron  washers. 

Mr.  S.  Lloyd  observed,  that  the  India-rubber  buffers  had  also  been 
several  years  in  extensive  use  on  the  Great  Western  Railway  for  all  their 
carriages,  and,  he  believed,  with  satisfactory  results. 

Mr.  Clift  remarked,  that  it  had  been  explained  by  the  maker,  Mr. 
De  Bergue,  at  a  former  meeting  of  the  Institution,  that  there  was  some 
imperfection  in  the  vulcanised  India-rubber  first  manufactured,  which 
made  it  less  durable;  but  the  defect  was  removed  in  all  the  subsequent 
manufacture. 

Mr.  Preston  observed,  that  the  India-rubber  in  pump-valves  was  sub- 
jected to  more  severe  wear,  from  the  constant  rapid  bending  and  the 
action  of  the  water,  than  the  mere  compression  in  buffer  springs.  Some 
of  the  valves  proved  defective  at  first,  in  consequence  of  being  cut 
transversely  from  a  cylinder  of  India-rubber,  which  was  manufactured 
by  rolling  up  a  long  sheet;  these  valves  split  open  in  the  roll  and  be- 
came defective,  from  the  constant  action  upon  them ;  but  all  he  now 
used  were  cut  out  of  a  single  flat  sheet,  and  were  found  to  stand  very 
well. 

The  chairman  proposed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Whytehead,  for  his 
description  of  the  pump,  which  was  passed,  and  expressed  a  hope  that 
he  would  furnish  at  another  meeting  the  results  of  a  trial  of  the  duty 
yielded  by  the  pump. 


The  following  paper,  by  Mr.  John  E.  Clift,  of  Birmingham,  was  then 
read : — 

ON    IMPROVED    FIRE-BRICK    GAS    RETORTS. 

The  object  of  this  paper  is  to  describe  a  plan  for  constructing  gas 
retorts,  which  the  writer  has  had  in  use  several  years  at  the  works  un- 
der his  management,  and  has  also  adopted  at  various  other  towns ;  and 
the  only  apology  he  has  to  offer  for  bringing  it  before  the  meeting  is, 
the  request  of  the  council  of  the  Institution  to  furnish  the  practical 
results  of  the  working  of  the  plan. 

The  first  great  desideratum  in  a  gas-generating  retort  is,  on  all  hands, 
acknowledged  to  be  surface— a.  large  surface— upon  which  may  be 
spread  a  thin  layer  of  coal;  this  was  early  shown  by  Mr.  Clegg,  in  his 
invention  of  the  revolving-web  retort,  the  only  difficulty  in  working 


which  was  the  destructible  nature  of  the  material  of  which  it  was  com- 
posed. 

The  second  condition  required  is,  that  this  large  surface  shall  be 
economically  heated.  A  strong  opinion  existed  for  a  long  time  against 
the  use  of  fire-clay  for  retorts,  in  consequence  of  the  inferior  heat- 
conducting  properties  of  that  material  compared  with  iron ;  but  ex- 
perience has  proved  that  as  large  a  quantity  of  gas  can  be  generated, 
with  a  given  weight  of  fuel,  with  fire-clay  retorts  as  with  iron.  This 
may  be  accounted  for  partly  by  the  fire-clay  losing  less  of  its  heat  on 
being  exposed  to  the  air  whilst  charging,  and  on  the  cold  charge  of 
coal  being  first  thrown  in ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  greater  mass  of 
fire-clay  acts  as  a  reservoir  of  heat,  and  does  not  become  so  readily 
exhausted  when  a  large  demand  is  made  upon  it,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
maintains  a  greater  uniformity  of  temperature  throughout  the  process. 
This  is  easily  demonstrated  by  observing  the  small  quantity  of  gas  made 
from  an  iron  retort  during  the  first  hour  after  charging,  compared  with 
a  fire-clay  one.  It  is  also  partly  accounted  for  by  the  iron  retorts,  as 
they  are  generally  set,  being  so  covered  and  shielded  with  fire-bricks,  to 
preserve  them  from  destruction,  as  to  partake  as  much  of  the  character 
of  clay  retorts  as  of  iron. 

The  following  table,  which  is  the  average  of  a  number  of  experiments, 
gives  the  quantities  of  gas  generated,  as  indicated  by  the  meter,  from 
iron  and  clay  retorts,  during  each  half-hour  of  the  charge,  from  the 
same  quantity  and  quality  of  coal : — 

Iron  Retorts.  Brick  Retorts. 

1  half-hour        250  cubic  feet     1  half-hour      480  cubic  feet. 

2  „  630  „  2  „  1,800 

3  „  1,340  „  3  „  2,000 

4  „  2,300  „  4  „  2,000 

5  „  2,600  „  5  ..,  2,300 

6  „  2,640  „  6  „  2,300 

7  „  2,600  „  7  „  2,460 

8  „  2,600  „  S  „  2,400        „ 

9  „  1,700  „  9  „  2,000        „ 

10  „  1,630        „  10        „  1,630 

11  „  1,790        „  11  860 

12  „  700        „  12        „  550 


Total     20,780 


Total     20,780 


The  third  requisite  in  a  retort  is  durability.  The  proper  way  to  mea- 
sure this  element  is  to  divide  the  quantity  of  gas  made  by  the  cost  of 
the  retorts  and  ovens,  and  the  repairs  during  the  time  they  are  worked. 
This  will  be  shown  presently  by  a  comparison  from  the  actual  working 
of  iron  and  clay  retorts. 

The  retorts  to  be  described  in  the  present  paper  are  composed  en- 
tirely of  fire-bricks,  with  cast-iron  front  plates  to  attach  the  mouth-pieces 
to,  and  to  bind  the  brickwork  together;  and  they  are  made  of  any  length, 
width,  or  height.  They  are  generally  constructed  in  sets  of  three,  as 
shown  in  fig.  1,  which  is  a  front  elevation.*  A  A  are  the  front  plates  of 
cast-iron,  1£  inch  thick.  B  B  are  the  wrought-iron  stays,  4  X  U 
inches,  fastened  at  the  bottom  by  cramps  built  into  the  brickwork,  and 
at  the  top  by  tension  bars,  connected  to  similar  stays  on  the  opposite 
side.  C  is  the  furnace  door.  D  D,  two  retort  mouth-pieces,  15  X  15 
inches.  E,  a  large  retort  mouth-piece.  F,  sight-holes  for  examining 
the  flues  and  cleaning  dust  from  the  external  surface  of  the  retorts. 

Fig.  2  is  a  transverse  section.  G  is  the  furnace  ;  II  II  are  the  two 
lower  retorts,  15  inches  wide,  15  inches  high,  and  20  feet  long,  with  a 
mouth-piece  at  each  end.  The  fire-bricks  forming  the  bottoms  and 
sides  of  the  retort  are  16  inches  long  and  3  inches  thick,  and  the  arch 

*  We  are  indebted  to  the  courtesy  of  the  Editor  of  the  "  Journal  of  GosUghting"  tor 

tliese  very  excellent  Illustrations. 


222 


Proceedings  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


[October, 


bricks  forming  the  top  are  9  inches  long  by  3|  inches  deep.  Each 
brick  is  rebated  1  inch  deep  in  the  transverse  joints,  and  grooved  in  the 
longitudinal  joints,  as  shown  by  the  enlarged  drawing,  fig.  3 ;  these 


verse  joints  of  the  bottom  of  the  large,  retort;  the  longitudinal  joints 
are  covered  by  small  arched  bricks,  marked  I.  J  are  the  side  flues,  and 
N  the  longitudinal  flues,  shown  more  fully  in  fig.  4,  which  is  a  plan  of 


Fig.  1.  Front  Elevation.    Scale  l-40th  real  size 


grooves  are  filled  with  stiff  fire-clay  when  they  are  put  together,  which 
burns  into  a  hard  tongue  half  an  inch  thick,  as  it  becomes  heated ;  the 
object  of  these  tongues  is  twofold— they  offer  a  resistance  to  the  leak- 
age of  the  gas  by  breaking  the  joint,  and  they  tie  together  the  arch  of 
the  retort. 


Fig.  5.  Longitudinal  Section. 

the  top  of  the  upper  retort,  showing  the  course  of  these  flues.  In 
rising  from  the  furnace,  the  heat  passes  partly  underneath  and  partly 
over  the  small  retorts  into  the  first  flue,  No.  1,  moving  to  the  back  of 
the  oven,  then  crosses  the  division,  and  returns  to  the  front  along  the 
second  flue,  then  to  the  back  along  the  third  flue,  and  to  the  front 


Fig.  2.  Transverse  Section. 

K  is  the  large  upper  retort,  5  feet  3  inches  wide  and  20  feet  long, 

open  for  charging  at  both  ends;  the  bricks  are  similar  to  those  forming 

the  small  lower  retorts.      L  is  a  cross  arch,  5  inches  thick,  spanning 

the  furnace  flat  on  the  top,  which  covers  the  under  side  of  the  trans- 


Fig,  i.  Plan  at  Top  of  Upper  Retort. 
along  the  fourth,  when  it  meets  with  the  heat  which  has  gone  through 
a  similar  course  on  the  opposite  side,  and  passes  along  the  middle  flue, 
No.  5,  into  the  main  flue,  M,  as  shown  in  the  longitudinal  section,  fig.  5. 
By  this  arrangement  the  heat  passes  over  50  feet  length  of  surface  of 


1852.] 


Proceedings  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


223 


retort  from  the  time  it  leaves  the  furnace  until  it  reaches  the  main 
flue. 

Fig.  5  is  a  longitudiual  section  through  the  upper  retort  K,  showing 
the  opening  into  the  main  flue,  M,  and  the  damper,  O,  by  which 
the  draught  is  regulated.  In  this  figure,  the  position  of  the  cross 
arches,  L,  that  carry  the  large  retort,  is  shown,  covering  the  joints  in 
the  bottom  of  the  retort ;  also  the  centre  wall,  P,  which  divides  the  two 
furnaces  and  flues,  and  carries  the  main  flue. 

Fig.  6  is  a  plan  of  the  lower  retorts,  showing  the  two  furnaces,  G  G, 
with  the  centre  division-wall,  P,  the  side  flues,  I  I,  and  the  floor  of  the 
lower  retorts,  H  H. 

It  will  be  seen,  by  the  plans  figs.  4  and  6,  that  the  sight-holes,  F  F, 
are  so  arranged  as  to  command  a  view  of  the  whole  longitudinal  and 
side  flues,  by  which  means  the  condition  of  the  retorts  may  at  all  times 
be  observed,  and  any  defects  detected. 


V^ 


L 


Fig.  3.  Details  of  Arch  Bricks.    Scale  \\  inch  to  a  foot. 


state,  and  the  expansion  from  the  moisture  is  great,  the  screws  of  the 
tension  rods  may  be  eased,  which  will  allow  the  whole  mass  of  brick- 
work to  swell ;  but  as  soon  as  the  moisture  is  expelled,  it  will  sink 
back  into  its  place,  and  be  as  perfect  as  when  first  built.  When  a  set 
of  these  retorts  is  first  put  to  work,  either  new  or  after  being  let  down 
for  any  purpose,  it  leaks  through  the  joints  for  about  twenty-four  hours, 
gradually  stopping ;  and  after  that  time,  if  the  heat  be  good,  it  will  have 
become  quite  sound,  and  permanently  gas-tight,  under  a  pressure  equal 
to  10  or  12  inches  head  of  water. 

From  a  sufficiently  long  experience,  the  writer  has  proved  that  brick 
retorts  built  upon  this  plan  will  wear  for  ten  years,  with  the  outlay  of 
twenty  shillings  per  annum  for  repairs,  and  that  iron  retorts  will  not 
last  more  than  a  year  and  a  half,  under  the  most  favourable  circum- 
stances. Then,  to  show  their  comparative  economv,  take  a  number, 
say  twenty  sets  or  beds  of  iron  retorts,  and  twenty  beds  of  brick  retorts, 
each  bed  being  capable  of  making  20,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  in  twenty- 
four  hours ;  and  to  make  the  calculations  as  correct  as  possible,  let  the 
cost  and  repairs  of  each  be  estimated,  and  the  quantity  of  gas  they  will 
make,  during  a  period  of  ten  years,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  cost  of  the 
gas  produced  from  each  plan  per  10,000  cubic  feet. 


^4_k-l_^L_44JL4 \..\ lj    ,   :  a u  _  ui  j,i  i :.- 1      ;-  j  ,   ;  n    - 

J/I'L H         ■  r1,  .    -  ! _jl_ ,m      ■    — f      - — _ 'V    '■      V    >       :    r-'  i-1         rJ  .  '    <   '         >       r ,     t. -   '  ■     ~-        1  —     : .J  r1'   I K         - 


Fig.  G.  Plan  at  Centre  of  Lower  Retorts. 


With  regard  to  the  durability,  the  writer  may  observe,  that  twelve 
sets  of  these  retorts  were  put  up  by  him  in  1842,  and  worked  constantly, 
with  the  exception  of  short  periods,  up  to  1849,  when  they  were  taken 
down  for  the  alteration  of  the  works,  and  they  were  found  then  in  good 
condition,  and  were  fit  for  working  several  years  longer  with  slight 
repairs.  The  writer  also  put  up  twelve  sets  of  these  retorts  in  1844, 
and  they  continue  in  regular  work  now,  and  are  in  good  condition ;  the 
cost  of  repairs  of  the  retorts,  ovens,  and  furnaces  during  the  eight 
years  they  have  worked  has  not  exceeded  twenty  shillings  per  annum 
for  each  set. 

The  writer  accounts  for  the  durability  and  economy  of  retorts  con- 
structed on  this  plan,  firstly,  by  their  being  composed  of  a  great  number 
of  pieces,  instead  of  only  one ;  so  that  when  their  temperature  is  altered, 
either  by  the  carelessness  of  the  stokers,  or  in  letting  down  the  heat  to 
throw  the  retort  out  of  work,  each  joint  opens  a  little,  equal  to  the  con- 
traction of  a  9-inch  brick,  and  prevents  any  portion  of  the  retort  crack- 
ing. In  the  same  way,  in  getting  up  the  heat  (.which  is  a  time  when  a 
great  number  of  clay  retorts  made  in  one  piece  are  destroyed),  if  one 
portion  of  the  retort  becomes  heated  more  than  another,  the  joints 
accommodate  the  expansion;  or,  if  the  brickwork  is  in  a  very  green 


First  cost  of  20  beds  of  iron  retorts  : — 
Bricks,  clay,  and  labour  for  arches 
100  cast-iron  retorts,  18  cwt.  each,  90  tons, 

at  £6 

Fire  bricks,  shields,  quarries,  &c,  for  setting 
Labour  for  setting,  60s.  each 

Cost  of  renewing  20  beds  of  Iron  retorts  : — 
100  iron  retorts,  90  tons,  at  £G     . .  . .  .£'5-10 

Bricks  and  clay        ..        '..  ..  ..      150 

Labour,  taking  down  and  resetting  . .        80 


Less  by  old  burnt  iron,  50  tons, 
at  25s.       . .         . .         . .  ^ 

Less  by  one-third  of  bricks, 
which  may  be  used  again. . 


£367     0    0 


540 

150 

GO 


.1770 

0 

I) 

'62 

10 

0 

50 

0 

0 

112 

10 

o 

This  sum  will  be  multiplied  by  (U,  the  num- 
ber of  times  they  will  be  renewed  in  10 
years,  which  will  give 

Making  the  total  expense  of  iron  retorts  . . 


£657  10    0 


4,27')  10    (i 
.£.'5,^87  10     0 


224 


On  the  Construction  of  Steam  Boilers. 


[October, 


First  cost  of  20  beds  of  brick  retorts  : — 

Bricks,  clay,  and  labour  for  arches. . 

Iron  for  front  plates  and  brick-stays,  21 
tons,  at  £6 

Pattern  and  other  bricks  and  clay  for  re- 
torts 

Labour  for  building  retorts. .  . .  . . 


Cost  of  repairs  for    10   years,  at  20s.  per 

bed  per  annum ,£100     0     0 

Less  value  of  old  front  plates,  &c„  20  tons, 

at  25s 25     0    0 


£367  0  0 

126  0  0 

180  0  0 

110  0  0 

£783  0  0 


Making  the  total  expense  of  brick  retorts. 


75    0    0 

£858    0     0 


Now,  as  the  quantity  of  gas  that  each  of  the  two  descriptions  of 
retorts  is  estimated  to  generate  is  the  same  for  ten  years,  namely,  1460 
millions  cubic  feet,  it  follows  that  the  gas  from  the  cast-iron  retorts 
costs  9c?.  per  10,000  cubic  feet,  and  that  from  the  fire-brick  retorts  \^d. 
per  10,000  cubic  feet,  for  the  item  of  retorts  and  ovens;  showing  an 
economy  of  84  per  cent,  in  the  improved  fire-brick  retorts. 

Mr.  Clift  exhibited  specimens  of  the  fire-bricks,  showing  the  mode  of 
jointing  them,  to  prevent  leakage  of  the  gas. 

Mr.  Chellingworth  inquired  whether  a  defect  in  a  brick  retort  could 
be  repaired,  such  as  a  bad  joint?  When  an  iron  retort  became  broken 
it  could  not  be  repaired,  and  all  was  lost,  and  had  to  be  pulled  out,  but 
it  was  a  great  advantage  in  the  brick  retorts  if  they  could  be  readily 
repaired. 

Mr.  Clift  replied  that  a  defect  could  be  easily  repaired  at  any  time, 
without  stopping  the  working  of  the  retorts ;  the  surface  of  the  retorts 
could  be  thoroughly  examined  through  the  different  sight  holes,  and 
any  defective  joint  detected  by  the  appearance  of  a  gas  flame ;  and  a 
single  brick  could  be  taken  out  of  any  part  when  required,  and  removed 
by  proper  tools  through  the  sight  holes,  which  were  made  large  enough 
for  a  brick  to  pass,  and  another  brick  was  then  set  in  its  place  with  fire- 
clay, without  occasion  to  let  down  the  heat  of  the  retort.  When  a 
brick  retort  was  pulled  down,  it  was  found  that  the  carbon  deposited 
from  the  gas  filled  up  any  crack  or  fracture,  by  the  carbon  adhering  to 
the  rough  surface  of  the  brick  and  collecting  upon  it,  from  the  inde- 
structible nature  of  the  brick.  But  a  crack  in  a  cast-iron  retort  con- 
tinued getting  worse,  and  became  constantly  more  open,  on  account  of 
the  surface  of  the  iron  perishing  in  the  sides  of  the  crack,  which  pre- 
vented it  from  getting  closed  up  by  a  deposit  of  carbon,  as  in  the  brick 
retorts.  When  a  cast-iron  retort  was  once  cracked  it  was  done  for,  and 
must  be  thrown  away,  requiring  the  whole  oven  to  be  opened  out  and 
rebuilt,  and  causing  a  serious  delay  to  the  work,  as  well  as  expense. 

Mr.  Ramsbottom  remarked  that  the  greater  equality  in  the  rate  of 
expansion  by  heat  of  carbon  and  fire-brick,  than  of  carbon  and  cast- 
iron,  would  probably  assist  in  keeping  the  joints  close. 

Mr.  Clift  observed,  that  on  pulling  down  the  brick  retorts,  after  seven 
years'  working,  it  was  found  that  the  joints  were  completely  blackened 
and  filled  with  carbon  half  way  through,  up  to  the  fire-clay  stopping  in 
the  centre  groove ;  but  the  outer  half  of  the  joints  showed  no  appear- 
ance of  the  carbon  having  passed  the  groove. 

Mr.  H.  Wright  said  he  had  lately  had  some  gas-ovens  built  on  Mr. 
Clift's  plan,  instead  of  renewing  the  cast-iron  retorts  used  previously, 
and  they  had  been  at  work  for  some  months  very  satisfactorily ;  there 
was  no  appearance  of  defect  in  getting  up  the  heat  or  letting  it  down; 
and  he  considered  that  the  plan  was  an  important  improvement. 

Mr.  Clift  observed,  that  the  plan  of  constructing  the  retorts  of  double 
the  usual  length,  with  a  mouth-piece  at  each  end,  he  had  only  had  in  use 
for  about  a  year,  but  he  found  it  a  decided  improvement,  and  had  since 
adopted  it  in  all  new  works.     The  other  retorts  became  scurfed  up  with 


a  large  accumulation  of  carbon,  particularly  at  the  back  ends,  where  the 
scurf  became  several  inches  thick,  and  very  hard,  and  the  retorts  had  to 
be  stopped  work  and  the  heat  let  down,  usually  every  eight  months,  for 
the  purpose  of  clearing  out  this  scurf,  and  getting  it  detached  by  the 
contraction  in  cooling.  But  in  the  long  retorts,  open  at  both  ends,  there 
was  no  back  for  the  scurf  to  accumulate  against,  and  the  current  of  air 
through  the  retort  every  time  that  both  ends  were  opened  caused  the 
scurf  to  scale  off,  and  it  was  much  easier  to  detach,  and  consequently  it 
was  found  that  they  would  work  much  longer  before  requiring  to  be  let 
down.  Also  the  centre  portion  of  the  oven,  which  is  the  hottest  part, 
and  most  valuable  for  making  gas,  was  lost  before  by  the  blank  ends  of 
the  retorts,  but  is  now  made  available,  as  there  is  only  a  single  brick 
wall  dividing  the  flues,  and  by  this  means  the  heating  surface  and  con- 
tents of  the  retorts  are  increased,  without  any  increase  in  the  size  or 
expense.  Another  advantage  is  found  in  preventing  the  injury  and 
shaking  of  the  joints  that  was  caused  in  drawing  the  coke  from  the 
retort,  by  the  heavy  rake  being  driven  against  the  back  of  the  retort. 
.  The  thanks  of  the  meeting  were  voted  to  Mr.  Clift  for  his  paper,  and 
the  meeting  then  terminated. 

After  the  meeting,  a  model  was  exhibited  of  a  new  construction  of 
permanent  way  for  railways,  by  Mr.  J.  E.  M'Connell,  of  Wolverton. 


ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  STEAM  BOILERS, 

BY  W.  FAIEBAIEN,  ENGINEER,  MANCHESTER. 

In  the  Artizan  for  1851,  p.  129,  will  be  found  an  abstract  of  two 
lectures  on  "  Steam-boilers  and  the  Causes  of  their  Explosion,"  deli- 
vered by  Mr.  Fairbairn,  at  Leeds.  We  have  now  before  us  a  report 
from  the  Manchester  Guardian  of  18th  inst.,  of  a  paper  on  the  same 
subject,  read  by  Mr.  Fairbairn  before  the  British  Association  at 
Belfast,  on  which  we  propose  to  offer  a  few  remarks. 

Mr.  Fairbairn  was,  we  believe,  the  introducer  into  Manchester  of  the 
cylindrical  boiler,  with  two  internal  cylindrical  furnaces,  which,  in 
April,  1851,  he  describes  as  "  the  simplest,  and,  probably,  the  most 
effective  that  has  yet  been  constructed."  Further  experience  has  in- 
duced Mr.  Fairbairn  to  modify  his  views,  as  will  be  seen  from  the 
following  extracts  from  the  Guardian  : — 

"  Every  description  of  boiler  used  in  manufactories,  or  on  board  of 
steamers,  should,  in  my  opinion,  be  constructed  to  a  bursting  pressure  of 
400  lbs.  to  500  lbs.  on  the  square  inch;  and  locomotive  engine  boilers,  which 
are  subjected  to  a  much  severer  duty,  to  a  bursting  pressure  of  600lbs.  to  700lbs. 
It  now  only  remains  for  me  to  state  that  internal  flues,  such  as  contain  the 
furnace  in  the  interior  of  the  boiler,  should  be  kept  as  near  as  possible  to 
the  cylindrical  form;  and  as  wrought  iron  will  yield  to  a  force  tending  to 
crush  it  of  about  one-half  of  what  would  tear  it  asunder,  the  flues  should 
in  no  case  exceed  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  boiler;  and  with  the  same 
thickness  of  plates  they  may  be  considered  equally  safe  with  the  other 
parts.  But  the  force  of  compression  is  so  different  to  that  of  tension,  that  I 
should  advise  the  diameter  of  the  internal.flues  to  be  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  2  J, 
instead  of  1  to  2,  of  the  diameter  of  the  boiler. 

.  "  To  construct  boilers  as  nearly  as  possible  of  maximum  strength,  I  have 
already  observed,  they  should  be  of  the  cylindrical  form;  and  where  flat 
ends  are  used  they  should  be  composed  of  plates  one-half  thicker  than  those 
which  form  the  circumference.  The  flues,  if  two  in  number,  to  be  of  the 
same  thickness  as  the  exterior  shell;  and  the  flat  ends  to  be  carefully  stayed 
with  gussets  of  triangular  plates  and  angle-iron,  firmly  connecting  them 
with  the  circumference.  The  use  of  gussets  I  earnestly  recommend,  as  being 
infinitely  superior  to,  and  more  certain  in  their  action  and  retaining  powers 
than,  stay  rods.  Gussets,  when  used,  should  be  placed  in  lines  diverging  J 
from  the  centre  of  the  boiler,  and  made  as  long  as  the  position  of  the  flues 
and  other  circumstances  in  the  construction  will  admit.  They  are  of  great 
value  in  retaining  the  ends  in  shape,  and  may  safely  be  relied  upon  as  im-  i 
parting  an  equality  of  strength  to  every  part  of  the  structure." 


1852.] 


Manufacture  of  Stearic  Candles. 


225 


«  Since  the  delivery  of  these  lectures  (says  the  Guardian),  considerable 
progress  has  been  made  in  the  construction  of  tubular  boilers  in  the  Lanca- 
shire districts,  in  which  Messrs.  Gordon,  of  Stockport,  and  some  others,  have 
taken  a  prominent  part.  In  these  constructions  sufficient  attention  has  not, 
however,  been  paid  to  form  and  a  judicious  distribution  of  the  material,  so  as 
to  ensure  the  section  of  greatest  strength.  It  has  already  been  noticed,  that 
the  cylinder  is  the  only  form  in  which  metallic  plates  can  be  arranged 
for  resistance  to  uniform  and  equable  pressure  ;  but  in  boilers  this  cannot 
always  be  effected  in  practice,  so  as  to  render  these  vessels  in  any  case  con- 
venient and  calculated  to  meet  the  varied  requirements  essential  in  these 
constructions.  The  engineer  has  frequently  to  deviate  from  what  is  known 
to  be  the  strongest  form  and  to  work  out,  under  what  otherwise  may  be  con- 
sidered defective  construction,  the  elements  of  uniform  strength ;  this  is  not 
however,  always  accomplished,  as  no  inconsiderable  number  of  engineers  and 
boiler-makers,  either  from  ignorance  or  neglect,  are  not  aware  of  the  impor- 
tance of  a  knowledge  of  these  facts. 

"  Large  flat  surfaces,  such  as  the  ends  of  cylindrical  boilers,  the  fire- 
boxes of  locomotive  engines,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  marine  boilers,  are 
of  this  description;  and  it  requires  considerable  care  in  the  construction, 
as  well  as  a  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  strains,  to  ensure  uniformity  of 
resistance  in  all  the  parts,  to  uniformity  of  pressure.  In  every  case  where 
flat  surfaces  are  exposed  to  pressure  from  such  a  dangerous  element  as  steam, 
it  is  absolutely  imperative  that  those  flat  surfaces  should  be  made  equal  in 
their  powers  of  resistance  to  the  other  parts,  otherwise  a  superfluous  quantity 
of  material  is  used,  which,  by  retarding  the  transmission  of  heat,  prevents 
that  rapid  conduction,  which  is  the  object  to  be  attained,  in  a  well-constructed 
boiler.  In  fact,  the  true  nature  of  these  constructions  should  be  uniform 
resistance  and  simultaneous  action  ;  so  that,  in  the  event  of  extreme  pres- 
sure, every  part  of  the  structure  should  be  on  the  point  of  yielding  at  one 
and  the  same  time.  But  on  these  points  we  must  refer  to  the  recommenda- 
tion and  methods  adopted  in  the  construction  of  the  improved  tubular 
boiler,  of  which  we  present  our  readers  with  a  diagram,  and  the  descriptions, 
as  given  by  Mr.  Fairbairn  to  the  mechanical  section  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion at  Belfast." 

We  have  not  engraved  the  drawing  in  question,  because  an  accurate 
idea  of  its  arrangement  will  be  obtained  by  referring  to  the  engraving 
of  Messrs.  Galloway's  patent  boilers,  at  p.  101,  Artizan  1850.  In  the 
union  of  the  two  furnaces  behind  the  bridge,  and  the  use  of  conical 
water-tubes  to  support  the  elliptical  portion  of  the  flue,  Mr.  Fairbairn 
has  been  anticipated  by  Messrs.  Galloway,  the  only  difference  being, 
that  Mr.  Fairbairn  carries  the  draft  finally  through  small  tubes,  instead 
of  around  a  further  number  of  water-tubes.  Boilers  of  almost  identi- 
cally the  form  recommended  by  Mr.  Fairbairn  have  been  used  for  some 
years  as  marine  boilers  ;  and  although  their  lightness,  from  the  small 
quantity  of  water  which  they  contain,  is  a  recommendation  for  marine 
purposes,  it  appears  to  us  that  the  small  fire-tubes  are  inferior  for  land 
purposes  to  Messrs.  Galloway's  conical  water-tubes,  the  latter  not  being 
liable  to  be  choked  with  deposit  from  the  coal,  and  offering  infinitely 
greater  facility  for  clearing  out  the  deposit  from  the  water. 

Mr.  Fairbairn,  in  speaking  of  the  tubular  structure,  states,  "  It  is  now 
upwards  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  since  I  first  introduced  the  cylindrical 
boiler  with  double  flues  and  double  furnaces,  which,  up  to  the  present  time, 
has  been  successful  and  in  general  use.  Kepeated  attempts  have  been  made 
to  improve  this  construction;  but  it  has  yet  to  be  proved  whether  the  altera- 
tions recently  introduced  are  substantially  improvements  on  the  original 
boiler,  with  the  double  furnaces  and  alternate  firing.  The  new  boiler,  as 
now  constructing  by  Messrs.  "William  Fairbairn  and  Sons,  consists  of  two 
furnaces,  the  same  as  the  double  flue  boiler,  but  with  this  difference,  that  the 
cylindrical  flues,  each  2  feet  8  inches  diameter,  which  contain  the  grate  bars, 
are  united,  8  feet  from  the  front  of  the  boiler,  into  a  circular  flue,  3  feet  10 
inches  in  diameter,  which  forms  the  mixing  chamber,  and  where  the  heated 
currents  of  combustion  from  each  furnace  unite.  This  chamber,  8  feet  long, 
terminates  in  a  disc  plate,  which,  with  a  similar  plate  at  the  extreme  end  of 
the  boiler,  receives  from  104  to  110  3-inch  tubes,  also  8  feet  long,  similar  in 
every  respect  to  the  tubes  used  in  marine  boilers  and  the  locomotive.    These 


tubes  are  contained  in  a  boiler  7  feet  in  diameter,  and  from  the  thinness  of 
the  metal  becomes  the  absorbents  of  the  surplus  heat  escaping  from  the  mix- 
ing chamber  and  the  furnaces.  On  this  principle  of  rapid  conduction,  the 
whole  of  the  heat,  excepting  only  what  is  necessary  to  maintain  the  draught, 
is  transmitted  into  the  boiler;  and  hence  follows  the  economy  of  entirely 
dispensing  with  brickwork  and  flues,  an  important  desideratum  in  those 
constructions. 

"  The  heating  surfaces  in  the  improved  boiler,  as  compared  with  the  old 
one,  are  as  follows : — 

NEW    TUBULAR   BOILER. 

Feet. 

Heating  surfaces  in  two  furnaces        . .         . .  . .         . .      12s 

Do.         do.       in  mixing  chamber  . .  .  .  . .        SO 

Do.        do.      in  vertical  tubes        . .         . .         , .         . .        o$ 

Do.         do.      in  104  3-inch  tubes  670 


Total 

OLD    DOUBLE   FLUE    BOILER. 

Heating  surfaces  in  two  furnaces 
Do.        do.,      in  two  internal  flues 
Do.         do.      exterior  surface  in  brick  flues 


906 

110 
270 
2.40 


Total       . .         . .         . .         . .     620 

which  gives  a  ratio  in  favour  of  the  improved  boiler  of  about  6  to  9.  ' 

"In  the  construction  of  the  improved  boiler  just  described,  it  must  be 
observed  that  in  '  gathering'  or  forming  the  plates  as  they  pass  from  the  two 
circular  furnaces  into  the  cylindrical  chamber,  an  ellipse  is  formed,  and  in 
order  to  render  this  part  of  equal  strength,  and  increase  the  vaporative 
power  of  the  boiler,  three  vertical  tubss,  six  inches  diameter  at  the  bottom 
and  nine  inches  at  the  top,  are  firmly  riveted  through  the  transverse  diameter 
of  the  ellipse,  thus  imparting  the  required  strength  to  that  part,,  which,  if  not 
attended  to,  would  contain  the  elements  of  destruction  whenever  the  boiler 
should  happen  to  be  severely  pressed.  The  flat  ends  are  points  of  construc- 
tion which  require  equally  careful  attention,  and  there  is  no  plan  so  well 
adapted  for  such  a  purpose  as  gussets  radiating  from  the  centre  of  the  boiler, 
securely  riveted  by  angle-iron  to  the  external  circumference,  and  by  having 
them  divided  at  not  more  than  twelve  inches  on  the  circumference.  The 
required  uniformity  of  strength,  assuming  the  end  plates  to  be  one-half 
thicker  than  the  shell  of  the  boiler,  will  be  as  nearly  as  possible  obtained." 

It  gives  us  great  pleasure  to  find  so  eminent  an  engineer  as  Mr.  Fair- 
bairn adopting,  in  1852,  the  views  which  we  urged  in  185C ;  and  we 
would  suggest,  in  conclusion,  that,  in  any  future  public  discussion  of 
the  subject,  he  should  repair  the  oversight  which  he  appears  to  have 
inadvertently  committed,  of  omitting  to  mention  Messrs.  Galloway's 
name  in  connection  with  the  system  of  the  junction  furnaces  and  conical 
water-tubes. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  STEARIC  CANDLES.* 

(Continued  from  page  199.) 

DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    LIME    PROCESS,  AS    PRACTISED  AT    MESSRS. 
OGLEBY    AND    Co's    WORKS    AT    LAMBETH. 

Saponification. — Into  a  large  wooden  vat,  containing  a  coil  of  steam- 
pipes,  pierced  with  small  holes,  ten  tons  of  tallow  are  placed,  with  a 
quantity  of  water.  The  steam,  when  turned  on,  issues  through  the 
holes  into  the  water,  raises  its  temperature,  and  units  the  tallow  ;  as 
soon  as  the  water  has  entered  into  brisk  ebullition,  a  quantity  of  lime, 
in  the  state  of  thin  cream,  is  added,  and  the  ebullition  continued  for 
six  hours,  or  until  complete  saponification  is  effected.  From  10  to  15 
parts  of  dry  quick-lime  are  added  for  every  100  parts  of  tallow.  The 
lime  decomposes  the  tallow,  and  combines  with  the  resulting  stearic, 
margaric,  and  oleic  acids,  forming  a  lime  soap  (rock  soap),  ami  si  ts  the 
oxide  of  glycera  at  liberty,  in  its  hydrated  state,  ns  glycerin,  which  dis- 


♦  Report  of  the  Jury  oftlie  Great  Exhibition. 


226 


Manufacture  of  Stearic  Candles. 


[October, 


solves  in  the  water.  The  whole  is  allowed  to  cool  in  the  vessel  in  which 
the  boiling  is  effected,  and  the  solution  of  glycerin  run  off. 

The  rock  soap,  when  cold,  is  reduced  to  a  coarse  powder  by  a  mill, 
consisting  of  a  pair  of  fluted  rollers,  over  which  an  axis  is  placed,  carry- 
ing tiger-like  claws,  which  revolve  between  a  series  of  horizontal  prongs. 
The  claws,  by  passing  between  the  prongs,  tear  the  large  lumps  into 
small  pieces,  which  are  then  crushed  by  the  fluted  rollers. 

Decomposition  of  the  Lime  Soap  by  Acid. — The  ground  lime  soap  is 
now  placed  in  lead-lined  vats,  supplied  with  a  perforated  copper  steam- 
coil,  each  vat  being  capable  of  holding  fron  eight  to  ten  tons.  When 
the  temperature  has  reached  the  boiling-point,  sulphuric  acid,  previously 
diluted,  is  added,  in  the  proportion  of  25  parts  to  every  100  parts  of 
tallow  employed.  The  sulphuric  acid  combines  with  the  lime,  forming 
an  insoluble  sulphate  of  lime,  and  liberates  the  oily  acids,  which  float 
at  the  top,  and  are  then  termed  "  yellow  matter."  This  yellow  matter 
is  run  off  by  cocks,  placed  at  the  proper  level,  into  large-spouted  vessels, 
called  "jacks,"  and  poured  from  these  into  flat  tin  moulds,  in  which  it 
is  allowed  to  cool  and  crystallise. 

The  sulphate  of  lime,  after  being  well  washed  with  boiling  acidulated 
water,  to  remove  the  adhering  fat,  is  sold  as  manure. 

Pressing  the  Fatty  Acids  to  remove  the  Oleic  Acid. — The  cakes  of 
yellow  matter  are  interleaved  with  cocoa-nut  mats  (without  being  sliced 
and  enclosed  in  bags,  as  was  formerly  the  case),  and  subjected,  between 
iron  plates,  to  a  pressure  of  600  tons,  in  a  vertical  hydraulic  press.  A 
great  portion  of  the  oleic  acid  is  thus  removed,  and  the  mixture  of 
stearic  and  margaric  acids  rendered  much  whiter. 

Refining. — The  cold-pressed  acids  are  then  melted  by  steam  in  a  lead- 
lined  wooden  vat,  with  a  little  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  to  remove  any 
oxide  of  iron,  or  other  impurity ;  poured  into  fiat  tin  trays,  and  again 
allowed  to  cool  and  crystallise. 

Hot-pressing . — The  cakes  of  stearic  acid,  when  cold,  are  put  sepa- 
rately into  a  linen  bag,  interleaved  with  cocoa-nut  matting  and  iron 
plates,  previously  heated  by  steam,  placed  in  the  trough  of  a  horizontal 
hydraulic  press,  which  is  likewise  heated  by  steam,  and  then  subjected 
to  great  pressure  for  some  time.  By  this  operation  the  remainder  of 
the  oleic  acid,  holding  a  little  of  the  solid  acid  in  solution,  is  removed. 
The  pressed  cakes  retain  a  small  quantity  of  oleic  acid  at  the  edges ; 
these  are  scraped  off,  melted,  and  again  pressed. 

Second  refining. — This  process  is  simply  a  repetition  of  the  first  pro- 
cess of  refining. 

Moulding. — In  the  manufacture  of  the  best  description  of  stearic 
candles,  the  moulding  is  generally  performed  by  hand.  The  moulds 
are  of  pewter,  several  being  fixed  in  a  wooden  frame  ;  these  moulds  are 
heated  to  a  temperature  approaching  the  fusing  point  of  the  stearic 
acid,  and  are  rapidly  wicked,  in  the  manner  already  described,  in 
speaking  of  tallow  mould  candles. 

The  wicks  are  all  previously  prepared  by  immersion  in  a  solution  of 
boracic  acid,  or  the  ammoniacal  salts  of  this  and  other  acids,  the  prepara- 
tion varying  with  the  experience  of  different  manufacturers.  This  pre- 
paration, called  flux,  serves  to  fuse  the  ashes  of  the  wick  into  minute 
globules,  which  are  seen  on  the  extremity  of  the  wick,  and  which  are 
readily  dispersed,  and  also  prevents  the  formation  of  earthy  and  alkaline 
soaps. 

The  melted  material  having  been  allowed  to  congeal  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, is  run  into  the  moulds.  After  cooling,  the  candles  shrink  sufficiently 
to  be  removed  with  a  few  light  taps  on  the  frame. 

The  fusing  points  of  stearic  candles  are  remarkably  uniform,  though 
manufactured  by  various  makers  in  different  countries ;  for  example, 
those  taken  from  Messrs.  Ogleby's  case  congealed  at  5525°  C. 
(131-5°  F.),  and  one  from  De  Milly's  at  55-50°  C.  (132°  F.)  This 
coincidence  is  very  remarkable.  Stearic  acid  fuses  at  70°  C.  (158°  F.j; 
margaric  acid  at  GO"  C.  (140°  F.);  so  that,  from  the  mixture  of  the  two, 


a  compound  is  formed  which'fuses  at  a  lower  degree  than  either  of  the 
components,  for  it  is  almost  impossible  to  assume  that  the  solid  acid 
should  still  contain  a  sufficient  quantity  of  oleic  acid  to  reduce  its  fusing 
point  to  such  an  extent. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  SULPHURIC  SAPONIFICATION  AND  DISTIL- 
LATION PROCESS  EMPLOYED  AT  THE  WORKS  OF  PRICE'S  PATENT 
CANDLE    COMPANY. 

Sulphtiric  Saponification. — About  20  tons  of  fat,  say  palm-oil,  are 
placed  in  a  large  lead-lined  vat,  and  fused  by  a  steam  jet.  The  fluid 
mass,  after  being  allowed  to  settle,  has  now  to  be  exposed  to  the  com- 
bined action  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  and  heat ;  and  for  this 
purpose  is  pumped  into  the  acidifying  vessel,  in  which  its  temperature 
is  raised  to  177°  C.  (350°  F.)  The  means  of  heating  is  a  jet  of  low- 
pressure  steam,  which,  in  its  course  from  the  boiler,  passes  through  a 
series  of  iron  pipes  heated  in  a  furnace.  The  quantity  of  acid  used  is 
in  the  proportion  of  6  lbs.  for  1 12  lbs.  of  palm-oil.  In  this  operation,  the 
palm-oil  is  decomposed,  and  becomes  much  blackened.  Withdrawn  at 
that  period,  it  is  seen  that  an  important  change  has  been  effected  by 
the  action  of  the  acid,  as  the  mass  now  readily  crystallises  to  a  tolerably 
solid  fat.  The  fat  is  now  drawn  off  from  the  acid,  and  transferred  to 
the  washing-tank,  where  it  is  boiled  up  with  water  by  means  of  a 
steam  jet. 

Distillation. — After  one  or  two  washings,  the  blackened  fat  is  with- 
drawn, and  pumped  up  to  the  supply  tank,  which  commands  the  stills. 
The  stills,  which  are  made  of  copper,  are  heated  by  an  open  grate ;  each 
still  is  capable  of  holding  five  tons  of  fat.  When  charged,  the  tem- 
perature is  raised  to  293'5°C.  (5G0°F.),  and  low-pressure  steam  passed 
through  the  mass  ;  this  steam  is  previously  heated  by  passing  through 
a  system  of  iron  pipes  placed  in  a  furnace. 

The  current  of  steam  carries  with  it  the  vapour  of  the  fatty  acids,  and 
thus  facilitates  the  process.  The  mixed  vapours  of  fatty  acids  and  water 
pass  together  to  a  series  of  vertical  pipes,  which  retain  a  temperature 
above  100°  C.  (212°  F.),  where  the  fats  only  condense,  while  the  steam 
passes  to  a  second  refrigerator  cooled  by  a  current  of  water.  Here  it  is 
condensed,  along  with  the  minute  quantity  of  fat  carried  over  by  it. 
A  separating  tank,  from  which  the  water  escapes  at  the  bottom,  whilst 
the  fats  float  on  the  top,  serves  to  recover  this  small  quantity. 

Distillation  of  the  Residue. — After  continuing  the  distillation  for  a 
certain  period,  the  residue  in  the  still  is  transferred  to  another  still, 
formed  of  iron  pipes,  set  in  a  furnace,  and  there  submitted  to  a  much 
higher  temperature,  and  a  jet  of  steam  more  strongly  heated.  The  re- 
sidue left  in  these  iron  stills  is  a  sort  of  pitch,  and  is  applied  to  the 
same  uses  as  ordinary  pitch.  By  this  means  an  additional  quantity  of 
fatty  acids  is  obtained. 

The  fatty  acids,  as  they  run  from  the  still,  are  used  to  a  great  extent 
for  the  manufacture  of  candles,  without  pressing,  and  form  what  are 
called  composite  candles,  which  possess  all  the  advantages  of  being 
self-snuffing,  but  are  more  fusible  and  softer  than  the  pressed  stearic 
acid  candles.  A  large  proportion  of  the  distilled  fats,  however,  is 
pressed,  to  make  a  better  sort  of  candle ;  and  for  this  purpose  50 
hydraulic  presses  are  employed. 

Cold  pressing. — The  fats  are  spi-ead  by  ingenious  machinery  on 
woven  mats,  and  submitted  to  powerful  cold  pressure,  between  iron 
plates;  the  oleic,  or  metoleic  acid,  runs  out,  and  is  collected  and  chiefly 
exported  to  Germany,  where  it  is  employed  in  soap-making. 

Hot  pressing. — After  cold  pressing,  the  fat  acids  are  subjected  to  hot 
pressure,  in  hydraulic  presses,  confined  in  a  chamber  heated  by  steam. 
The  pressed  cakes,  after  the  removal  of  the  edges,  are  melted  in  contact 
with  a  little  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  and  run  into  blocks.  When  the 
reporters  visited  the  works,  the  company  were  distilling  at  the  rate  of 
130  tons  of  palm  oil  per  week. 


1852.] 


Notes  by  a  Practical  Chemist. 


227 


Moulding.— The  moulding  of  the  cheaper  descriptions  of  candles  is 
effected  by  ingenious  machinery,  invented  by  Mr.  Morgan,  of  Manches- 
ter, and  improved  by  the  engineer  of  the  company.  By  this  machine 
eighteen  candles  are  moulded  at  one  time;  the  wicks,  60  yards  long, 
are  wound  on  18  separate  reels,  one  for  each  mould.  As  one  set  of 
candles  is  pushed  out  by  a  series  of  plungers,  they  draw  with  them  into 
the  moulds  the  wicks  for  the  next  lot;  these  wicks  being  held  tempo- 
rarily with  one  clip,  whilst  the  candles  are  held  with  another,  are  cut  off 
close  to  the  candles  by  a  traversing  circular  cutter.  Compound  forceps, 
having  18  holders,  now  seize  the  wicks  at  the  open  end  of  the  moulds, 
and  hold  them  in  their  places  ;  the  plungers  then  return  and  draw  the 
wicks  tight.  The  moulds  which,  during  the  operation,  have  remained 
in  a  horizontal  position,  are  now  turned  in  a  vertical  direction,  the  small 
end  downwards,  and  are  then  passed  on  a  railway  to  the  person  who  is 
to  fill  them,  they  being  heated  to  the  proper  temperature  by  their  tran- 
sit through  a  hot  closet.  They  are  then  passed  to  other  parallel  railways 
and  left  to  cool ;  after  remaining  a  sufficient  time  to  allow  of  the  solidi- 
fication of  the  candles,  the  moulds  are  brought  back  in  succession,  by 
means  of  turntables,  to  their  first  position.  The  forceps  (which  durinc 
the  moulding  have  remained  in  situ)  are  now  removed,  and  the  frame  of 
moulds  again  turned  in  a  horizontal  position.  Eighteen  plunders  or 
pistons  are  made  to  press  forward  the  loose  bottoms  of  the  moulds, 
which  correspond  to  the  small  end  of  the  candle.  In  pushing  these 
forward,  the  candles  are  pressed  out,  and  thus  the  cycle  of  operations 
is  completed.  It  must  be  added,  that  the  return-stroke  of  the  piston 
brings  back  the  bottoms  of  the  moulds  against  shoulders  provided  to 
keep  them  from  falling  out. 

Pressed  cocoa-nut  oil  is  largely  employed  to  mix  with  the  pressed 
acids  of  palm  oil,  to  make  the  best  composite  candles. 

Price's  Candle  Company  (class  iv.,  83,  p.  201)  is  the  most  colossal 
establishment  in  the  world  in  this  branch  of  chemical  manufacture ; 
possessed  of  five  distinct  manufactories,  besides  the  plantation  of 
cocoa-nut  trees  in  Ceylon,  of  a  capital  but  little  short  of  half-a-million 
sterling,  and  employing,  notwithstanding  the  best  arrangements  for 
economising  labour,  800  work-people,  it  is  not  surprising  that  they 
divide  annually  in  profits  a  sum  equal  to  the  gross  returns  of  some  of 
the  largest  continental  works  (between  £40,000  and  ,£50,000). 

The  fusing  point  of  Price's  Candle  Company's  candles  of  pressed 
distilled  fats,  obtained  by  distilling  palm  oil,  is  51'30\  (124°  F.) ;  those 
prepared  from  the  pressed  fats  obtained  by  distilling  Chinese  tallow 
(derived  from  the  Stillingia  sebifera),  according  to  a  patent  taken  out 
on  the  20th  of  December,  1845,  by  Wilson,  Gwynne  and  Wilson,  fuse 
at  577°.  (136°  F.) 

NOTES  BY  A  PRACTICAL  CHEMIST. 


New  method  of  precipitating  Oxide  of  Tin,  separating 
it  from  other  bodies,  and  combining  it  with  sll'k,  wcol- 
len  and  Cotton  Fabrics. — Loewenthall,  whilst  endeavouring  to 
find  a  simple  and  accurate  method  of  detecting  traces  of  perchloride  of 
tin  in  the  protochloride,  found  that  alkaline  sulphates  decompose  the 
perchloride,  and  precipitate  hydrous  oxide  from  the  solution,  whilst  they 
have  no  influence  on  the  protochloride  when  the  air  is  excluded.  He 
finds  that  the  sulphates  of  magnesia,  alumina,  protoxide  of  manganese, 
iron,  zinc,  and  copper,  peroxide  of  iron,  produced  the  same  decom- 
position ;  moreover,  nitrates  of  soda,  ammonia,  baryta,  zinc,  and 
copper.  He  found  the  precipitate  to  be  pure  hydrated  oxide  of  tin, 
never  containing  any  of  the  acid  of  the  precipitant. 

This  behaviour  of  oxide  of  tin  admits  of  several  useful  applications : — 

1.  The  detection  of  tin  in  almost  any  liquid. 

2.  It  affords  an  easy  and  exact  method  of  quantitatively  determining 
tin,  as  well  as  an  easy  and  perfect  means  of  separating  it  from  chlorine 


and  other  halogens,  alkalies,  &c.  It  is  of  especial  worth  to  manufac- 
turers in  determining  the  commercial  value  of  tin  salts.  The  nitric 
acid  test  always  gives  an  incorrect  result,  from  the  volatilisation  of  the 
chloride  of  tin. 

3.  It  affords  a  very  suitable  means  of  combining  oxide  of  tin  with 
cotton,  woollen  and  silk  stuffs  in  dyeing.  The  author  considers  that 
this  method  has  great  advantages  over  the  use  of  the  expensive  alkaline 
stannates. 

4.  Dark  colours  containing  tin  may  be  conveniently  made  by  this 
means. 

Preparation  of  Iodoform.— Dissolve  8  parts  iodide  of  potassium 
in  100  parts  spirit  containing  90  per  cent,  alcohol;  heat  the  mixture 
to  between  95°  and  104°  F.,  and  then  add,  in  small  quantities,  a  solu- 
tion of  chloride  of  lime ;  part  of  the  iodide  will  be  set  free,  and  will 
give  the  liquid  a  deep  red  colour.  It  is  to  be  shaken  until  nearly 
colourless,  and  fresh  portions  of  chloride  of  lime  are  then  to  be  added, 
repeating  the  operation  as  long  as  the  phenomena  indicated  continue 
to  occur.  When,  on  addition  of  chloride,  the  liquor  ceases  to  become 
coloured,  it  is  to  be  allowed  to  cool,  and  in  a  little  while  a  yellowish 
white  flocculent  matter  will  be  deposited,  consisting  of  iodoform  and 
iodate  of  lime.  The  precipitate  is  to  be  collected  and  treated  with  boil- 
ing spirit  containing  90  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  which  will  dissolve  the 
iodoform,  and  deposit  it  in  crystals  as  it  cools.  The  iodate  of  lime  re- 
sults from  the  decomposition  of  part  of  the  hypochlorite  of  lime  and 
iodide  of  potassium.  The  chloride  of  lime  may  be  replaced  in  this  pre- 
paration by  chlorides  of  potassa  or  soda,  but  these  latter,  besides  their 
higher  price,  have  the  further  inconvenience  of  forming  a  greater 
quantity  of  iodate  than  the  chloride  of  lime. 

Detection  of  Mercury  in  oily  or  fatty  substances. — 
The  following  method  serves  to  separate  mercury  in  a  few  minutes  from 
its  combinations  with  oxygen  and  the  fatty  acids  (ointments).  How- 
ever small  the  quantity  of  mercury  present,  the  effect  is,  nevertheless, 
distinct. 

The  ointment  to  be  examined  is  melted  by  the  application  of  a  gentle 
heat,  and  a  small  quantity  of  essence  of  citron  is  then  added  to  it. 
Under  the  well-known  reducing  influence  of  this  hydrocarbon,  the 
ointment  acquires  a  grey  colour,  which  effect  is  to  be  promoted  by 
stirring.  After  about  five  minutes,  the  ointment  being  still  kept  melted, 
three  times  its  volume  of  ether  is  to  be  added,  the  whole  mixed  together, 
and  then  allowed  to  stand.  The  supernatent  liquid  is  then  to  be  de- 
canted, and  the  residue  washed  several  times  with  ether.  The  mercury 
left  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  may  now  be  dissolved  in  nitric  acid,  and 
tested  with  the  usual  reagents. 

Test  for  Dragons'  Blood.  —  To  estimate  approximately  the 
value  of  a  sample  of  dragons'  blood,  it  is  sufficient  to  treat  a  small 
quantity  with  potassa,  adding  excess  of  sulphuric  acid.  A  sample  of 
dragons'  blood  is  so  much  the  more  valuable  as  it  is  soluble  in  potassa 
without  change  of  tint,  and  as  it  takes  with  sulphuric  acid  a  very  pure 
yellow  colour.  A  change  of  colour  by  potassa,  a  brown  tint  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  would  show  the  presence  of  foreign  substances. 

Extraction  of  Copper  with  Ammonia. — The  following  method 
serves  to  extract  from  any  ore  of  copper  all  the  copper,  and  nothing  but 
the  copper,  without  roasting,  and  leaving  all  the  remainder  of  the  ores  : 
— The  ore  is  reduced  to  powder,  and  placed  with  weak  ammonia  in  a 
flask  capable  of  containing,  besides,  air  sufficient  to  furnish  to  the  cop- 
per all  the  oxygen  necessary,  was  agitated  for  a  few  seconds.  The 
flask  being  perfectly  corked,  the  coloration  of  the  ammonia  was  instan- 
taneous, and  the  oxygen  absorbed  produced  a  vacuum.  The  liquor, 
freed  from  ammonia,  leaves  oxide  of  copper. 

It  was  now  necessary  to  ascertain  whether  other  metals,  as  zinc,  co- 
balt, nickel,  and  silver,  which  might  be  present,  and  whose  oxides  are 
likewise  soluble  in  ammonia,  would  not  act  like  copper.      I  treated,  in 

30 


228 


History  of  Paper  Making  in  the  United  States. 


[October, 


the  same  manner,  natural  sulphureted,  and  sulpho-arsenical  combina- 
tions of  these  metals,  but  there  was  no  action.  The  residue  did  not 
give  a  trace  of  red  coloration  with  prussiate  of  potassa,  thus  proving  that 
the  extraction  of  the  copper  is  complete.  In  applying  this  process  on 
the  large  scale,  one  equivalent  of  ammonia  is  required  for  one  of  cop- 
per, as  the  oxidation  is  produced  by  a  current  of  air  blown  slowly 
through  the  liquid  in  which  the  pulverised  ore  is  suspended.  It  was 
found  that  1  kilogramme  (2  lb.  3£  oz.)  of  copper  requires  833  cubic 
decimetres  (3273  inches)  of  air. 

The  operation  should  not  proceed  too  quickly,  for,  on  the  tempera- 
ture increasing,  a  great  part  of  the  ammonia  would  be  carried  away. 

The  cupro-ammoniacal  solution  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  ore  is 
submitted  to  distillation,  for  collecting  the  ammonia  and  employing  it 
for  subsequent  operations ;  the  oxide  of  copper  is  then  separated  as 
brilliant,  black,  micaceous  scales,  which  are  reduced  and  fused,  in  order 
to  obtain  the  metallic  copper.  Putrified  urine  may  be  successfully  em- 
ployed. This  process  may  be  advantageously  employed  in  assaying 
such  minerals,  as  we  thus  obtain  all  the  copper  in  the  form  of  a  button, 
by  fusing  the  oxide  with  a  little  charcoal. 

Direct  Mode  of  obtaining  Positive  Peoofs  on  Paper. — 
The  collodion  employed  is  composed  of  an  etherial  solution  of  gun- 
cotton  (obtained  by  treating  2  grammes  of  cotton  with  a  mixture  of  50 
grammes  nitrate  of  potassa  and  100  grammes  sulphuric  acid;  the  cotton, 
well  washed  and  dried,  is  entirely  soluble  in  a  mixture  of  10  volumes 
ether  and  1  volume  alcohol) ;  ether  and  alcohol  are  then  added,  so  that 
the  finished  solution  is  composed  of  1  gramme  of  cotton,  120  grammes 
ether,  and  60  grammes  alcohol ;  then  is  added  about  1  gramme  nitrate 
of  silver  converted  into  iodide,  and  dissolved  in  alcohol  by  means  of  an 
alkaline  iodide,  preferably  iodide  of  ammonium.  The  glass  plate,  co- 
vered in  the  ordinary  manner  with  a  thin  layer  of  the  solution,  is,  before 
it  is  dry,  steeped  in  a  bath  composed  of  l.part  distilled  water,  T',  nitrate 
of  silver,  and  ^  of  nitric  acid.  The  fixing  takes  place,  as  in  the  ordinary 
process,  in  a  few  seconds.  The  glass  plate  is  then  plunged  into  a  bath 
of  sulphate  of  protoxide  of  iron,  and  then  carefully  washed. 

The  image  has  remained  negative  until  this  moment;  but,  by  plunging 
it  into  a  bath  of  double  cyanide  of  silver  and  potassium,  it  becomes  posi- 
tive and  complete.  It  only  remains  to  wash  it,  cover  it  with  dextrine, 
and  dry  it,  and  then  frame  it  on  a  back  of  black  velvet. 

The  bath  which  I  employ  is  composed  of  1  quart  of  water,  25  grammes 
cyanide  of  potassium,  and  4  grammes  nitrate  of  silver. 

ANSWERS    TO    CORRESPONDENTS. 

"  Z.  E.,  Bromsgrove." — If  you  wish  to  study  the  philosophy  of  che- 
mistry, we  would  advise  you  to  read  Daubeny  on  the  Atomic  Theory, 
the  "Lecons  sur  la  Philosophie  Chemique,"  by  Dumas,  and  the  third 
volume  of  Comte's  "  Philosophie  Positive." 

"  Querist." — We  cannot  furnish  information  for  so  questionable  a 
purpose  as  the  one  you  have  in  view. 

"  Argonaut." — The  first  person  who  applied  zinc  to  prevent  corrosion 
of  the  copper  sheathing  of  ships  was  Sir  H.  Davy. 

S. 

HISTORY  OF  PAPER  MAKING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

REPORT   TO   THE   COMMISSIONERS   OF   PATENTS. 

Ivy  Mills,  Pa.,  Dec.  11th,  1850. 

Sir, — Your  favour  of  Nov.  30th  came  duly  to  hand.  Tor  want  of  docu- 
ments and  dates,  my  report  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  paper  manufac- 
ture in  the  United  States,  must  be  very  meagre,  as  I  have  to  rely  on  my 
limited  experience  and  observation,  and  on  conversations  with  my  father, 
long  ago,  to  supply  this  deficiency. 

About  the  year  1725,  my  grandfather,  who  was  brought  up  to  the  paper 
business  in  England,  came  over  and  settled  where  I  now  reside.  I  have 
documents  to  prove  that  in  1732  he  had  erected  a  mill,  and  was  manufac- 
turing paper.  The  kind  of  paper  then  made  was  what  is  called  fullers'  press 
boards,  such  as  are  now  used  by  clothiers  to  press  cloth.    I  believe  there  was 


another  mill  a  little  north  of  Philadelphia,  and  one  near  Boston,  similarly 
occupied.  I  believe  also  there  existed  an  Act  of  Parliament  at  that  time, 
prohibiting  the  manufacture  of  any  other  kind  of  paper  in  the  colonies.  As 
there  were  few  books  then  published  in  the  colonies,  the  progress  of  the  paper 
manufacture  was  very  slow,  and  so  continued  until  about  the  dawn  of  the 
Revolution.  My  grandfather  manufactured  the  paper  for  Dr.  Franklin,  who 
was  publishing  a  newspaper  in  Philadelphia,  and  who  was  a  frequent  visitor 
at  the  mill.  About  the  time  my  grandfather  made  the  paper  for  the  conti- 
nental money,  he  commenced  making  writing-paper,  supposed  to  be  the  first 
made  in  America.  Prom  the  Revolution  until  the  year  1820,  very  little  im- 
provement occurred  that  was  important;  very  little  machinery  introduced  for 
facilitating  the  operation.  The  mills  increased  in  number  in  proportion  to  the 
increased  quantity  of  newspaper  and  book  publishing.  About  the  year 
1810,  we  began  to  experience  a  deficiency  of  raw  material  (rags),  and  were 
obliged  to  resort  to  Europe  for  supplies.  These  were  obtained  from  all  parts 
of  Germany  and  Italy,  and  have  continued  increasing  up  to  the  present  time. 
Whether  the  deficiency  at  home  resulted  from  a  real  scarcity  of  rags,  or  their 
low  price  made  it  no  longer  an  object  to  families  to  preserve  them,  I  cannot 
say,  but  such  was  the  fact. 

At  present  we  have  an  additional  inducement  to  import  our  material.  The 
article  of  cotton  has  here  almost  entirely  superseded  the  use  of  linen  for 
wearing  apparel,  and  when  much  worn  and  reduced  to  rags,  becomes  a  very- 
tender  substance  ;  in  fact,  scarcely  able  to  support  its  weight  when  made  into 
paper.  The  foreign  rags,  we  suppose,  average  about  80  per  cent,  of  linen, 
which,  when  mixed  with  the  domestic  cotton,  imparts  to  the  paper  a  strength 
and  firmness  which  it  could  not  have  without  it.  The  best  qualities  of 
writing  and  printing  papers  contain  from  30  to  50  per  cent,  of  linen,  for 
which  we  are  entirely  depending  on  foreign  countries.  But  as  the  use  of 
cotton  for  clothing  is  yearly  increasing  all  over  the  civilised  world,  we  find 
the  proportion  of  linen  in  imported  rags  decreasing  from  5  to  10  per  cent, 
from  year  to  year.  We  have  an  excellent  substitute  for  this  in  our  own 
country,  did  not  its  high  price  prevent  its  use — raw  cotton — which  makes  a 
beautiful  paper  when  mixed  with  the  worn-out  rags  of  the  same  material.  In 
1837-8,  when  the  price  was  as  low  as  6  cents  per  pound,  large  quantities 
were  manufactured  into  paper. 

From  1820  to  1830,  some  efforts  were  made  to  introduce  machinery  from 
Europe.  England  and  France  were  before  us  in  its  introduction.  Several 
machines  were  sent  out  from  England — some  very  imperfect,  and  the  cost  too 
great  for  our  manufacturers.  The  patronage  then  offered  was  no  inducement 
to  our  own  machinists  to  construct  so  expensive  a  machine;  until  1830,  about 
which  time,  Phelps  and  Spafford,  of  Windham,  Connecticut,  made  one  which 
answered  very  well.  Soon  after,  the  country  was  supplied  at  a  reasonable 
cost,  and  equal  in  quality  to  the  best  English.  Not  long  afterwards,  Howe 
and  Goddard,  of  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  commenced  making  them.  I  have 
reference  only  to  the  Fourdrinier — the  shaking  endless  wire-web  machines. 
I  believe  these  two  establishments  now  make  all  these  machines  in  the 
United  States.  The  cylinder  machine,  more  simple  and  less  costly  than  the 
other,  is  in  more  general  use ;  but  the  paper  made  on  it  is  not  equal  in 
quality.  Notwithstanding,  it  does  very  well  for  news  and  the  various  pur- 
poses which  a  coarser  article  will  answer  for.  These  are  made  in  various 
places  throughout  the  United  States. 

The  interval  from  1830  to  1840  was  important  for  the  vast  improvements 
made  in  the  manufacture  by  the  application  of  this  kind  of  machinery  for 
that  purpose.  Also,  by  the  introduction  of  the  use  of  chlorine  in  the  form 
of  gas,  of  chloride  of  lime,  and  the  alkalies,  lime  and  soda-ash  in  bleaching, 
cleansing,  and  discharging  the  colours  from  calicoes,  worn  out  sail,  refuse 
tarred  rope,  hemp,  bagging  and  cotton  waste,  the  refuse  of  the  cotton  mills. 
These  articles  which  heretofore  had  been  considered  only  applicable  for 
the  manufacture  of  coarse  wrapping  papers,  have,  through  the  application  of 
this  bleaching  and  cleansing  process,  entered  largely  into  the  composition 
of  news  and  coarse  printing  papers,  and  consequently  have  risen  in  value 
300  per  cent.  A  few  mills  possess  machinery,  and  adopt  a  process  by  which 
they  are  prepared  for  the  finest  printing  and  letter  paper.  I  have  seen  a 
beautiful  letter  paper  made  of  cast-off  cable  rope.  Hemp  bagging  is  an  ex- 
cellent material  for  giving  strength,  and  is  in  great  demand,  especially  for 
making  the  best  newspaper.  The  cost  of  making  paper  by  machinery,  com- 
pared with  that  of  making  it  by  the  old  method  (by  hand),  not  taking  into 
account  the  interest  on  cost,  and  repair  of  machinery,  is  about  as  one  to  eight. 
The  present  low  price  resulting  from  improved  machinery,  and  the  low  price 
of  printing  by  steam  power,  have  placed  newspapers  and  books  in  the  hands 
of  all ;  and  a  great  increase  of  production  has  followed  within  the  last  few 
years.  I  have  no  data  by  which  I  could  furnish  a  report  of  the  comparative 
increase  within  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years.  The  quantity  now  made  might 
be  nearly  ascertained,  if  the  deputy  marshals  could  report  the  number  of 
engines  in  operation;  I  suppose  300lbs.  of  paper  would  be  the  average  daily 
produce  of  each  engine,  taking  into  consideration  the  loss  of  time  and 
power  from  a  deficiency  of  water  in  the  summer  season.  There  has  been  a 
greater  proportional  increase  of  mills  in  the  middle  and  western  states  within 
the  last  ten  years,  than  in  the  east.  Ten  years  ago  I  suppose  80  per  cent, 
of  the  supplies  for  Philadelphia  came  from  east  of  the  North  River ;  at 
present,  I  think  there  does  not  come  20  per  cent.  Formerly,  a  much 
greater  quantity  was  sent  west  of  the  mountains,  and  large  quantities 
of  rags  brought  in  return.  In  consequence  of  the  greater  number  of  mills 
in  the  west,  particularly  in  Ohio,  New  Orleans,  I  am  informed,  is  in  a  great 


1852.] 


British  Association. 


229 


measure  getting  supplies  there.      Formerly,  they  all  went  from  the  Atlantic 
states. 

From  the  time  of  the  "Revolution,  the  quantity  of  paper  imported  has  heen 
gradually  decreasing;  and,  before  the  revision  of  the  tariff  in  1846,  had 
dwindled  to  perhaps  not  more  than  2  per  cent,  of  the  amount  consumed, 
with  the  exception  of  wall  papers,  of  which  large  quantities  were  imported 
and  still  continue  to  be  from  France.  Since  1846,  there  has  been  an  increase 
of  cheap  French  letter  paper,  but  the  amount  is  small  compared  with  the 
whole  amount  of  letter  paper  consumed— probably  not  more  than  3  per  cent. 
There  is  also  a  small  quantity  of  ledger  and  letter  paper  brought  from  Eng- 
land ;  but  as  the  American  is  quite  equal  in  quality,  the  importation  is 
gradually  diminishing.  Within  the  last  two  years,  great  ingenuity  has  been 
exercised  both  in  England  and  in  the  United  States,  in  trying  to  make  a 
paper  by  machinery  to  resemble  the  old  fashioned  hand-made  laid  paper 
(yet  preferred  by  many).  To  the  eye,  it  is  a  pretty  good  imitation,  but  lacks 
the  toughness,  firmness,  and  surface  of  the  hand  made.  By  an  experienced 
judge  the  deception  is  easily  discovered,  notwithstanding  large  quantities 
have  been  used,  under  the  supposition  that  they  were  hand  made.  The  re- 
duced price  of  machine  paper  has  forced  almost  all  manufacturers  to  aban- 
don the  old  method.  I  believe  there  are  only  two  mills  in  operation  in  the 
United  States  in  which  it  is  made  by  hand,  one  in  Massachusetts,  and  one 
of  mine.  There  is  a  limited  quantity  of  particular  kinds  that  can  be  better 
made  by  hand  than  on  a  machine.  In  mine  is  made  bank  note,  laid  letter, 
deed  parchments,  and  such  as  are  used  for  documents  that  are  much  handled, 
and  require  great  strength  and  durability.  "Within  the  last  few  years  some 
improvement  has  been  made  in  the  finish  of  writing  and  printing  papers,  by 
the  introduction  of  iron  and  paper  calenders,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a 
smooth  surface.  The  finish  of  American  papers,  I  think,  is  now  equal  to  any 
in  the  world. 

Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

JAMES  M.  WILLCOX. 

Thos.  Ewbank,  Esq.,  Washington,  D.C. 

[We  have  never  met  with  any  paper  equal  in  strength  to  the  wrapping 
paper  sent  with  our  American  parcels.  It  is  not  of  very  great  substance, 
and  is  of  a  whitey-hrown  colour,  with  a  tinge  of  buff.  The  difficulty  of 
tearing  open  a  parcel  pasted  up  is  something  marvellous.  Is  this  from  the 
quality  of  the  material,  or  from  the  absence  of  bleaching? — Ed.  Artizan.~] 


BRITISH  ASSOCIATION. 

SECTION  F. — STATISTICS. 

Dr.  Strang,  of  Glasgow,  read  the  following  paper  in  this  section : — 

PROGRESS   AND   EXTENT   OF    STEAMBOAT    BUILDING  AND    MARINE-ENGINE 
MAKING    ON  THE    CLTDE. 

As  I  have  already  stated,  it  is  just  forty  years  since  the  first  steamboat  was 
built  on  the  Clyde;  and  up  to  the  present  period  all  the  steamers  employed  in 
the  navigation  of  the  river,  its  firth  and  estuaries,  have  been  constructed 
either  at  Glasgow,  Greenock,  Port  Glasgow,  or  Dumbarton.  Although  for 
some  years  these  river  steamers  were  both  limited  in  number  and  small  in 
size,  I  find  that,  in  1831,  the  number  of  steam. vessels  then  regularly  sailing 
from  the  Clyde  amounted  to  55,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  register  measure 
of  4,905,  while,  in  1835,  the  vessels  had  increased  to  67,  and  the  tonnage  to 
6,691.  Since  that  period  the  steamboat  traffic  from  Glasgow  has  nearly 
doubled,  as  the  following  figures  will  best  illustrate  :— 

Number  and  register  tonnage  of  steamers  engaged  in  traffic  on  the  river 
Clyde,  during  the  year  ending  June,  1852. 

No.  Tonnage. 

>            Trading  steamers            ..         ..          ..39         ..         8,643 
Passenger  do.                   ..          ..          ..31         ..  2,522 

Tug  do.  22         ..  827 


93 


11,992 


From  the  foregoing  table  it  appears  that,  in  the  course  of  seventeen  years, 
the  number  of  regularly  employed  steamboats  has  increased  from  67  to  93, 
and  the  tonnage  from  6,691  to  11,992.  While  this  no  doubt  exhibits  a  great 
and  growing  progress  of  the  steamboat  traffic  between  Glasgow  and  the 
various  places  with  which  it  thereby  communicates,  it  gives  no  idea  whatever 
of  the  extent  and  magnitude  to  which  steamboat  building  and  marine-engmo 
making  have  reached  during  these  few  years  past.  Previous  to  the  last  ten 
years,  in  fact,  these  branches  of  industry  on  the  Clyde  and  elsewhere  may  be 
said  to  have  been  in  their  infancy  ;  but  no  sooner  was  the  problem  of  ocean 
steam  navigation  solved,  than  a  stimulus  was  given  to  the  construction  of 
steam  vessels  altogether  extraordinary.  The  following  tables,  which  have 
been  constructed  from  returns  made  to  me  by  the  various  ship  builders  and 


engineers  in  Glasgow,  Dumbarton,  Greenock,  and  Port  Glasgow,  will  best 
illustrate  the 

EXTENT   OP  STEAMBOAT    BUILDING   AND    MARINE-ENGINE 

MAKING   ON   THE   CLTDE. 

TABLE  FIRST. 

Number  of  Steam  Vessels  and  Power  of  Marine  Engines  built  or  made  at 
Glasgow  and  Neighbourhood,  from  184(5  to  1852. 

Engines' 

Engines'  Engines'    Horse 

Horse  Horse  Power  for 

Power.  Power.    Vessels 

No.    Wood.  Iron.    Pad-  Screw.  Wood.       Iron.           "Wood  Iron     not  built 

of        No.      No.      die.      No.       Ton-        Ton-           Hull.  Hull.         on 

Trs.    Ves.                            No.                 nage.        nage.  Clyde. 

1846,  11..—..    11..    11..    — ..      — ..      5.717..      —  ..  2,490..        300 

1847,11..—..    11..    11..—..     — ..     6,152..      —  ..  2,650..     — 

1848,  13..—..  13..  10..  3..  — ..   4,464..  2,810..  2,081..   580 

1849,  16..—..  16..  13..  3..   — ..   9,799..   —  ..  2,750..    120 

1850,  16..—..  16..  9..  7..  — ..  7,255..  1,660..  2,237..  180 
1851,20..—..  20..  11..  9..  — ..  14,321..  —  ..  4,299..  140 
1852,  36..  1..  35..  15..  21..  200..  22,733..  2,140..  6,026..  3,400 

123..  1  122..  80..  43..  200..  70,441..  6,610..  22,539 . .  4,720 

From  the  foregoing  table  it  appears  that,  during  the  last  seven  years,  there 
have  been  constructed,  or  are  now  constructing  at  Glasgow  and  in  its  neigh- 
bourhood, 123  vessels  ;  of  which  1  was  of  wood,  122  of  iron,  80  paddle,  and 
43  screw,  consisting  of  200  wooden  tonnage,  70,441  iron  tonnage,  6,610  horse- 
power engines  for  wooden  hulls,  22,530  horse-power  engines  for  iron 
hulls,  and  4,720  horse-power  engines  for  vessels  not  built  on  the  Clyde. 

TABLE    SECOND. 

Number  of  Steam  Vessels  and  Power  of  Marine  Engines  built  or  made  at 
Dumbarton  from  1846  to  1852. 

Engines' 
Engines'  Engines'       Horse 
Horse       Horse       Power  for 
Power.      Power.        Vessels 
No.  Wood.    Iron.  Pad-  Screw.  Wood.  Iron.      Wood.        Iron         not  built 

of       No.        No.     die       No.     Ton-  Ton-        Hull.        Hull.  on 

Yrs.  Ves.  No.  nage.  nage.  Clyde, 

1846,  5...  —  ...     5  ...  2  ...     3  ...  —  ...     1,080...    —    ...    —    ...    — 

1847,  7...  —  ...     7. ..2...     5...  —  ...     1,439...    —    ...    —    ...     — 

1848,  5...  —  ...  ,  5  ...  2  ...     3  ...  —  ...        650...    —     ...     —    ...     — 

1849,  4...  — ...     4  ...  2  ...     2...  —  ...      1,264...     —     ...     --    ...     — 

1850,  8...  —  ...     8  ...  2  ...     6  ...  —  ...     3,136...    —    ...    400  ...    — 

1851,  9...  —  ...     9..  5...     4...  —  ...     3,908...    —    ...    610...    — 
1852,20...  —  ...  20  ...  5  ..    15  ...  —  ...   18,2S4...    —    ...2,605  ...  200 

58...    0  ...  58  ...20...  38  ...    0  ...  29,761...      0    ...3,615  ...  200 

From  the  preceding  table  it  appears  that,  during  the  last  seven  years,  there 
have  been  constructed,  or  are  now  constructing,  in  Dumbarton,  58  vessels 
all  of  iron,  20  being  for  paddles  and  38  for  screws,  and  having  a  tonnage  of 
29,761,  and. during  the  last  three  years  3615  horse-power  engines  have  been 
made  there  for  iron  hulls,  and  200  horse-power  engines  for  vessels  not  built 
on  the  Clyde. 

TABLE   THIRD. 

Number  of  Steam  Vessels  and  Power  of  Marine  Engines  built  or  made  at 
Greenock  and  Port-Glasgow  from  1846  to  1852. 

Engines' 
Engines'  Engines'     Boi  a 
Horse       Horse    Power  for 
Power.     Power.     Vessels 
No.     Wood.  Iron.    Pad-   Screw    Wood.        Iron.      Wood  Iron      not  butit 

of        No.      No.       die        No.       Ton-         Ton-        Hull.         Hull.  on 

Yrs.     Ves.  No.  nage.        nage.  Olyde. 

1846,  1..  — ..   1..   1..  — ..   —  ••   328..  —  ..   —  ..   — 

1847,  8..  3..  5..  8..  — . .  5,485..  3,923..  —  ..  1,120..  Ill) 
1848,16..   2..  14..  11..   5..  2,117..  5,178..  —  ..   *'.1"..   S54 

1849,  3..  1..  2..  2..  1..  285..  450..  —  ..  150..   260 

1850,  8  .  3..  5..  3..  5..  4,813..  3,400..  65  ..  815..  440 
1851  13  1  12..  6..  7..  2,402..  7,093..  —  ..  1,860..  BOO 
1852^17..  3..  14..  10..  7..  3,029..  8,699..  64..  1,424..  2,250 

66..  13..  53..  41..  25.. 18,131. .29,071. .129  ..  6,438,.  4,614 

From  the  above  table  it  appears  that,  during  the  lafll  seven  yean,  there 
have  been  constructed,  or  arc  now  in  progress  of  construction,  at  Gre  ;nock 
or  Port-Glasgow,  66  steam  vessels,  of  which  13  were  of  wood  and  53  ■ 
41  paddles  and  25  screws,  consisting  of  18,131  wood  tonnage,  and  28,071 
iron  tonnage,  129  horse-power  engines  lor  wooden  hulls,  5,438  hi  rse-power 
engines  for  iron  hulls,  and  4,514  horse-power  engines  tor  vessels  not  built  on 
the  Clyde. 


230 


Dimensions  of  Steamers. 


[October, 


TABLE  FOURTH. 


Number  of  Steam  Vessels  and  Power  of  M 

arine  En 

2,ines  bui 

t  or  made  at  all 

the  ports  on  the  Clyde  from  1846  to  1852. 

Engines 

Engines' 

Engines'    Horse 

Horse 

Horse  Power  for 

Power. 

Power.  Vessels 

No. 

Wood.    Iron     Pad- 

Screw.  Wood. 

Iron. 

Wood 

Iron    not  built 

of 

No.       No.       die. 

No.        Ton- 

Ton- 

Hull. 

Hull.         on 

Trs.  Ves. 

No. 

nage. 

nage. 

Clyde. 

1846,  17. 

..  —  ...   17  ...  14 

..    3...       — .. 

.    7,125  . 

..    —     . 

.  2,490...    300 

1847,26. 

..  3  ...  23...  21 

..    5  ...5,485. 

.  11,514  . 

..    —    . 

.  3,770...    410 

1848,  34. 

..  2  ...  32  ...23 

..  11  ...2,117  . 

.  10,292  . 

..2,810. 

.  2,721...    934 

1849,  23. 

,.   1   ...  22  ...  17 

..    6...     285. 

.  11,513. 

..    —    . 

.  2,906...    380 

1850,32. 

..  3  ...  29  ...  14 

..  18  ...4,813. 

.13,791  . 

..1,725. 

.  3,842...    620 

1851,  42. 

..   1  ...  41  ...22 

..20  ...2,402. 

.25,322  . 

..    —    . 

.  6,169...    940 

1852,  73. 

..  4    ..  69  ...30. 

..  43  ...  3,229  . 

.49,716. 

..2,204. 

.10,055. ..5,850 

247. ..14  ...  233. ..141_. 106. ..18,331. ..129,273. ..6,739. ..31,593...  9,434 

On  examining  the  foregoing  table  it  will  be  found  that,  during  the  last 
seven  years,  the  steam  vessels  built  and  the  marine  engines  made,  including 
those  at  present  constructing,  have  been  as  follows : — number  of  steam  vessels 
built— wood  hulls,  14;  iron  hulls,  233;  in  all,  247;  of  these  141  were  paddles 
and  106  screws.  The  tonnage  of  the  wooden  steamers  amounts  to  18,331, 
of  the  iron  to  129,273.  The  engines'  horse  power  in  wood  hulls  was  6,739, 
the  engines'  horse  power  in  iron  hulls  was  31,593 ;  while  there  was  of 
engines'  horse  power  constructed  for  vessels  not  built  on  the  Clyde  9,434, 
making  a  grand  total  of  247  steamers,  amounting  to  148,704  tons,  and  of 
engines  47,766  horses'  power. 

From  these  tables  also  may  be  gathered  the  fact  that  wooden  hu-lls  for 
steamers  are  giving  place  to  those  of  iron,  and  that  the  screw  is  more  pa- 
tronised than  the  paddle.  Of  the  whole  vessels  constructed  during  1852,  or 
in  progress  of  construction,  at  the  various  building  yards  on  the  Clyde, 
amounting  to  73,  only  4  were  of  wood,  while  the  proportion  of  screws  to 
paddles  is  as  43  to  30. 

Before  leaving  the  present  extent  of  the  branch  of  industry  under  con- 
sideration, it  may  perhaps  be  as  well  to  state  that,  in  addition  to  the  steamboats 
and  marine  engines  constructed  on  the  Clyde,  there  has  been  and  is  at  present 
a  large  business  carried  on  in  steam  dredgers  and  iron  punts,  not  only  for 
maintaining  and  extending  the  Clyde  navigation  itself,  but  also  for  improv- 
ing other  rivers  and  harbours.  On  the  Clyde  alone  there  are  at  present  in 
daily  use  5  dredging  machines,  4  of  these  having  one  row  of  buckets  and 
the  other  two  ;  the  average  horse  power  of  the  4  is  20  each,  and  the  average 
draught  of  water  4  feet  2  inches,  capable  of  dredging  to  a  depth  of  18  feet, 
the  cost  being  about  £4000  each.  The  draught  of  the  double-bucket 
machine  is  5  feet  1  inch,  and  can  dredge  to  the  depth  of  22  feet ;  its  cost 
was  £8000.  At  this  moment,  one  engineering  house  in  Glasgow  is  engaged 
in  constructing  a  dredging  machine  of  20  horse  power  for  Riga,  and  another 
of  similar  power  for  Copenhagen.  The  advantages  arising  from  the  use  of 
such  machines  may  at  once  be  appreciated  when  it  is  mentioned  that  in 
1824,  when  the  first  steam  dredger  was  set  at  work  in  the  Clyde,  the  average 
depth  of  water  at  ordinary  tides  was  scarcely  10  feet ;  whereas  at  present 
the  average  depth  is  above  17  feet. 

Having  now  given  some  idea  of  the  extent  of  steamboat  building,  &c,  on 
the  Clyde,  let  me  next  attempt  to  arrive  at  some  probable  idea  of  its  value 
and  importance  as  a  branch  of  the  business  and  industry  of  the  district  in 
which  it  is  located.  This,  however,  is  a  more  difficult  task  than  it  would 
appear  at  first  sight  to  be,  arising  from  the  great  variety  of  circumstances 
which  affect  the  price  of  different  sizes  and  kinds  of  steamers,  and  par- 
ticularly from  the  great  difference  occurring  in  what  may  be  designated  their 
general  and  cabin  furnishings.  As  a  proof  of  this,  I  may  mention  that,  of 
the  14  ocean  steamers  for  the  British  and  American  Royal  Mail  Service, 
which  were  all  built  and  fitted  out  in  the  Clyde,  and  which  commenced  at  a 
cost  for  each  ship  of  about  £50,000,  the  last,  from  increased  size  and  power, 
leaches  upwards  of  £110,000,  an  increase  of  price  far  greater  than  the  in- 
crease of  power  and  tonnage.  From  all  I  can  gather  from  those  best  con- 
versant with  the  subject,  I  am  inclined  to  assume  as  an  approximation  to 
the  truth  the  following  prices  : — 


Wooden  hulls  of  all  sizes,  irrespective  of  the  cost  of  engines,  boilers,  and 
machinery,  and  exclusive  of  all  furnishings,  £14  per  ton  ;  iron  hulls  as 
above,  £12  do.  The  general  and  cabin  furnishings,  as  I  have  already  stated, 
are  so  various,  according  to  the  employment  intended  for,  and  style  of  finish, 
that  no  price  per  ton  can  be  named  as  a  general  rule.  It  may  be  said  to 
range  from  £6  to  even  as  high  as  £15,  but  I  shall  assume  the  average  of  all 
kinds  to  be  £8.* 

The  cost  of  engines  also  varies  greatly  according  to  size,  description  of 
engine,  and  style  of  finish.     Contracts  will  be  taken  at  from  £25  to  £50  per 
horse  power,   "i  shall  assume  £25  as  a  fair  average.    Proceeding  then  upon 
this  hypothesis,  the  value  for  the  whole  seven  years  will  be  as  follows  : — 
Wooden  hulls,  tonnage,  18,331  at  £14     ...     £256,634 

Iron  do.         do.,  129,273  —      12     ...     1,551,276 

General  furnishings,  &c,        197,604  —       8     ...     1,180,832 
47,766  —     35     ...     1,661,810 


Marine  engines, 


£4,650,552 

Showing  an  annual  average  of  £664,364. 

If,  however,  we  take  only  the  two  last  years'  completed  work,  and  include 
in  it  what  is  now  constructing,  the  annual  average  for  these  two  years  will 
£\,  253,636. 

While  this  certainly  looks  a  large  sum,  it  by  no  means  fully  exhibits  the 
value  of  this  branch  of  industry,  for  the  above  sum  only  represents  new 
vessels  and  new  machinery,  and  has  no  reference  whatever  either  to  the  en- 
largement of  vessels  or  to  the  ordinary  and  extraordinary  repairs  made  on 
the  old. 

To  show  that  the  amount  of  steamboat  repairs  in  the  Clyde  must  be  very 
considerable,  I  may  state  that,  in  the  coure  of  five  years,  one  steamship,  which 
originally  cost  £29,000,  paid  £12,500  for  repairs,  or  upwards  of  10  per 
cent,  yearly  of  its  value  ;  and  that  another  steamship,  during  seven  years, 
originally  costing  £37,000,  paid  £12,700  for  repairs.  Of  these  repairs  the 
carpenter  got  £9526  ;  the  engineer,  £12,405,  and  sundry  other  parties, 
£3269. 

If,  from  the  want  of  data,  we  only  approximate  the  value  of  this  industry, 
we  can  at  least  state  the  number  of  persons  employed  in  the  various  building 
yards  and  engine-shops  connected  with  the  construction  and  repair  of  steam 
vessels  on  the  Clyde.    At  present,  the  number  employed,  is  as  follows  : — 

Glasgow,  &c 6,210 

Greenock  and  Port-Glasgow       3,250 

Dumbarton  ...         ...         ...       1,360 


In  all 10,820 

Here,  then,  we  have  the  fact,  that  this  branch  of  industry  gives  work  and 
support  to  no  less  than  10,820  individuals  ;  and  when  we  consider  the  high 
wages  given  to  many  of  the  engineers,  and  the  respectable  rate  of  remunera- 
tion paid  to  even  the  lowest  person  engaged  in  the  business,  it  is  perhaps 
not  too  much  to  assume,  that  the  average  of  the  wages  paid  to  all  classes  of 
men  and  boys  will  amount  to  at  least  16s.  per  week,  and  consequently  the 
trade  circulates  £8,656  weekly,  or  £450,112  annually,  of  wages. 


*  I  have  been  furnished  with  the  cost  in  detail  of  a  vessel  of  604  tons,  and  of  320  horse 
power  engines : — 

Building  hull           £7,852 

Joiners' and  smiths' account       ..•       ..         ..         ..  1,953 

Upholstery    ..         ..         ..         ..         ..         ..         ••  754 

.  Plumbers 3 1 S 

Painter  and  cabinet-maker          ..         ..         „         ..  273 

Sails,  ropes,  and  rigging               ..          ..         ..         ..  354 

Copper         363 

Carving  and  gilding          907 

Other  accounts        ..         ..         ..         ..         ..         ..  563 

13,337 

320  horse-power  engine  at  £42 13.440 

£26,777 
Silver  plate,  crystal,  crockery,  bed  and  table  linen, 
and  steward's  department 2,223 

£29,000 
The  above  shows  tliat,  while  the  hull  cost  £13  per  ton,  the  furnishings  cost  £9  per  ton, 
and  the  plate,  &c,  £3  per  ton. 


SHIPBUILDING  ON  THE  CLYDE. 

RENFREW. 

Messrs.  James  Henderson  and  Sons,  Patent  Slip- 
way, launched  from  their  building-yard,  on  the 
13th  of  August,  an  iron  steam  dredger,  for  Copen- 
hagen, which  will  be  the  first  vessel  of  the  kind  in 
Denmark. 

Builders'  measurement.  ft.      ins. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake  ..        100    0 

Breadth  of  beam        23     0 

Depth  of  hold  (to  skin)         . .  . .  9     0 

Tonnage         . .         . .         . .         . .       244|^  tons 


Customs'  measurement. 
Length  on  deck 
Breadth  on  do.,  amidships 
Depth  of  hold,  do. 
Length  of  boiler-room 
Breadth  of  do.. . 
Depth  of  do.    . . 
Length  of  engine-room 
Breadth  of  do. 
Depth  of  do.    . . 
Length  of  wings  of  do. 
Breadth  of  do. 
Depth  of  do 


8     3 


ft.  tenths. 

ft.  tenths. 

99 

0 

Length  of  bucket-well 

65     0 

22 

4 

Breadth  of  do. 

4     2 

7 

2* 

8     3 

2L 

0 

Sectional 

Act  for  foreign 

22 

0 

Tonnage. 

Act. 

vessels. 

8 

4 

Hull. . 

.. 

168-^L  tons. 

123-;^  tons. 

12 

0 

Bucket-well 

■""fixF      )> 

22 

4 





8 

3 

Total,  deducting 

bucket- 

10 

8 

well 

144$,     ,. 

99TOT      " 

9 

2 

Boiler-room 

^-ik    » 

°-Toi)      :i 

Engine,  do. 


24 


TOT      " 


24tot 


1852.] 


Tonnage. 
Wings  of  do. 
Boiler,  engine-room, 
and  wings 

Register       .. 


Sectional 

Act. 
8-ft|  tons. 


Act  for  foreign 
vessels. 
8fj^  tons. 


84 


T0o      » 


84 


T5o 


14$,  tons. 


ft.  tenths, 
89     2 


29 

8 

50 

10 

8 

19 
29 

7 
Tons. 

46$; 
169$, 

1  13tTT7T 


One  direct  acting  engine  (crank  over  head)  of 
20  horse  (nominal)  power;  diameter  of  cylinder, 
26  inches  x  3  feet  length  of  stroke;  the  air- 
pump  wrought  by  levers  from  the  cross-head  of  the 
cylinder;  one  common  flue  boiler,  length  8  feet  8 
inches;  breadth,  10  feet;  depth,  5  feet  8  inches; 
two  furnaces,  length  of  fire-bars,  4  feet  4  inches; 
breadth,  2  feet;  depth,  3  feet;  steam-chest,  length 
above,  3  feet;  do.  below,  3  feet  6  inches;  breadth, 
3  feet  3  inches;  depth,  3  feet;  chimney,  2  feet  6 
inches  x  20  feet  6  inches.  There  are  36  buckets, 
and  will  be  capable  of  dredging  at  26  feet  depth  of 
water.  The  uprights  for  supporting  the  shafts, 
tumbler,  and  crank,  are  of  wrought-iron.  Frames 
of  hull,  3  x  3  x  f  inches,  and  2  feet  3  inches  apart. 
Built  upon  the  same  principle  as  the  Glasgow 
dredgers.  The  draft  of  water,  with  machinery,  will 
be  2  feet  6  inches. 

Hull,  boiler,  and  buckets  by  Messrs.  James 
Henderson  and  Sons,  Patent  Slipway,  Renfrew  ; 
engines  by  Messrs.  Murdock,  Aitken,  and  Co., 
engineers," Hill-street,  Glasgow,  1852. 

Messrs.  J.W.  Hoby  &  Co.,  engineers  and  iron  ship- 
builders, launched  from  their  building-yard,  on  the 
27th  of  March,  an  iron  steam  dredging-machine, 
for  the  port  of  Leith. 

Dimensions. 
Length  on  deck 
Breadth  on  do  ,  amidships     . . 

Depth  of  hold,  do 

Length  of  bucket-well 
Breadth  of  do. 

Depth  of  do 

Length  of  engine-space 
Breadth  of  do. 

Depth  of  do.  . .  .  •        l . 

Tonnage. 

Hull 

Bucket-well 

Hull,  deducting  bucket-well 
Contents  of  engine-space 
Register 

Fitted  with  a  pair  of  oscillating  engines,  which 
are  aft  ;  two  tubular  boilers,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  vessel;  and  two  funnels.  The  bucket-ladders 
are  in  the  centre  of  the  vessel,  there  being  two,  dis- 
charging the  mud  over  the  stern-frames,  two  feet 
apart. 

Also  upon  the  stocks,  nearly  ready  to  launch,  a 
screw  steam-vessel,  for  the  London  and  Welsh 
trade,  having  a  clipper  bow,  to  be  fitted  with  a 
pair  of  inverted  cylinder  engines,  and  two  tubular 
boilers,  &c. 

Also,  built  and  shipped,  five  iron  luggage-vessels, 
for  the  Danube  Steam  Navigation  Company;  four 
of  them  have  been  shipped  on  board  of  the  Best 
Bower  (screw  steamer),  for  Hamburg  ;  the  other 
on  board  of  a  sailing-vessel. 

ft.  ins. 
...  180  0 
...  25  0 
...  9  0 
552||  tons. 


Dimensions  of  Steamers. 


Dimensions.  ft.     ins. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake        200    0 

Breadth  of  beam,  extreme 27     0 

Depth  of  hold         14    9 

Tonnage      718$  tons. 

Fitting  a  pair  of  steeple  engines  (4  piston  rods, 
on  Mr.  David  Napier's  patent),  of  102  horse  (no- 
minal) power;  diameter  of  cylinders,  40  inches  X 
2  feet  6  inches  length  of  stroke;  diameter  of  screw 
10  feet.  Two  boilers  on  Messrs.  Lamb  and  Sum- 
mers' patent ;  has  a  common  bow,  with  a  poop. 
Bust,  female  figure  head,  sham  galleries,  three 
masts,  schooner  rigged,  stationary  bowsprit.  Port 
of  Waterford. 


ERRATUM. 

In  the  description  of  the  Plata,  page  183,  for 
"960  horse  (nominal)  power,"  read  "910  horse 
(nominal)  power  ;  "  and  for  "  10  feet  length  of 
stroke,"  read  "9  feet  length  of  stroke;"  also  for 
paddle  wheels' diameter  effective  "27  feet,"  read 
"  37  feet." 


NEW   GLASGOW,  PROVINCE  OF  NOVA  SCOTIA 

Mr.  George  M'Kenzie  launched  from  his  build- 
ing-yard last  year  the  frigate-built  ship,  Hamilton 
Campbell  Kidston  (of  Glasgow),  which  was  the 
largest  sailing-vessel  that  ever  entered  this  harbour. 
Sailed  from  Glasgow  for  Port  Phillip,  South  Aus- 
tralia, with  a  full  complement  of  passengers,  &c, 
on  the  20th  of  April,  under  the  command  of  Mr. 
Arthur  Chisholm.  Has  three  decks  (flush) ;  round- 
sterned;  a  full  female  figure-head;  and  is  owned 
by  Messrs.  Potter,  Wilson,  and  Co.,  merchants, 
forming  one  of  their  monthly  line  of  Australian 
traders. 

Dimensions. 
Length  on  deck 
Breadth  of  do.,  amidships 
Depth  of  hold,  do. 
Tonnage  (British  Registry  Act) 


231 


Messrs.  Alexander  Denny  and  Brother,  iron 
ship-builders,  launched  from  their  building-yard, 
on  the  14th  of  September,  a  very  beautifully-mo- 
delled paddle  steam-yacht,  to  ply  upon  Loch  Lo- 
mond. 


Dimensions. 
Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake 
Breadth  of  beam 
Tonnage 


ft.  ins. 
..      145     0 

15     0 

164H  tons. 

To  be  fitted  with  a  pair  of  oscillating  engines  by 
Mr.  Mathew  Paul,  engineer. 

THE  KHAMES  POWDER  COMPANT'S  AUXILIARY  IRON 
SCREW    STEAM- VESSEL,  "  GUY  FAWKES." 

Built  and  fitted  by  Messrs.  Napier  and  Crichton,  engineers 
and  iron  ship-builders,  Glasgow,  1849. 


ft.  tenths. 

.  168  0 
32  0 
29     4 

1,444-j!,,  tons. 


Dimensions. 
Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake 
Breadth  of  beam     ... 
Depth  of  hold 
Tonnage      


DUMBARTON. 

Messrs.  Denny  and  Rankine  launched  from  their 
building-yard,  on  the  31st  of  July,  a  very  hand- 
some ship,  the  Aberfoyle  (of  Glasgow),  the  property 
of    Messrs.  Peter  and  Thomson  Aitkman,  mer- 
chants.   Has  a  roundhouse  on  deck  aft;  classed  13 
years  ;  a  bust  male  figure-head  (Rob  Roy).    Sailed 
on  the  17th  from  Greenock  for  Melbourne,  Port 
Phillip,  with  414  passengers,  and   a  crew  of  36 
persons. 

Dimensions.  ft-  tenths. 

Length  on  deck. .         ..         ..         ..      167     9 

Breadth  on  do.,  amidships       . .  . .        30     7 

Depth  of  hold,  do.  ..         ••       22     5 

Tonnage,  new 965-^  tons. 

Do.  old 883^    „ 

They  have  just  laid  down  the  keel  of  an  iron 
clipper  ship  for  the  Australian  trade,  to  be  flush 
on  deck ;  will  have  deck-houses. 

Dimensions. 
Length  on  deck 
Breadth  of  beam 
Depth  of  hold 
Tonnage 

Stem,  keel,  and  stern-post,  9X2; 

to  §  and  i  inch;   frames,  5  x   3   > 


Dimensions. 

Builders'  measurement. 
Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake    . . 
Breadth  of  beam 
Depth  of  hold 
Length  of  engine-space 

Tonnage. 

Hull         

Contents  of  engine-space 


ft.  ins. 


Register 


New  measurement. 
Length  on  deck 
Breadth  of  do.,  amidships 
Depth  of  hold,  do. 
Length  of  engine- space 
Tonnage. 

Hull         

Contents  of  engine-space 


64 
14 

8 

26 

Tons. 

6-^ 

30^ 


33^ 

ft.  tenths. 
63  4 
14  2 
8  3 
26  4 
Tons. 

\A   fiO 


32 


Register 


21V 


ft. 
185 


30 
19 


gov  an  (Glasgow). 
Messrs.  Smith  and  Rodger,  iron  shipbuilders, 
launched  from  their  building  yard  here,  on  the  18th 
of  August,  a  very  handsome  screw-propeller  steam 
vessel,  named  the  Ceres,  the  property  of  the  Water- 
ford  Commercial  Steam  Navigation  Company,  and 
is  intended  to  ply  between  London  and  Rotterdam. 


ins. 
0 
0 
0 
7991$  tons, 
■inches;  plates, 
£  inches,  and 
15  inches  apart.    Is  owne.d  by  James"  Smith,  jun., 
Esq.,  merchant,  Liverpool  (late  of  Greenock). 

Also,  just  laid  down,  the  keel  of  a  13  years' 
barque,  flush  on  deck,  to  carry  a  large  cargo  on  a 
light  draft  of  water,  intended  for  the  Port  Natal 
and  Clyde  trade. 

Dimensions. 

Length  of  keel  and  fore-rake 
Breadth  of  beam    . 
Depth  of  hold 
Tonnage 


ft.  ins. 

.      125     0 

25     0 

17     0 
36853  tons. 


Onehorizontal  engine  of  7  horse  (nominal)  power; 
diameter  of  cylinder,  16  inches  x  2  feet  4  inches 
stroke.  One  vertical  air  pump,  diameter  9  inches 
x  2  feet  4  inches  length  of  stroke;  wrought  off  the 
crank  shaft  end,  being  attached  by  means  of  a  beam 
and  connecting-rod,  4  feet  6  inches  long;  diameter 
of  screw,  4  feet  4  inches;  pitch,  6  feet  6  inches;  3 
blades.  Driving  wheel,  diameter  5  feet  4  inches, 
and  90  teeth;  one  set  of  cogs,  each  5i  inches  on 
face;  pinion,  diameter  2  feet  9  inches;  pitch,  2y 
inches,  and  44  teeth.  One  tubular  boiler,  length 
8  feet  9  inches;  breadth,  6  feet;  depth,  6  feet  6  in- 
ches; 28  tubes,  diameter  3  J-  inches  x  5  feet  long. 
Two  furnaces;  length  of  fire-bars  4  feet  4  inches; 
breadtli  of  ditto,  2  feet  2  inches;  depth,  2  feet  8  in- 
ches; funnel,  diameter  21  inches  x  16  feet.  Bunkers 
hold  6  tons  of  coal.  Stem, stern-post,  and  keel,  4 J 
x  lj  inches;  frames  2|  X  2  J-  X  f  inches,  and  2 
feet  apart;  eight  strakes  of  plates  from  keel  to  gun- 
wale. Is  divided  into  4  water-tight  compartments, 
by  means  of  3  bulk-heads;  has  a  house  on  deck, 
aft,  for  the  accommodation  of  the  crew;  length  in- 
side, 11  feet  H  inches;  breadth  of  ditto,  6  feet; 
depth,  4  feet  5 J  inches.  The  boiler  and  funnel  are 
placed  10  feet  from  the  end  of  boiler  to  centre  of 
funnel,  by  means  of  a  cylindrical  flue,  and  water 
space  under  the  deck  aft,  with  a  small  steam  chest, 
which  is  close  aft  to  the  stern  post;  the  funnel  top 
raking  out  over  the  stern  about  4  feet.  Every  im- 
provement that  could  be  thought  of  to  lessen  the 
danger  of  explosion,  by  keeping  machinery  and 
powder  apart,  has  been  adopted.  Average  revolu- 
tions per  minute,   64  of  engines,  screw   al 

revolutions;  steam  pressure,  16  lbs.  per  square  inch  i 
consuming  3  cwt.  of  coals  per  hour.  Average  load — 
draft  of  water,  6  feet  forward,  and  7  feet  6  inches 

aft.     Has  made  the  voyage  from  Liver] 1  to  Roth- 

say,  a  distance  of  about  200  miles,  having  or.  hoard 

65"  tons  of  saltpetre,  at  the  rate  of  s-ir,  miles  per 
hour  ;  employed  in  conveying  gunpowder  through" 

out  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  :  uud  has  been  over 
on  the  continent,  &e. 


232 


Exhibition  Lectures. 


[October, 


DESCRIPTION. 

No  figure  head  or  galleries,  topping-up  bowsprit, 
two  masts,  felucca  rigged,  one  deck  (flush),  ellip- 
tical sterncd  and  clinch-built  vessel.  Port  of  Glasgow; 
commander,  Mr.  James  Stewart. 

THE   nAMBURGn    AND     LEITH  STEAM  NAVIGATION 

COMPANY'S   NEW  IRON  SCREW  STEAM  VESSEL 

"  HOLTROOD." 

Built  and  fitted  by  Messrs.  Smith  and  Rodger,  engineers 
and  iron  shipbuilders,  Glasgow,  1852. 


Dimensions. 
Length  on  deck 
Breadth  on  do.,  amidships     . . 
Depth  of  hold,  do. 
Length  of  engine  space 
Tonnage 
Contents  of  engine  and  gearing  space 


ft.  tenths. 
191     5 


25 
15 

45 


533^  tons. 
175^4  .. 


Register         ..         ..  ..         ..       358-^tons. 

One  pair  of  geared  steeple  engines  (on  Mr.  David 
Napier's  patent  4-piston  principle),  of  98  horse 
(nominal)  power;  diameter  of  cylinders,  40  inches  x 
3  feet  stroke ;  diameter  of  screw,  10  feet ;  pitch,  1 1  feet ; 
2  blades;  two  tubular  boilers;  stem  5x2  inches; 
keel  6x2  inches;  frames  4  x  3  x  §■  inches,  and 
18  inches  centre  to  centre.  Round-house  amidships 
for  cabins,  &c;  length  42  feet,  breadth  18  feet, 
height  7  feet,  with  accommodation  for  38  passen- 
gers. Round-house  aft  for  the  accommodation  of 
the  officers  and  crew;  length  15 feet,  breadth  12  feet, 
depth  6  feet  6  inches.  Capacity  of  hold  for  measure- 
ment goods,  802  tons;  ditto  of  bunkers  for  coals, 
110  tons.    Launched,   February   21st.     Draft  of 


water,  mean,  6  feet;  displacement,  260  tons.  Steam 
pressure,  12  lbs.  per  square  inch;  consuming  13 
cwt.  of  coals  per  hour,  and  making  44  revolutions 
per  minute;  draft  of  water,  average  10  feet.  Has 
made  the  voyage  from  Leith  to  Hamburg  in  46| 
hours,  the  quickest  ever  done  on  this  station. 

DESCRIPTION. 

A  shield  figure  head,  sham  galleries,  elliptical 
sterned  and  clinch-built' vessel,  flush  on  deck,  sta- 
tionary bowsprit,  3  masts,  barque  rigged,  clipper 
bow.  Port  of  Leith  ;  commander,  Mr.  Robert 
Cook. 


THE  CALEDONIAN  RAILWAY  COMPANY  S  NEW  IRON 

PADDLE   STEAMERS,  "  HELENSBURGH,"   AND 

"  DUNOON." 

Built  by  Messrs.  Laurence,  Hill  and  Co.,  iron  shipbuilders, 
Inch-green,  Port  Glasgow.  Engine  and  boilers  by  Messrs. 
Scott,  Sinclair  and  Co.,  engineers,  Greenock,  1852. 


Dimensions. 
Length  on  deck 
Breadth  on  ditto,  amidships 
Depth  of  hold,  ditto 
Length  of  engine  space 

Hull 

Contents  of  engine  space  .. 


Helens- 
burgh. 

Dunoon. 

ft. 

tenth 

i.  ft. 

;enths. 

135 

0 

135 

0 

15 

0 

15 

0 

7 

2 

7 

3 

33 

2 

33 

2 

1  Uptons  114 

futons 

38 

Too    » 

39 

34 
TOO       » 

761,jj03tons  75-j^j  tons 

Register 

One  steeple  engine  (having  two  piston  rods)  in 
each  vessel,  of  43  horse  (nominal)  power;  diameter 
of  cylinder  37  inches,  X  3  feet  3  inches  stroke  ; 
fitted  with  feathering  paddle-wheels,  diameter  14 


feet;  ten  floats,  4  feet  3  inches  X  1  foot  5  inches. 
One  tubular  boiler,  length  9  feet  8  inches;  breadth 
9  feet  6  inches;  depth  7  feet.  Steam  chest,  length 
above,  5  feet  10  inches  ;  ditto  below,  8  feet; 
breadth  above,  4  feet  6  inches;  ditto  below,  7  feet 
3  inches  ;  depth  4  feet  5  inches.-  Three  furnaces, 
length  5  feet  6  inches  ;  breadth  2  feet  6  inches  ; 
depth  3  feet.  106  (malleable  iron)  tubes,  diameter 
3£  inches  x  6  feet  6  inches.  Funnel,  diameter 
2  feet  1\  inches  x  23  feet  3  inches.  Steam  pres- 
sure, 18  lbs.  The  engine  makes  36  revolutions  per 
minute,  consuming  9  cwt.  of  coals  per  hour.  The 
keel,  stem,  and  stern-post  are  all  welded  in  one 
entire  piece,  4  x  1  inch;  frames  2|  k  2{  x  |  inch; 
and  1  foot  8  inches  apart  amidships,  and  2  feet 
apart  fore  and  aft  ;  keel  plates,  -^ths  of  an  inch; 
gunwale  ditto  \  of  an  inch.  The  cabins  are  neatly 
and  tastefully  fitted  up.  Helensburgh  is  plying  on 
the  station  from  Greenock  to  Helensburgh,  Row, 
Roseneath,  Shandon  and  Gareloch  Head,  in  con- 
nection with  the  Glasgow,  Paisley,  and  Greenock 
branch  of  the  company's  railway.  Launched  May 
10th;  draught  of  water  at  launching2  feet  3  inches 
forward,  and  2  feet  7  inches  aft;  draft  with  machi- 
nery, &c.  3  feet  10  inches  forward,  and  4  feet 
2  inches  aft.  Dunoon  plying  on  the  station  from 
Greenock  to  Gourock,  Dunoon,  and  Rothesay,  &c. 
Launched  June  7th  ;  draught  of  water  at  launch- 
ing, forward  2  feet  4  inches,  aft  2  feet  6  inches; 
ditto  with  machinery,  mean  3  feet  10j  inches.  No 
figure  head,  galleries,  bowsprit,  mast,  or  rig  ;  one 
deck  (flush);  square-sterned  and  clinch-built  ves- 
sel; common  bow.    Port  of  Greenock. 

Helensburgh,  commander,  Mr.;  Alexander  Mac 
Phcrson. 

Dunoon,  commander,  Mr.  Alexander  Shields. 


MERCANTILE  CUSTOMS  AN   IMPEDIMENT  TO   INDUSTRIAL 

PROGRESSION. 

By  Professor  Solly. 

Even  a  slight  examination  of  the  raw  produce  which  forms  the  chief 
basis  of  our  manufactures  must  lead  us  to  the  conclusion  that,  in  many 
cases,  the  best  substances  are  not  used,  nor  are  the  best  modes  of  preparing 
them  followed.  The  history  of  every  art  gives  us  plenty  of  illustrations  to 
show  what  apparently  trifling  circumstances  have  led  to  the  use  of  some 
particular  substance,  and  how  long  it  has  been  before  that  substance  has 
given  way  on  the  introduction  of  a  new  material,  even  though  the  new 
material  was  confessedly  superior  to  that  previously  in  use.  The  cause  of 
this  has,  no  doubt,  in  part,  been  the  tenacity  with  which  men  in  all  cases 
cling  to  old  customs  and  practices,  and  the  cautious  disinclination  which 
prudent  men  generally  have  to  enter  into  a  new  process;  whilst,  in  many 
cases,  it  has  certainly  arisen  from  a  combination  of  those  in  trade,  determined 
to  prevent  any  alteration,  or  the  introduction  of  any  new  substance.  But,  at 
the  same  time,  there  is  no  doubt  that  ignorance,  on  the  part  of  the  manufac- 
turer, of  what  was  his  true  interest,  has  been  at  the  very  foundation  of  this 
opposition  to  change. 

If  you  were  to  place  before  any  manufacturer  specimens  of  all  the  sub- 
stances which  could  be  employed  in  this  particular  manufacture,  and  if  you 
could  tell  him  from  whence  each  could  be  procured,  its  cost,  the  quantities 
in  which  he  might  obtain  it,  and  its  physical  and  chemical  properties,  he 
would  soon  be  able  to  select  for  himself  the  one  best  suited  for  his  purposes. 
This,  however,  has  never  happened  in  relation  to  any  one  art;  in  every 
case,  manufacturers  have  had  to  make  the  best  of  the  materials  which  chance 
or  accident  has  brought  before  them.  It  is  strange  and  startling,  but  never- 
theless perfectly  true,  that,  even  at  the  present  time,  there  are  many  excel- 
lent and  abundant  productions  of  nature,  with  which  not  only  our  manu- 
facturers, but,  in  some  instances,  even  our  men  of  science,  are  wholly  un- 
acquainted. There  is  not  a  single  book  published  which  gives  even  tolerably 
complete  information  on  any  one  of  the  different  classes  of  vegetable  raw 
produce,  at  present  under  our  consideration. 

The  truth  of  these  remarks  will  be  felt  strongly  by  any  one  who  takes 
the  trouble  to  examine  any  of  these  great  divisions  of  raw  materials.  He 
will  obtain  tolerably  complete  information  respecting  most  of  those  sub- 
stances which  are  known  in  trade  and  commerce;  but  of  the  greater  num- 
ber of  those  not  known  to  the  broker  he  will  learn  little  or  nothing.  Men 
of  science,  for  the  most  part,  look  down  upon  such  knowledge.  The  prac- 
tical uses  of  any  substance,  the  wants  and  difficulties  of  the  manufacturer, 
are  regarded  as  mere  trade  questions,  vulgar  and  low — simple  question  of 
nioney.  On  the  other  hand,  mere  men  of  business  do  not  feel  the  want  of 
fuch  knowledge,  because,  in  the  first  place,  they  are  ignorant  of  its  exis- 
tence, and  secondly,  because  they  do  not  see  how  it  could  aid  them  in  their 
business;  and  if  it  should  happen  that  an  enterprising  manufacturer  desires 


to  learn  something  of  the  cultivation  and  production  of  the  raw  material 
with  which  he  works,  he  generally  finds  it  quite  impossible  to  obtain  any 
really  sound  and  useful  information.  In  such  cases,  if  he  is  a  man  of 
energy  and  of  capital,  he  often  is  at  the  cost  of  sending  out  a  properly 
qualified  person  to  some  distant  part  of  the  globe,  to  learn  for  him  those 
practical  details  which  he  desires  to  know.  This  is  no  uncommon  thing; 
and  many  cases  might  be  stated,  showing  the  great  advantages  which  have 
arisen  to  those  who  have  thus  gained  a  march  upon  their  neighbours. 

This  want  of  knowledge,  arising  as  it  does  from  a  want  of  communication 
between  the  first  producer  and  the  manufacturing  consumer,  is  the  great 
cause  why  some  of  our  manufactures  advance  so  slowly,  and  why  some 
branches  of  commerce  are  in  so  depressed  a  state.  A  moment's  considera- 
tion will  suffice  to  show  the  bearing  of  this  fact.  Let  us  take  the  case  of 
a  gum,  a  resin,  or  a  vegetable  extract,  collected  by  a  native  in  the  vast 
forests  of  Hindostan,  and  used  by  the  calico-printer  of  Manchester ;  what 
connection  have  these  two  with  each  other?  and  what  knowledge  has  the 
former  of  the  purposes  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied,  or  the  latter  of  the  sources 
whence  it  is  derived?  The  native  collector  sells  the  raw  produce  to  the 
native  buyer  or  broker,  having  generally  taken  care  to  adulterate  it  to  a 
greater  or  lesser  extent;  the  native  broker  sells  it  again  to  the  merchant; 
the  merchant  consigns  it  to  a  house  in  England;  and  the  English  house  em- 
ploys their  broker  to  introduce  it  to  the  manufacturer.  Perhaps  the  article, 
from  careless  collection,  or  from  intentional  adulteration,  is  greatly  depre- 
ciated in  value;  still  the  manufacturer  must  use  it,  for  he  cannot  get  any 
better;  he  consults  his  broker,  and  learns  that  it  is  the  best  in  the  market, 
and  that  it  always  comes  over  in  that  state.  So  matters  go  on  from  genera- 
tion to  generation;  and  for  want  of  a  little  knowledge,  rightly  applied,  all 
parties  persevere  in  a  system  which,  whilst  it  invariably  increases  labour,  at 
the  same  time  certainly  diminishes  profit. 

It  would  lead  me  too  far  from  the  subject  now  under  our  consideration, 
were  I  to  consider  the  effects  produced  in  trade  by  these  "  middlemen  "  and 
intermediate  agents.  I  would  now,  therefore,  only  point  out  to  you  the 
effect  which  they  produce  in  retarding  the  spread  of  knowledge.  No  doubt 
such  a  system  has  its  advantages  as  well  as  its  objections;  that  it  tends  to 
keep  up  the  old  rule-of-thumb  mode  of  going  on  there  is  likewise  no  doubt; 
and  also  that,  with  all  its  faults,  and  the  inconveniences  which  it  causes  to 
manufacturers,  they  would  be  very  sorry  to  see  it  in  any  way  changed.  It 
sometimes  happens,  that  a  merchant  rashly  endeavours  to  set  aside  the  old 
prejudice,  and  presumes  to  bring  his  goods  directly  to  the  manufacturer ; 
if  he  does  so,  he  is  generally  eyed  with  distrust  and  suspicion,  and  is  told, 
as  I  have  not  unfrequently  myself  heard,  "  Really  we  cannot  entertain  the 
thing  in  this  form ;  you  had  better  send  it  to  us  in  the  ordinary  way, 
through  a  broker."  I  do  not  for  a  moment  mean  to  say,  that  this  may  not 
be  the  most  business-like  mode  of  proceeding  ;  my  object  merely  is  to  point 
out  how  this  system  tends  to  check  improvement,  and  how  the  manu- 
facturers, though  the}-  suffer  from  its  effects,  cherish  and  combine  to  uphold 


1852.] 


Novelties. 


233 


it.  It  ma)'  be  taken  as  a  pretty  well-ascertained  fact,  that  only  those  manu- 
factures are  in  really  a  progressive  state  of  which  the  producer  of  the  raw 
material  and  the  manufacturing  consumer  are  in  more  or  less  direct  com- 
munication, and  where  there  is  a  mutual  knowledge  of  the  capabilities  of  the 
one,  and  the  requirements  of  the  other.  When  there  are  many  intermediate 
agents  between  the  two,  it  is  long  before  the  complaints  of  the  manufacturer 
reach  the  ears  of  the  first  producer,  and  it  must  be  many  years  before  the 
improvement  which  the  former  desires  can  be  brought  about. 

Such  a  system  of  trade  offers  no  facilities  for  the  introduction  of  new  kinds 
of  vegetable  raw  produce;  a  new  substance,  like  a  new  process,  is  looked  on 
with  distrust.  It  "  is  not  in  the  market,"  the  broker  does  not  know  it,  and 
that  is  nearly  the  same  as  pronouncing  it  of  no  value;  it  is  put  up  to  auction, 
sold  for  a  tenth  part  of  its  value,  and  what  becomes  of  it  is  a  mere  chance. 
Sometimes  it  falls  into  the  hands  of  clever  and  enterprising  men,  a  demand 
for  it  rapidly  arises,  and  it  is  then  afterwards  brought  to  market;  but  more 
frequently  it  is_  thrown  aside  as  useless,  because  no  pains  are  taken  to 
apply  it  in  the  right  manner,  and  in  a  couple  of  years  it  is  altogether  for- 
gotten, or,  if  remembered,  it  is  as  a  worthless  thing  which  was  tried  some 
years  since,  and  found  of  no  use;  and,  lastly,  the  report  goes  back  to  the 
country  from  which  it  was  brought,  that  it  is  of  no  value  in  ihe  European 
markets. 


NOVELTIES. 

Holm's  Variable  Eccentric— Mr.  C.  A.  Holm,  who  is  well  known  in 
the  mechanical  world  for  his  inventive  ability,  has  just  shown  us  a  plan  which 
he  lately  designed  for  a  method  of  varying  the  throw  of  a  crank  or  eccen- 
tric, in  a  case  where  there  was  not  room  for  the  ordinary  slotted  crank 
usually  employed.  A  reference  to  the  engraving  will  explain  it  in  a  mo- 
ment. Fig.  1  is  a  front  view  of  the  eccentric  ;  and  fig.  2  a  side  view  in 
section,  a  is  the  shuft  from  which  the  motion  is  communicated,  on  which  is 
keyed  an  eccentric  disc,  b.  In  the  centre  of  this  disc  is  a  stud,  c,  which 
is  screwed  into  the  centre  of  another  disc,  d  d.  This  latter  disc  has  a  pin, 
e,  fixed  in  it,  eccentric,  from  which  the  motion  required  is  given.  Supposing 
the  shaft  a  to  revolve,  it  is  clear  that  the  stroke  given  to  the  pin,  e,  will  be 
double  the  radius  from  centre  of  a  to  centre  of  e.  But  if  the  screw,  e,  be 
slackened,  the  disc,  d  d,  can  be  turned  round  until  the  centre  of  e  is  brought 
over  the  centre  of  a,  when  e  will  have  no  motion  at  all.    And  any  point 


Fig.  I.  Fig.  2. 

between  these  two  will  give  a  different  stroke,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines 
in  fig.  1.  Lines  are  engraved  on  the  edge  of  the  disc,  as  1,  2,  3,  4, 5,  6  &  7, 
which  give  the  different  ranges  of  stroke.  There  are  so  very  many  cases 
where  a  convenient  method  of  lengthening  and  shortening  the  stroke  of  a 
crank  is  a  desideratum,  that  we  attach  great  value  to  this  simple  con- 
trivance. 

In  small  slotting  and  planing  machines,  various  forms  of  expansion-gear, 
&c,  it  will  come  into  play  ;  and  it  has  the  great  recommendation  of  being 
nearly  all  lathe  work,  which,  as  we  all  know,  is  the  cheapest  work  done  in 
an  engineer's  shop.  - 


Eeichenbach's  Shop-front  Lasip. — The  lighting  of  shops  from  the 
outside  presents  so  many  advantages  over  inside  lights,  that  it  is  a  wonder 
they  are  not  universally  adopted.  The  eye  of  the  spectator  sees  only  the 
brilliant  goods,  the  eyes  being  protected  from  the  glare  of  the  lamp;  more 
room  is  given  in  the  window  for  the  display  of  goods;  they  are  not  subject 

to  the  effects  of  the 
unconsumed     gas 
(which  in  drapers' 
and  similar  shops 
is  a  heavy   loss); 
and  the  shop  is  kept 
cooler.     Amongst 
the  best  we  have 
seen  are  Mr.  Rei- 
chenbach's  (of  Bo- 
rough-road,South- 
wark)    "  Photoros 
Lamps,"  which  are 
represented  in  the 
accompanying  en- 
graving.  Fig.  1  is 
a  front  elevation, 
and  fig.  2  a  side 
elevation,     a  is 
the    pendent  gas- 
burner;  b,  the  con- 
cave reflector,    in 
the  focus  of  which 
the  gas-burner  is 
placed;   c  is  a  rim 
ofperforated  metal, 
to  which  the  frame 
of   the    parabolic 
glass,  d,  is  hinged, 
so  as  to  admit  of 
its  being    readily 
opened  and  clean- 
ed; e  is  the  chim- 
ney ;/,  a  set  screw, 
for   adjusting    the 
position  of  the  re- 
flector ;    y    g,  an 
arm  secured  to  the 
pendent,  a,  upon 
the  end  of  whicli 
the       reflector 
swings.  The  shape 
of  the  lamp  is  well 
adapted    for     the 
complete  diffusion 
of  the  light  over 
the    whole    shop 
Fig.  2.  window,  whilst  the 

facility  of  adjustment  is  a  great  convenience. 


Fife's  Curved-point  Pen.— Mr.  Fife,  who  is  a  Professor  of  caligraphy 
from  the  United  States,  has  submitted  to  us 
one  of  his  curved-point  pens,  the  principle 
of  which  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
sketch.  Mr.  Fife  says,  "  The  excellence  of  a 
well-made  quill  pen  is  acknowledged  by  all ;  yet  few  are  aware  of  the  causa 
of  that  excellence,  namely,  that  it  bends  laterally  at  the  point,  in  making 
shades,  and,  consequently,  becomes  an  oblique  pen."  A  moment's  considera- 
tion will  show  that,  as  pens  are  ordinarily  held,  the  line  of  motion  of  Che 
points  does  not  coincide  with  the  line  which  they  ought  to  follow  ;  and  Mr. 
Fife's  pen  gets  over  this  difficulty  very  satisfactorily,  as  wc  have  found  by 
using  it  for  some  time. 


234 


List  of  Patents. 


[October,  1852. 


NOTES    FROM    CORRESPONDENCE. 

V  We  cannot  insert  communications  from  anonymous  correspondents. 

"A  Boiler-maker"— Mr.  Mills'  patent  consists  in  staying  sheet  water 
spaces,  by  bulging  out  the  plates  at  regular  intervals  until  they  touch  each 
other.  The  bulges  come  into  the  fire  spaces,  and  give  more  water  room  and 
heating  surface.  The  bulges  may  be  carried  the  whole  length  of  the  fire,  so 
as  to  divide  the  depth  of  it  into  a  series  of  fire  spaces.  We  think  the 
question  between  this  and  Lamb  and  Summers'  resolves  itself  into  conve- 
nience of  manufacture,  in  the  absence  of  any  comparative  trial  of  their 
evaporating  qualities. 

"  H  M  S  Arrogant."— We  have  received  (too  late  for  insertion  in  this 
number),  a  letter  from  the  late  chief  engineer  of  the  Arrogant  in  which  he 
denies  ever  having  given  Mr.  Isherwood  the  information  which  he  refers  to 
(p.  203),  or,  indeed,  ever  having  seen  that  gentleman  in  his  life.  This  seems 
to'dema'nd  some  explanation  from  Mr.  Isherwood. 

"  Patent  Amendment  Act."— The  regulations  just  issued  are  of  little 
importance.  Specifications  are  to  be  written  on  both  sides  of  a  sheet  of 
parchment,  18  inches  by  12,  with  a  margin  of  l£  mch  m  each  slde-  But 
the  drawings  may  be  on  larger  sheets  of  parchment. 

"  B  H  "—We  cannot  condescend  to  enter  into  a  personal  discussion  with 
such  an  unscrupulous  perverter  of  facts  as  Mr.  Mushet,  but  our  correspondent 
may  take  our  word  for  it,  that  Mr.  Craddock  has  never  yet  attained  a 
greater  economy  than  has  been  already  arrived  at  with  double  cylinder  en- 
gines using  50  lbs.  steam.  At  least,  if  he  has  done  so,  he  has  never  shown 
it  to  the  public. 

"R.  N."— The  table  of  the  comparative  expenses  and  receipts  of  screw 
and  paddle-wheel  vessels  will  be  found  in  the  Artizan  for  February,  1847. 
2.  Our  correspondent  may  get  some  hints  on  light  steam  boats  from  the 
narrative  in  the  January,  1851,  Artizan. 

Books  received.— "  Booth's  Encyclopedia  of  Chemistry;"  "The  Assayer's 
Guide;"  "Scott  on  Water  Supply,"  &c. 


LIST  OF  ENGLISH  PATENTS, 
From  23rd  of  August  to  24th  September,  1852. 
Six  months  allowed  for  enrolment,  unless  otherwise  expressed. 
Henry  Needham  Scrope  Shrapnel,  of  Gosport,  for  improvements  in  ordnance  and  fire- 
arms, cartridges,  and  ammunition,  or  projectiles,  and  the  mode  of  making  up  or  preparing 
the  same.    August  23.  .  .  ■. 

Frederick  Dam,  of  Brussels,  chemist,  for  improvements  in  preventing  incrustation  m 
toilers.    August  23.  ,      ,     . 

Josiah  George  Jennings,  of  Great  Charlotte-street,  Blaekfnars-road,  brass-founder,  for  im- 
provements in  water-closets,  in  traps  and  valves,  and  in  pumps.    August  23.         _ 

Julius  Roberts,   of  Portsmouth,  lieutenant  in  the  Royal  Marine  Artillery,  for  improve- 
ments in  the  mariners'  compass.    August  23.  „„'...  .    a. 

Auguste  Edouard  Loradoux  Bellford,  of  Castle-street,  Holborn,  for  improvements  in  the 
machinery  and  apparatus  for  printing  fabrics  and  other  surfaces.    (Being  a  communica- 
tion.)    August  26.  .  ..    ,  . 

Paul  Joseph  Poggioli,  of  Paris,  France,  gentleman,  for  an  improved  medical  compound. 
August  26.  ,  .    .  .    .    ,. 

George  Twigg,  of  Birmingham,  button  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  buttons  and  other  dress-fastenings,  and  in  the  machinery  and  apparatus  to 
be  used  therein.    August  26.  „.,..  r     ■ 

Charles  Cowper,  of  Southampton-buildings,  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  for  improvements 
in  the  application  of  iron  to  building  purposes.    (Being  a  communication.)    August  26. 

John  Fish,  of  Oswaldtwistle,  Lancaster,  for  certain  improvements  m  looms  for  weaving. 
August  26.  . 

Andrew  Crosse,  Esq.,  of  Broomfield,  Somerset,  for  improvements  in  the  extraction  of 
metals  from  their  ores.    August  26.  . 

Pierre  Amable  de  Saint  Simon  Sicard,  chemist,  of  Paris,  for  improvements  m  enabling 
persons  to  remain  under  water  and  in  noxious  vapours.    August  26. 

James  Lawrence,  of  Colnbrook,  Middlesex,  brewer,  for  improvements  in  brewing  appa- 
ratus.   August  26.  ...  .      . 

William  Henry  James,  of  Great  Charlotte-street,  Surrey,  civil  engineer,  for  improve- 
ments in  heating  and  refrigerating,  and  in  apparatus  connected  therewith.    September  3. 

Peter  Arniand  Lecomte  de  Fontainemoreau,  of  South-street,  Finsbury,  for  improvements 
in  producing  gas,  and  in  its  application  to  heat  and  light.     (A  communication.)    Sept.  7. 

John  James,  of  Leadenhall-street,  London,  manufacturer,  for  certain  improvements  in 
weighing  machines  and  weighing  cranes.    Septembers. 

Henri  Francois  Toussaint,  of  Paris,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  obtaining  a  product 
from  the  wood  of  the  cactus.     September  10. 

Julian  Bernard,  of  Guildford-street,  Russell-square,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  or  production  of  boots  and  shoes,  and  in  materials,  machinery, 
and  apparatus  connected  therewith.    September  10. 

John  Wright  Treeby,  of  Elizabethan  Villa,  St.  John's  Wood,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for 
improvements  in  regulating  the  flow  of  liquids.    September  10. 

Stephen  Taylor,  of  New  York,  gentleman,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  construction 
of  fire-arms,  and  in  cartridges  for  charging  the  same.    September  10. 

Alexander  Stewart,  of  Glasgow,  North  Britain,  manufacturer,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  or  production  of  ornamental  fabrics.    September  10. 

Frederick  Sang,  of  58,  Pall-mall,  Middlesex,  artist  in  fresco,  for  certain  improvements  in 
floating  and  moving  vessels,  vehicles,  and  other  bodies  on  and  over  water.    September  16. 

Charles  Augustus  Feller,  of  Abelmrcb-lane,  London,  merchant  j  John  Eastwood,  of  Brad- 
ford, York,  woolcomber  ;  and  Samuel  Gamble,  of  Bradford  aforesaid,  machine-maker,  for 
improvements  in  machinery  for  combing,  drawing,  or  preparing  wool,  cotton,  silk,  hair, 
and  other  fibrous  materials.    September  16. 

John  Macintosh,  of  New-street,  Surrey,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in  manufacturing 
and  refining  sugar.    September  18. 

James  Pillans  Wilson,  of  Belmont,  Vauxhall,  Surrey,  gentleman,  for  improvements  m 
the  manufactuie  of  cloths,  and  in  the  preparation  of  wool  for  the  manufacture  of  woollen 
and  other  fabrics,  and  in  the  preparation  of  materials  to  be  used  for  these  purposes.  Sep. 18. 
John  Mitchell,  of  Calenick,  Cornwall,  for  improvements  in  purifying  tin  ores,  and  sepa- 
rating ores  of  tin  from  other  minerals.    September  18. 

William  Smith,  of  Little  Woolstowe,  Bucks,  farmer,  for  improvements  in  machinery  for 
reaping.    September  18. 


George  Hutchinson,  of  Glasgow,  merchant,  for  a  method  of  preparing  oils  for  lubricating 
and  burning.    September  18. 

James  Warren,  of  Montague-terrace,  Mile-end-road,  and  Barnard  Peard  Walker,  of  Ivorth- 
street,  Wolverhampton,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  screws  and  screw-keys, 
and  in  the  construction  of  bridges  applicable  to  floorings,  roofings,  and  paving.    Sept.  is. 

Moses  Poole,  London,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  combining  caoutchouc  with  other 
matters.    September  18. 

Francois  Mathieu,  of  Hatton-garden,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  appara- 
tus for  containing,  aerating,  refrigerating,  filtering,  and  drawing-off  liquids,  and  in  orna- 
menting such  apparatus.    September  23. 

John  Lawson  and  Edward  Lawson.  both  of  Leeds,  machine-makers,  for  improvements  in 
machinery  for  scutching  and  cleaning  flax  straw.    September  23. 

Jacques  Leon  Tardieu,  of  Paris,  gentleman,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  colouring  of 
photographical  images.    September  23.  .    . 

Robert  Bowman  Tennent,  of  Gracechurch-street,  London,  merchant,  for  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  mode  of  pulping  cherry  coffee,  and  in  the  machinery  applicable  thereto. 
September  24. 

LIST  OF  SCOTCH  PATENTS, 
From  2nd  of  August  to  the  18th  of  August,  1852. 

Joseph  Haythorne  Reed  (late  of  the  17th  Lancers),  of  the  Harrow-road,  Middlesex,  gen- 
tleman, for  improvements  in  saddlery  and  harness.    August.  2. 

William  Edward  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements 
in  the  construction  of  wheels  for  carriages.     (A  communication.)    August  3. 

John  Gerald  Potter,  of  Over  Darwen,  Lancaster,  carpet  manufacturer,  and  Mathew 
Smith,  of  the  same  place,  manager,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets, 
rugs,  and  other  similar  fabrics.    August  6. 

Ralph  Errington  Ridley,  of  Hexham,  Northumberland,  tanner,  for  improvements  in  cut- 
ting and  reaping  machines.    August  6. 

William  Ackroyd,  of  Berkenshaw,  near  Leeds,  for  improvements  m  the  manufacture  of 
yarn  and  fabrics,  when  cotton,  wool,  and  silk  are  employed.    August  6. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  metallic  fences,  which  improvements  are  also  applicable 
to  the  manufactuie  of  verandahs,  to  truss  frames  for  bridges,  and  to  other  analogous 
manufactures.     (Communication.)    August  13. 

Robert  Hardman,  of  Bolton-le-Moors,  Lancaster,  mechanic,  for  improvements  in  looms 
for  weaving.    August  18. 

LIST  OF  IRISH  PATENTS, 
From  the  19th  of  July  to  the  17th  of   August,  1852. 

Robert  John  Smyth,  of  Islington,  Middlesex,  for  certain  improvements  in  machinery  or 
apparatus  for  steering  ships  and  other  vessels.    July  19. 

Frederick  Sang,  of  Pall-mall.  Middlesex,  artist  in  fresco,  for  certain  improvements  in 
machinery  or  apparatus  for  cutting,  sawing,  grinding,  and  polishing.    July  19. 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  the  firm  of  J.  C  Robertson  and  Company,  of  166,  Fleet- 
street,  in  the  city  of  London,  patent  agents,  for  improvements  in  the  purification  and  deco- 
loration of  oils,  and  in  the  apparatus  employed  therein.    (Communication.)    July  19.    , 

Richard  Parris,  of  Long-Acre,  Middlesex,  modeller,  for  improvements  in  machinery  or 
apparatus  for  cutting  and  shaping  cork.    July  22. 

Joseph  Maudslay,  of  the  firm  of  Maudslay,  Sons,  and  Field,  of  Lambeth,  Surrey,  engi- 
neers, for  improvements  in  steam  engines,  which  are  also  applicable  wholly,  or  in  part,  to 
pumps  and  other  motive  machines.    July  22.  _ 

Charles  Augustus  Preller,  of  Abchurch-lane,  London,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in 
the  preparation  and  preservation  of  skins  and  animal  and  vegetable  substances.     July  22. 

James  Joseph  Brunet,  of  the  Canal  Iron-Works,  Poplar,  Middlesex,  engineer,  for  certain 
improved  combinations  of  materials  in  shipbuilding.  (Communication  from  Lucien  Annan, 
of  Bordeaux,  France.)    August  5.  . 

Henry  Graham  William  Wagstaff,  of  Bethnal-green,  Middlesex,  candlemaker,  for  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  candles.    August  5. 

James  Pilling,  of  Rochdale,  Lancaster,  for  certain  improvements  in  looms  for  weaving. 
August  20.  ,„  ,  „ 

Edmund  Morewood,  of  Enfield,  Middlesex,  and  George  Rogers,  of  the  same  place,  gent  e- 
men,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  metals,  and  in  coating  or  covering  metals. 
August  5.  ..*_-» 

Ralph  Errington  Ridley,  of  Hexham.  Northumberland,  tanner,  for  improvements  in  cut- 
ting and  reaping  machines.    August  5. 

George  Laycock,  late  of  Albany,  United  States  of  America,  dyer,  but  now  of  Doncaster, 
York,  tanner,  for  improvements  in  unhairing  and  tanning  skins.    August  6. 

James  Warren,  of  Montague-terrace,  Mile-end-road,  gentleman,  for  improvements  appli- 
cable to  railways  and  railway  carriages,  and  improvements  in  paving,  applicable  to  bridges 
and  flooring.    August  17.  .   .    „  .    .  . 

Francis  Joseph' Beltzung,  of  Paris,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  the  manunctnre  cf 
bottles  and  jars,  of  glass,  clay,  gutta  percha,  or  other  plastic  materials,  and  stoppers  for  the 
same,  and  in  machinery  for  pressing  and  moulding  the  said  materials.    August  17. 


DESIGNS  FOR  ARTICLES  OF  UTILITY, 
From  19th  of  August,  to  the  23rd  of  September,  1852. 
August  19,  3353,  J.  Newman,  Sohn-square,  "  Colour  box." 

21,  3354,  S.  S.  Phillips,  Chelmsford,  "  Hot-water  stove. 
"     24,  3355,  T.  Gibson,  jun.,  Manchester,  "  Shirt  front."  ■ 

26  3356,  F.  G.  Yates,  Winksworth's-buihlings,  "  Lever  knife. 
"    26  3357   F  G.  Yates,  Winksworth's-buildings,  "  Box  for  string,  &c. 
"    •>»',  3358,  C.  Carr,  Stockport,  "  Spindle,  rail,  and  bearings,  for  spinning,  doubling, 
and  winding  machines."  „ 

28  3359,  R.  Clark,  Strand,  "  Fastening  for  the  nozzle  of  candle-lamps 
,"    28|  3360,  W.  Sanderson,  Sheffield,    "Balance-handle  for   knives  and  forks  and 
table  steels."  '  ,  .  „ 

30,  3361,  E.  Harris,  Ebbv,  near  Stroud,  "  Corrugated  zinc  wash  slab. 
"    3l',  3362,  J.  Dicker,  Islington,  "Traductor." 
September  2,  3363,  J.  Blackwood  and  Co.,  Long-acre,  "  Tablet  diary. 

„      2,  3364,  Deane,  Drav  and  Co..  London  Bridge, '  Gas  stove.  ,-_  „ 

4^  3365,  J.  Higgins,  Oldham,  "  Hollow  furnace  door-frame  for  steam-boilers. 
"      6',  3366',  W.  Estwick,  Hoxton,  "  Ventilating  tent.'^ 

6  3367   R.  Grundy,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  "  Boat  crane."  „.___■ 

",      S,  3368,  T.  Young,  Little  Todrig,  Scotland,  "  Traction  apparatus  for  horse  thrash- 
ing-machines." 

11   3369,  A.  Aubcrt,  Nantes,  France,  "  Oyster  opener.  .       

I;     15,  3370,  &  and  M.  Meyer,  Bow-lane,  Cheapside,  "  Joint  for  parasols,  umbrellas, 
fishing-rods,  &c." 
17,  3371,  E.  D.  Stones,  Sheffield,  "  Somacephalic  batti.^ 
17' 3372,  J.  Carrington,  Potton,  Bedfordshire,  "  Girth."  ^ 

'     18,  3373,  J.  W.  Ingram  and  Co.,  Birmingham,  "  rrmting-press. 
"     18  3374  J   C.  Meredith,  Birmingham.  "Clog-fastener." 
"3,  3375,  C.  Dain,  Southampton,  "  Perpetual  daily  indicator. 


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THE    AETIZAN 


No.  XL— Vol.  X.— NOVEMBER  1st,   1852. 


EVENTS    OF   THE    MONTH. 

Comparatively  few  persons  are  aware  of  the  immense  efforts  now 
being  made  by  engineers  and  shipbuilders  to  meet  the  demands  made 
upon  them  by  the  numerous  steam  navigation  companies.  There  pro- 
bably never  was  such  a  glut  of  work  as  at  the  present  moment.  We 
will  just  glance  at  what  is  doing  in  London.  Messrs.  James  Watt  and 
Co.,  of  Soho,  are  said  to  have  seventeen  pairs  of  marine  engines  in 
hand ;  one  pair,  of  300  horse  power,  for  the  Mauritius,  General  Screw 
Company's  vessel,  are  now  being  put  on  board  the  ship,  and  they  are 
working  day  and  night,  with  relays  of  men,  to  get  her  off  by  the  10th  of 
November.  Messrs.  Maudslay  and  Field  have  a  number  of  boats  fitting 
for  the  same  company,  and  a  yacht  (if  a  vessel  of  2,000  tons  and  800 
horse  power  can  be  called  by  that  name)  for  the  Pacha  of  Egypt. 
These  latter  are  Siamese  engines,  and  have  four  double-beat  valves,  on 
the  American  principle,  the  same  as  in  the  Orinoco,  and  which  are  said 
to  enable  the  engines  to  be  handled  by  one  man.  Messrs.  Blyth  have 
two  screw  boats  building  by  Messrs.  Green  for  the  Portuguese  govern- 
ment, for  which  they  are  making  the  engines ;  they  have  also  several 
pairs  of  paddle-wheel  engines  in  hand  for  the  Danube  Steam  Naviga- 
tion Company.  Messrs.  Miller,  Ravenhill,  and  Salkeld  have  two 
paddle-wheel  vessels  fitting  for  the  Austrian  Lloyd's,  which,  from  their 
lines,  promise  to  be  clippers ;  they  have  oscillating  engines  and  feather- 
ing wheels.  Mr.  Penn  has  just  finished  the  trunk  engines  of  the 
Agamemnon,  and  is  likely  to  have  those  of  1,000  horse  power  for  the 
Royal  Albert.  He  has  also  those  in  hand  for  the  Himalaya,  which  is 
building  by  Messrs.  Mare  and  Co.,  and  looks  a  fearful  size.  The 
same  builders  have  also  three  other  vessels  on  the  stocks,  one  a 
"  Sandwich-built"  wooden  vessel,  for  the  Peninsular  Company,  as  we 
understood. 

We  may  also  mention,  that  Messrs.  T.  and  J.  White,  of  Cowes,  and 
Mr.  Thompson,  of  Rotherhithe,  are  building  "  Sandwich"  vessels,  for 
which  Mr.  Penn  is  making  the  engines. 

Another  firm  has  also  been  lately  added  to  the  list  of  London  engi- 
neers, that  of  Messrs.  Tennant,  Humphreys  and  Dyke,  who  have  taken 
the  premises  lately  occupied  by  Messrs.  Rennie  at  Deptford.  Mr. 
Tennant  is  well  known  as  the  proprietor  of  the  St.  Rollox  Chemical 
Works,  Glasgow.  Mr.  Humphries,  late  of  Woolwich  Dockyard,  does 
not  require  any  introduction  to  the  engineering  world.  We  understand 
they  have  some  orders  from  the  Danube  Company.  In  the  above 
notice,  we  have  confined  ourselves  to  marine  engineering,  but  we  may 
add  to  the  list,  Messrs.  Simpson  and  Co.,  who  are  just  completing  four 
Woolf  engines  of  200  horse  power  each,  for  the  new  water  works  at 
Kingston.  Messrs.  Easton  and  Amos,  who  have  a  large  quantity  of 
paper-mill  work  on  hand,  as  well  as  a  large  saw  mill,  for  Mr.  Myers, 
the  builder,  with  a  host  of  minor  names.  When  to  this  list  we  add 
what  is  going  on  on  the  Clyde,  the  Mersey,  the  Tyne,  and  the  Avon, 
the  aggregate  is  overwhelming. 


Most  of  the  continental  ateliers,  of  which  we  have  accounts,  are  in  a 
similar  state  of  prosperity.  On  a  recent  visit  to  Paris,  we  had  the  plea- 
sure of  seeing  the  principal  engineering  establishments  there,  the  chief 
of  which  is  certainly  that  of  Messrs.  Cail  and  Company  (formerly  Cail, 
Derosne  and  Co.),  well  known  for  their  sugar  machinery.  The  draw- 
ing office  of  this  establishment  would  serve  many  engineers  for  an 
erecting  shop,  and  contained  some  five-and-twenty  draughtsmen.  The 
number  of  men  employed  is  about  600,  but  the  company  have  various 
branch  establishments,  such  as  boiler-makers',  and  ironfounders'  shops, 
at  other  places.  They  are  making  several  heavy  express  locomotives 
with  outside  cylinders  on  Crampton's  patent,  a  system  which  appears 
to  find  more  favour  in  France  than  it  has  done  in  England.  We  ob- 
served in  all  the  French  shops  which  we  visited  that  the  heavy  planing 
machines  are  constructed  so  that  the  work  is  fixed,  whilst  the  tool  moves 
on  the  same  plan  as  that  described  at  p.  96,  but  with  pitch-chains  to 
move  the  table  carrying  the  tool — a  manifestly  inferior  arrangement  to 
that  described. 

M.  Cave  has  a  large  establishment,  but  the  arrangements  are  of  a 
rather  antiquated  character.  A  favourite  kind  of  engine  appeared  to 
be  a  long-stroked  horizontal  oscillating  variety,  for  non-condensing,  and 
the  Woolf  engine  for  condensing. 

M.  Decoster  is  chiefly  engaged  in  constructing  flax-spinning  machi- 
nery, engineers'  tools,  &c,  and  has  lately  introduced  a  novel  method 
of  lubricating  bearings,  especially  applicable  to  light  shafting.  The 
bearing  is  made  rather  wider  than  usual,  and  a  small  disc  is  fitted  on 
the  shaft,  which  dips  into  a  reservoir  of  oil  in  the  base  of  the  hanging 
carriage  or  plummer-block,  and  by  its  revolution  raises  the  oil  and  dis- 
tributes it  over  the  bearing.  A  tight-fitting  cap  covers  in  the  whole 
hearing,  and  prevents  the  access  of  dust.  Bearings  of  this  description, 
we  are  assured,  will  run  for  more  than  a  twelvemonth  with  one  supply 
of  oil.  We  ought  to  mention  that  M.  Decoster  is  replacing  all  his 
lying  shafting  with  shafting  of  a  very  much  smaller  diameter,  but  run- 
ning at  a  much  higher  speed.  This  arrangement  saves  great  expense  in 
constructing  mills,  and  is  attended  with  no  inconvenience,  if  the  system 
of  lubricating  just  described  is  adopted. 

M.  Nillus,  of  Havre,  marine  engine-maker  and  iron  ship-builder,  has 
a  very  elegant  shop,  well  fitted  with  tools.  The  form  of  engine  usually 
adopted  is  the  oscillating  variety ;  and  we  observed  that  all  the  most 
recent  improvements  had  been  adopted  with  great  discrimination.  Di- 
mensions of  some  of  M.  Nillus's  vessels  will  be  found  at  another  page. 
The  shop  is  entirely  independent  of  external  assistance,  for  they  make 
all  their  own  forgings  with  a  heavy  steam  hammer,  their .  own  copper 
and  brass-work,  coke,  &c. 

The  remainder  of  our  notes  we  must  reserve  for  another  occasion. 
We  have  said  sufficient  to  show  that  our  continental  brethren  are  not 
behind  us,  either  in  the  adoption  of  new  improvements,  or  in  the  means 
of  carrying  them  out. 

31.   b 


236 


Mason's  Patent  Wool  Machinery  and  Self-Acting  Feeder. 


[November, 


DEAL  SAWING  FRAME,  BY  MESSRS.  WORSSAM  AND  CO. 

(Illustrated  by  Plate  18.) 
In  our  last  number  we  gave  a  description  of  the  timber  frame  of  Messrs. 
Worssam  and  Co.,  and  we  now  present  our  readers  with  a  plate  of  their 
frame  for  sawing  deals,  of  which  they  have  a  number  at  work.  It  is 
designed,  as  usual,  to  take  in  two  deals  abreast,  and  the  frame  being 
divided  down  the  middle,  the  connecting  rod  takes  hold  of  the  centre, 
so  as  to  diminish  the  total  height  of  the  frames,  without  cramping  the 
length  of  the  connecting-rod.  The  motion  of  the  deals  is  given  by 
means  of  rollers,  which  have  the  great  advantage  over  a  rack,  that  they 
do  not  require  to  be  run  back  to  put  in  fresh  deals. 

Fig.  1  is  a  side  elevation,  and  fig.  2  an  end  elevation  of  the  frame. 
Motion  is  communicated  to  the  feeding  rollers  by  the  eccentric  and  rod 
a,  acting  on  the  ratchet  b,  the  spindle  of  which  is  provided  with  four 
endless  screws,  taking  into  the  screw  wheels  c,  c,  c,  c.  On  the  spindles 
of  these  wheels  are  the  feeding  rollers,  d,  e,  d,  e,  which  grip  the  deals, 
and,  by  their  revolution,  move  them  against  the  saws.  In  order  to  suit 
the  varying  thicknesses  of  wood,  the  outer  rollers,  d,  d,  are  mounted  in 
such  a  way  as  to  admit  of  their  being  adjusted,  as  to  their  distance,  from 
the  inner  rollers,  e,  e.  This  is  effected  by  the  roller  spindle  being  car- 
ried by  the  levers  i,  i,  which  are  mounted  on  a  spindle  commanded  by 
the  lever  k,  to  which  weights  may  be  attached  in  the  usual  way,  to  give 
the  roller  the  required  pressure  against  the  wood. 


MASON'S  PATENT  WOOL  MACHINERY  AND  SELF-ACTING 
FEEDER. 

(Illustrated  by  Plate  19.) 

In  order  that  the  reader  not  intimately  acquainted  with  the  minutiae 
of  the  arrangements  of  the  woollen  manufacture  may  appreciate  the 
value  of  the  "  labour-saying "  machines  patented  by  Mr.  Mason,  of 
Rochdale,  of  which  we  give  drawings  in  plate  19,  we  deem  it  best  to 
give  a  short  detailed  account  of  the  processes  of  wool-spinning,  as  gene- 
rally adopted. 

The  machine  to  which  the  wool  is  first  subjected  closely  resembles  the 
cotton  willow,  with  which  our  readers  are  presumed  to  be  familiar. 
Previous  to  being  passed  through  this,  the  wool  is  sprinkled  with  oil, 
which  facilitates  its  working.  After  being  willowed,  it  is  projected  from 
the  machine  in  a  loose,  open  state.  It  is  then  passed  to  the  "scribbling 
engine,"  as  it  is  termed,  which  is,  in  fact,  a  carding  engine,  similar  in 
its  action  to  the  "  breaker  card  "  used  in  the  cotton  manufacture.  On 
passing  from  the  engine,  it  is  wound  round  a  roller  ready  for  the  next 
machine,  which  is  termed  the  "carding  engine."  The  carding  teeth  are 
placed  on  the  periphery  of  the  cylinder,  in  the  form  of  narrow  strips, 
thus  passing  the  material  out  in  the  shape  of  narrow  bands.  Before, 
however,  these  bands  are  finally  passed  from  the  machine,  they  are 
separately  caused  to  go  between  a  fluted  roller,  which  is  encased  by  a 
semicircular  shell.  Passing  between  these  surfaces,  the  band  is  rubbed 
round  into  the  shape  of  a  tube,  or  hollow  card,  of  a  certain  length, 
termed  "  cardings."  In  cases  where  the  carding  cylinders  are  of  con- 
siderable length,  the  cardings  are  divided  into  two  parts,  thus  making 
them  of  sufficient  length  to  be  handled  without  breaking.  In  single 
carding  engines  the  length  of  card  corresponds  with  the  length  of  cy- 
linder. The  tubes  or  rolls  of  wool  are  next  passed  to  the  "  slubbing 
machine."  The  principle  of  this  machine  is  identical  with  that  of  the 
cotton-roving  frame.  The  wool  cardings  are,  however,  supplied  in  a 
different  way  to  the  action  of  the  machine.  In  the  "slubbing  billy,"  as 
it  is  termed  by  the  operatives,  the  cardings  are  placed  upon  a  sloping 
board,  or  feed-apron,  placed  in  front  of  the  machine,  and  which  is  of 
equal  length  with  its  breadth.  The  cardings  are  placed  on  this  board, 
at  a  certain  distance  one  from  another,  depending  upon  the  distance  at 


which  the  "drawing  rollers  "  are  placed  in  the  machine.  The  cardings 
are  taken  through  between  the  rollers,  and  drawn  up  the  inclined  board. 
The  cardings,  thus  elongated,  are  finally  wound  round  upon  bobbins. 

The  cardings,  as  we  have  seen,  being  all  of  a  determinate  length,  it 
is  necessary,  in  order  to  keep  the  rollers  always  supplied,  to  piece  the 
cardings ;  that  is,  to  add  a  new  length  to  the  end  of  the  one  which  may 
happen  to  be  nearly  passed  through  the  rollers.  To  do  this  is  the  work 
of  the  little  attendants  called  the  "pieeeners,"  and  so  well  do  they  per- 
form this,  that  we  do  not  recollect  ever  seeing  any  of  the  drawing  rollers 
"  needlessly  revolving  "  for  lack  of  their  usual  supplies.  Up  to  this 
point,  then,  the  operations  have  been  threefold — "scribbling,"  "carding," 
and  "  slubbing,"  and  the  attention  necessitated  for  three  engines,  in- 
volving a  great  number  of  "  pieeeners."  It  is  here  that  Mr.  Mason's 
labour-saving  machines  come  into  operation,  dispensing  with  three 
operations — feeding  the  carding  engine,  piecing  the  cardings  at  the 
"  billy,"  and  the  operation  of  the  billy  itself.  How  this  is  effected  it  is 
now  our  duty  to  explain.  The  wool,  on  being  taken  from  the  "  scrib- 
bling "  or  first  carding  engine,  in  the  usual  way,  is  passed  through  a  re- 
volving tube,  seen  in  fig.  1,  plate  xix,  which  gives  it  a  certain  amount  of 
false  twist.  It  is  next  drawn  through  the  tube  by  a  pair  of  rollers,  and 
returned  between  a  lower  pair  to  the  small  lap  machine  in  front  of  the 
engine,  which  is  arranged  to  form  a  lap  of  sliver  16  inches  diameter, 
and  4  or  5  inches  wide.  When  the  required  length  of  sliver  is  wound 
on,  notice  is  given  by  a  bell,  and  if  not  attended  to,  another  movement 
doffs  the  lap,  so  as  to  insure  each  one  being  of  the  same  uniform 
length. 

A  number  of  these  narrow  laps  are  placed  side  by  side  upon  rods,  so 
as  to  form  four  rows,  seen  at  a,  b,  c,  d,  fig.  2,  each  row  being  the  whole 
width  of  the  engine,  and  are  turned  off  into  the  engine  by  the  unlapping 
rollers,  e,  f,  g,  h ;  each  sliver  passes  through  a  separate  guide  as  it 
enters  the  feed  rollers,  to  keep  it  in  its  proper  place. 

The  wool  having  passed  through  the  engine  and  been  carded  in  the 
usual  manner,  is  removed  from  the  main  cylinder  in  the  form  of  endless 
bands  or  slivers,  by  the  condenser  doffers,  i,  Jc,  which  are  provided  with 
rings  of  card  and  alternate  blank  spaces,  so  that  the  wool  which  is  left 
upon  the  cylinder  by  the  top  doffer  is  removed  by  the  lower  one. 

The  stripper  rollers,  Z,  m,  take  these  bands  of  wool  from  the  doffers, 
after  which  they  pass  between  the  double  endless  twisting  straps,  n,  o, 
for  the  purpose  of  receiving  a  degree  of  false  twist  or  condensing,  suffi- 
cient to  enable  them  to  carry  forward  to  be  spun. 

They  then  pass  between  the  delivering  rollers,  p,  q,  to  the  bobbins, 
r,  s,  on  which  they  are  lapped  by  friction  of  contact  with  the  drums, 
t,  u.  When  the  bobbins  are  filled,  they  are  removed  direct  to  the  mule 
to  be  spun,  where  they  are  turned  off  in  a  similar  manner  by  drums. 

The  advantages  of  this  system  consist  in  a  great  economy  of  labour, 
three  operations  being  dispensed  with,  viz.,  feeding,  piecing,  and,  slub- 
bing, and  in  the  yarns  being  more  regular  and  level  than  those  joro- 
duced  by  the  ordinary  method. 

In  many  of  the  first  attempts  to  obtain  endless  cardings,  the  machines 
being  fed  by  hand,  the  slubbings  were  not  regular.  The  self-feeder  has 
completely  remedied  this  defect,  and  by  its  use  a  quantity  of  wool  can 
be  placed  at  the  feeder  of  the  second  engine  that  will  serve  a  day,  or 
any  smaller  portion  thereof. 

An  equal,  and  sometimes  a  greater  quantity  of  work  is  turned  off; 
the  threads  are  more  nappy,  which  increases  the  felting  quality  in  milling, 
causes  a  firmer  texture  in  the  cloth,  and  a  corresponding  fulness  of  bot- 
tom and  richness  of  appearance  not  attained  by  the  methods  formerly 
in  use. 

For  warps,  it  is  only  necessary  to  double  the  slivers  of  wool  upon  an 
intermediate  engine,  and  draw  the  slubbings  more  in  the  condenser  and 
mule  to  obtain  that  straightness  of  fibre  which  gives  strength  to  the 
thread. 


1852.] 


Agricultural  Engineering. 


237 


Both  machines  are  portable,  readily  applied  to  old  engines,  occupy 
no  more  room,  and  do  not  require  short-time  hands  to  work  them. 

The  condenser  is  made  with  one,  two,  or  three  doffers,  according  to 
the  quality  of  the  work  required ;  but  each  plan  differs  from  any  other 
in  the  superior  manner  of  removing  the  wool  from  the  doffer-cylinder 
by  a  stripper-roller,  by  which  means  the  slubbings  can  be  produced 
finer,  so  as  to  spin  better,  with  less  breakage  and  waste,  both  at  the 
engine  and  mule.  It  also  enables  parties  to  work  any  description  of 
wool  without  being  confined  to  some  particular  kind  that  will  suit  the 
machine. 

The  one-doffer  plans  are  intended  for  the  coarsest  work,  and  do  not 
require  any  of  the  old  parts  of  the  engine  to  be  removed. 

The  condenser,  or  endless  carding  system,  reduces  the  operations  to 
two  of  the  simplest  and  most  economical  forms,  viz. — carding  and  spin- 
ning. The  failure  of  some  methods  intended  to  obtain  a  similar  result, 
and  the  prejudice  caused  thereby  against  all,  may  be  considered  the 
causes  of  its  not  being  universally  adopted. 

"We  are  glad,  however,  to  know  that  the  merits  of  the  system  are  fast 
becoming  known,  and  meeting  with  that  degree  of  extension  that  it  as- 
suredly Reserves.  Many  of  the  machines  are  now  at  work  in  some  of 
the  most  eminent  manufacturing  establishments,  and  giving  great  satis- 
faction. 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING. 

(Continued  from  p.  190.) 

Application  of  Liquid  Manure. — As  a  pecuniary  speculation, 
Mr.  Mechi  is  quite  satisfied  with  the  result  obtained  from  the  applica- 
tion of  liquid  manure,  but  we  may  remind  those  of  our  readers  who 
may  pay  a  visit  to  Tiptree  Hall,  that  a  very  different  arrangement  would 
be  adopted  were  the  engine  and  pumps  constructed  for  the  especial  pur- 
pose.    In  the  case  before  us  the  pumps  are  worked  off  cranks  on  a 


shaft  at  some  distance  from  the  engine,  the  power  being  conveyed  by 
the  existing  mill  shafting.  In  making  a  new  engine  for  pumping,  a 
preferable  plan  would  be  to  connect  the  pump-plunger  directly  to  the 
piston-rod,  and  make  the  pump  double  acting,  as  shown  at  p.  152, 
vol.  1851. 

It  will  be  useful  to  give  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  supplying  a  dis- 
trict, say  of  1000  acres,  which  is  furnished  by  Mr.  W.  Lee,  C.E. 

The  district  is  supposed  to  be  divided  by  imaginary  lines  into  25 
squares  of  40  acres  each,  in  the  centre  of  each  of  which  is  a  stand 
pipe,  a  hose  from  which  of  300  yards  will  reach  the  most  distant  point. 
Five  lines  of  3-inch  cast-iron  pipe  are  carried,  parallel  to  each  other, 
from  the  centre  of  the  first  to  the  centre  of  the  fifth  square,  and  at 
one  end  they  are  all  united  together  by  a  row  of  five-inch  pipe,  from 
any  convenient  point  of  which  a  6-inch  pipe  is  carried  to  the  engine- 
house.     The  estimate  is  as  follows : — 

£  s.    d. 

440  yds.  6-inch  cast-iron  pipe,  jointed  and  laid,  at  5s.  Od.  110  0  0 

1,760  yds.  5            „            „            „            „          4s.  Od.  352  0  0 

4,400  yds.  4            „            „            „            „          3s.  Od.  660  0  0 

4,400  yds.  3            „            „            „            „          2s.  4d.  513  6  8 

25  hydrants  and  fixing,  at  20s 25  0  U 

600  yds.  of  prepared  canvas  hose,  making  two  sets,  at 

Is.  Ad , 40  0  0 

2  discharge  pipes  and  spreaders,  at  20s 2  0  0 

.£1,702     6     8 

Cost  of  all  the  apparatus  complete,  £1  14s.  Ohd.  per  acre. 
Annual  charge  on  land,  at  1\  per  cent.,  equal  to  2s.  %\d.  per  acre. 
Iron  pipes,   1 1  yards  per  acre. 

The  following  table  will  surprise  some  of  our  readers  who  are  not 
aware  of  the  extent  to  which  the  system  has  been  applied  : — 


Table,  showing  Cost,  &c,  of  the  application  of  Sewerage  Waters  and  Liquid  Manures. 


Name  of  place. 


No.  of 
English 
acres. 


Mode  of  application. 


Cost  of 
works  and 
apparatus. 

Annual 

interest,   &c, 
at  7|  percent. 

Annual 
working 
expenses. 

Total 

annual 

charges 

per  English 

acre. 

£       s.    d. 

2,000    0    0 

£       s.   d. 
150    0    0 

&    s.    d. 
117  12    0 

£    s.    ,1. 
4    4  11 

700    0    0 

52  10    0 

19  17     6 

1  18    1 

2,700    0    0 

202  10    0 

119    5     0 

1    8    2! 

36,000    0    0 

2,700    0    0 

150     0     0 

9  10     0 

3,000    0    0 

225    0    0 

52  10    0 

1  17    0 

1,183    0    0 

88  14    6 

67  10    0 

1  14    8* 

445    0    0 

33    7    6 

37  18    4 

0  14    3 

1,450    0    0 

108  15    0 

240  10    0 

0  13    9 

1,586    0    0 

118  19    0 

162  10    0 

0  11    1 

210    0    0 

15  15    0 

11    0    0 

0  10    8J 

101    0    0 

14    6    6 

3  10    0 

0    7    1J 

520  13    4 

39    1    0 

18    6    0 

0  13    9.; 

521  12    0 

39    2    5 

19  15    2 

0    9    9J- 

072    1  10 

50    8    0 

17  11    0 

0    9    SJ 

300    0    0 

22  10    0 

10     0    0 

0  13    0 

Observations, 


Edinburgh. 
Craigentinny  Meadows : 
High  Level 


Sea  Meadows 


Old  Meadows     

Nottinghamshire. 
The  Duke  of  Portland. 
Clipstone  Meadows        . . 

Wiltshire. 
Wiley  Meadows       

Devonshire. 
The  Duke  of  Bedford. 
Tavistock  Meadows        . . 

Berkshire. 
Philip  Pusey,  Esq.,  M.P. 
Pusey  Meadows      

Glasgow. 
Mr.  Harvey's  farm 


ArRSHIRE. 

Myre  Mill  farm       . . 


Canning  Park  farm 


Leg  or  Dundaff  farm 

Staffordshire. 
The  Duke  of  Sutherland. 
Hanchurch  farm,  near  ) 
Trentham \ 

Lancashire. 
Halewood  farm      


Liscard  farm 


Cheshire. 


Glamorganshire. 
Porth  Kerry  farm 


228 

300 
150 


100 
508 

508 
50 
50 

S3 
120 

150 


( Steam-engine,    pumps,   and    open  ) 
(     gutters  and  panes     . .     . .         . .  ( 

|  Gravitation,     open     gutters,    and  j 

j     panes      J 

( Gravitation,    open     gutters,      and  \ 
\     panes J 

f  Catch-meadow,     gravitation,     and ) 
(     open  gutters  f 

f  Bed-work    of    ridge    and  furrow, ) 
(     gravitation  and  open  gutters      .    } 

|  Bed-work      and       catch-meadow, ) 
\     gravitation  and  open  gutters      . .  j 

f  Catch-meadow,     gravitation,      and 

X     open  gutters  | 

Steam-engine,  pumps,  under-  i 
ground     iron    main-pipes,    and  > 

iron  distributing  pipes ) 

Steam-engine,  pumps,  under 
ground  iron  mains,  gutta  per 
cha  hose,  and  jet  pipe  . 

Ditto       

Gravitation,  underground  iron  "i 
mains,  gutta  percha  hose,  and  > 
jet  pipe ) 

Steam-engine,  pumps,  underground  ) 
iron  mains,  gutta  percha  hose,  > 
and  jet  pipe ) 

Ditto Ditto  . .     . . 


let-  1 
ler-  > 


Ditto Ditto  ..     .. 

{Gravitation,  underground  iron  1 
mains,  gutta  percha  hose,  and  > 
jet  pipe ) 


f  Average  rental,  upwards  of  £16  per 

(      English  acre. 

V  Worthless  25  years  ago,  now  worth 

X     about  £520  per  English  acre. 

(  Maximum  rental,   £25  pet  Kngllsh 

(     acre. 

(  Previously  worth  from  3s  to  5».  |  tei 
■J  acre  per  amium,  now  worth  up- 
(      wards  of  £12. 

1  Four  heavy  crops  of  grass  per  an- 
(     num. 

(Land  more  than  quadrupled  in 
'.  value  after  only  four  years'  Irriga- 
(     tion. 

(  Land  not  previously  worth  more  than 
'      is    per  core    IE  now    .LI  1::j:   s:.': 
(     heavy  crops  of  grass  per  annum. 
j  10  feet  thick  of  gnus  cut  from  an 
(     acre  in  six  months, 

J  70  tons  of  grass  cut  from  an  acre  in 

(     six  months, 

rlJ.{  feet  thick  of  grass  out  in  sewn 

1     months. 

j  12  stacks  per  annum  previously  ;  80 

(      stacks  last  year. 

(  Tanks  constructed  sufficient  for  300 
(      acres. 

i  due  dressing  of  liquid,  equal  t"  U 
to  BO  tons  of  farm  vara  manure 
I     peraore. 

I  A  fourth  crop  of  era-s  beta)  m  I  hi  ; 
j     was  found  equal  to  10  tons  per  acre, 

It  wit-  the  lightest  OTOp  cut  off  tat 
I      '.line  land. 

Tanks  constructed  sufBoti  D.I    I 

aen        Between  9  and  10  I 

gTMS  cut. 


238 


Agricultural  Engineering. 


[November, 


THE    LEWES    SHOW    OF   THE    ROYAL    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETY. 

We  have  not  yet  exhausted  our  notes  of  the  articles  exhibited  at  this 
show.     Amongst  the  steam  engines  we  must  not  omit  to  mention  those 


of  Messrs.  Clayton,  Shuttleworth  and  Co.,  which,  for  elegance  of  de- 
sign, fitness  of  parts,  and  goodness  of  workmanship,  deserve  the  highest 
commendation  which  it  is  in  our  power  to  give.  This  firm  have  laid 
themselves  out  for  this  work,  and  the  result  is,  that  they 
have  sold  140  portable  engines  during  the  past  year,  a  fact 
which  speaks  for  itself. 

Fig.  1  is  a  sketch  of  their  6-horse  engine,  which  is  of  the 
following  dimensions  : — Cylinders  8^  inches  diameter  by  12 
inches  stroke ;  crank  shaft,  2f  inches  diameter.  Fly  wheel, 
which  is  turned  to  serve  as  a  pulley,  5  feet  diameter,  and 
weighs  5  cwt.,  makes  115  revolutions  per  minute.  Plates 
of  boilers,  ^,  tube  plate,  |  inch.  Weight  of  engine,  55  cwt. 
(For  duty,  see  p.  164). 

Messrs.  Clayton,  Shuttleworth  and  Co.,  also  exhibited  a 
very  neat  horizontal  engine,  of  which  a  sketch  is  subjoined, 
fig.  2.  The  slide  is  placed  on  the  side  of  the  cylinder,  and 
the  eccentric  rod  connected  directly  to  it.  The  feed  pump 
is  worked  off  the  cross  head.  An  outer  bearing  is  provided 
for  the  crank  shaft  by  widening  the  sole  plate  at  that  end, 
which  renders  any  other  attachment  to  the  building  unneces- 
sary. The  dimensions  of  a  6-horse  engine  are  as  follows : — 
Cylinder,  7!  inches  diameter  by  12  inches  stroke ;  crank 
shaft,  2J  diameter.  Fly  wheel  5  feet  6  inches  diameter,  and 
is  turned  to  serve  as  a  drum.  Weight,  7  cwt.  Makes  115 
revolutions  per  minute. 

The  same  firm  also  exhibited  a  small  flour  mill,  fig.  3, 
which  is  very  simple  and  effective.  It  consists  of  a  pair  of 
stones  2  feet  8  diameter,  supported  on  a  cast-iron  column, 
the  weight  of  which  renders  any  other  foundation  unneces- 
sary. The  runner  is  adjusted  by  a  very  neat  arrangement. 
The  brass  step  of  the  spindle  has  a  double  thread  on  it, 
and  can  be  turned  a  quarter  rouud  by  being  attached  to  a 
toothed  segment,  which  is  commanded  by  a  worm  and  a  small 
hand-wheel,  shown  outside  the  column.  For  the  colonies 
such  a  mill  would  be  invaluable. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig 


1852.] 


IlllngwortK s  Adjustable  Eccentric. 


239 


ILLINGWORTH'S  ADJUSTABLE  ECCENTRIC. 

It  frequently  happens  that  it  is  required  to  alter  the  position  of  an 
eccentric  or  cam  on  its  shaft,  either  to  vary  the  rate  of  expansion,  or 
for  any  of  the  endless  purposes  to  which  cams  are  employed.  For  this 
purpose,  Messrs.  Illingworth  and  Sons,  engineers,  of  Shipley,  Yorkshire, 
have  designed  and  registered  a  convenient  method,  represented  in  the 
accompanying  engraving. 


^Lnxuv^- 


Fig.  2. 

2   a  transverse  section,  of  the 


Fig.   1. 

Fig.  1   is  a  side  elevation,  and 
eccentric. 

The  worm-wheel,  a,  is  keyed  on  the  crank  shaft  of  the  engine,  and 
the  boss  is  prolonged  to  form  a  seat  for  the  eccentric,  b,  the  latter  being 
free  to  revolve,  and  being  held  in  contact  with  the  worm-wheel  by  the 
four  bolts,  c,  c,  c,  c.  Motion  is  given  to  the  eccentric  by  the  worm,  e, 
whilst  the  relative  position  of  the  eccentric  and  wheel  is  indicated  by  a 
pointer,  d,  fixed  to  the  latter,  which  remains  stationary,  whilst  a  scale 
attached  to  the  eccentric  moves  past  it. 


ON  THE  COMPARATIVE  ECONOMY  OF  CONDENSING 
AND  NON-CONDENSING  ENGINES.* 

That  steam  may  be  used  in  an  ordinary  non-condensing  engine, 
of  such  an  elasticity  as  shall  make  it  fully  equal  in  economy  of  fuel  to 
the  low-pressure  condensing  engine  commonly  employed  in  English 
practice,  has  long  been  believed  by  many  engineers,  both  scientific  and 
practical,  to  be  a  point  that  can  be  easily  proved. 

The  writer  records  his  own  adherence  to  this  belief,  notwithstanding 
it  involves  a  supposed  law  upon  the  pressure  and  density  of  steam 
greatly  at  variance  with  the  opinions  of  several  eminent  writers  upon 
the  steam-engine.  Thus,  according  to  Dr.  Lardner,  from  whom  we 
take  the  following  extract,  it  would  seem  to  be  immaterial  iD  what 
manner,  or  in  what  kind  of  engine,  steam  is  used,  and  that  all  experi- 
ments and  research  to  determine  in  what  way  to  realise  the  greatest 
mechanical  effect  therefrom  has  been  entirely  useless. 

"  The  same  quantity  of  water  being  converted  into  steam,  produces  the 
same  mechanical  effect,  whatever  be  the  pressure  or  density  of  the  steam."— 
Dr.  Lardner  on  the  Steam-Engine,  p.  279,  American  edition. 

But  the  opinions  of  this  author  are  sometimes  fallible ;  witness  his 
arguments  respecting  the  practicability  of  establishing  a  regular  com- 

*  This  article  lias  already  appeared  in  an  American  Journal,  but,  we  Miev*.  is  now, 

for  the  first  time,  published  in  this  country.    It  is  attributed  to  the  pen  of  Mr.  C.  W. 
Copeland. — Ed.  Artizan. 


munication,  by  the  power  of  steam,  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States,  which  have  been  proved  erroneous  by  more  than  two 
years'  experience ;  and  we  shall  venture  to  assert  that  he  greatlv  errs  in 
the  above  statement,  appealing,  as  we  confidently  can,  to  the  experi- 
ence of  almost  every  practical  engineer  to  sustain  the  assertion.* 

To  return,  however,  to  that  particular  application  of  steam  which  is 
most  immediately  the  subject  of  this  paper.  We  shall  endeavour  to 
show  that  there  is  a  pressure  at  which,  if  a  non-condensing  engine  be 
worked,  it  will,  for  a  given  mechanical  effect,  equal  in  economy  in  the 
consumption  of  fuel  the  low  pressure  condensing  engine  of  the  English 
practice,  and  that  this  pressure  is  safely  and  with  certainty  attainable. 

In  treating  of  the  density  and  pressure  of  steam  relatively  to  each 
other,  the  subject  has  become  so  mystified  and  obscured  by  the  con- 
tradictory statements  of  different  authors,  that  the  practical  engineer  is 
at  a  loss  in  what  manner  to  understand  the  ratio  of  increase,  or  what 
reason  to  assign  for  it.  That  this  is  the  ease  is  shown  by  the  extracts 
which  follow,  taken  from  the  works  of  several  writers  upon  the  steam- 
engine. 

"  And  they  also  show  that  the  bulk  or  volume  of  steam  is  inversely  as  die 
pressure,  when  the  temperature  is  not  altered  ;  and  conversely  the  density  is 
directly  as  the  pressure." — Vide  Tredgold,  Woodhouse's  edition,  p.  52. 

"That  the  bulk  which  steam  fills  is  diminished  in  the  same  proportion  as 
the  pressure  of  the  steam  is  increased  ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  density  of 
steam  is  always  in  the  same  proportion  as  its  pressure." — Lardner  upon  the 
Steam- Engine,  p.  279,  American  edition. 

"  It  may  likewise  be  remarked,  that  the  variation  of  the  density  or  specific 
gravity  of  steam  is  only  strictly  proportional  to  its  pressure  or  elasticity  when 
the  temperatures  are  the  same." — R.  Wallace's  Practical  Mechanic's  Pocket 
Guide,  p.  43. 

"  This  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  density  of  steam  increases  nearly  as  fast 
as  the  pressure  nder  which  it  is  generated.  Did  both  increase  in  the  same 
ratio,  there  would  be  nothing  gained  by  the  use  of  high  steam." — Renwick 
on  the  Steam-Engine,  p.  162,  new  edition. 

In  addition  to  this  last  extract,  we  append  the  following,  taken  from 
the  same  work,  which  directly  contradicts  it : — ■ 

"  It  is  a  law  which  holds  good  in  all  elastic  fluids,  that  they  occupy  spaces 
which  are  inversely  as  the  pressures  to  which  they  are  subjected,  and  their 
densities  are  in  consequence  in  the  direct  ratio  of  the  pressures." — Renwick  on 
the  Steam-Engine,  p.  14,  new  edition. 

But  in  order,  if  possible,  to  confuse  the  student  or  engineer  still  more, 
there  is  given  in  almost  all  of  the  works  from  which  the  extracts  are 
taken,  tables,  showing  the  number  of  volumes  of  steam  for  a  given 
pressure  compared  to  the  volume  of  water  that  produced  it,  and  con- 
sequently showing  that  the  density  does  not  increase  in  the  same  ratio 
as  the  pressure. 

By  the  term  density,  used  in  the  foregoing  extracts,  is  understood 
the  specific  gravity  of  steam,  and  it  will  be  seen  by  examining  them 
that  the  fourth  extract  directly  contradicts  all  the  others  ;  yet,  notwith- 
standing this  large  majority  against  it,  we  have  no  hesitation  in  saying 
that  it  is  correct. 

We  shall  now  endeavour  to  show  why  the  non-condensing  engine, 
working  at  some  given  pressure,  is  equal  in  point  of  economy  of  fuel  to 
the  kw-pressure  condensing-engine.  This  we  conceive  to  be  attribu- 
table to  two  distinct  parts  of  the  operation  :— 

1.  The  greater  economy  of  fuel  in  the  generation  of  steam  of  a  high 
pressure  compared  with  that  of  a  lower  one. 

2.  The  economy  arising  from  the  superior  effect  produced  by  the 
steam,  when  used  at  a  high-pressure,  to  that  when  used  at  a  lower  one. 

In  order  to  show  that  the  above-mentioned  causes  are  those  to  which 
the  asserted  economy  in  the  use  of  high-pressure  steam  is  due,  it  will 


*  For  a  correction  of  this  misapprehension  of  what  Dr.  Lardner  really  did  say,  see 
Artizan,  1851,  p.  257. 


240 


On  the  Comparative  Economy  of  Condensing  and  Non-Condensing  Engines.      [November, 


be  necessary  to  introduce  the  following  table,  showing  some  of  the 
properties  of  steam ;  the  three  first  columns  of  which  are  extracted  from 
a  similar  one  published  in  Pambour's  Theory  of  the  Steam-Engine ; 
the  fourth  column  is  calculated  from  the  comparative  volumes  of  steam 
to  the  volume  of  water  that  produced  it ;  and  the  fifth  is  calculated 
from  the  fourth.  Similar  tables  containing  the  first  three  columns  can 
be  found  in  almost  every  scientific  treatise  upon  the  steam-engine  :  this 
is  selected  merely  from  the  fact  of  its  being  more  complete  than  most 
of  them. 

In  this  table  we  have  made  a  total  pressure  of  15  lbs.  per  square  inch 
our  starting  point,  and  throughout  this  article  we  shall  consider  it  equal 
to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  although,  strictly  speaking,  it  is  a 
fraction  greater ;  but  it  is  sufficiently  correct  for  our  purpose. 

By  examining  the  following  table,  it  will  be  seen  that,  whenever  the 
pressure  is  doubled,  the  density,  as  given  in  the  fourth  column,  falls 
greatly  short  of  it.  For  instance,  at  15  lbs.  pressure  the  density  is 
represented  by  100 ;  and  at  30  lbs.  or  double  the  pressure,  the  density 
is  but  189. 


Total 

Corresponding 

Volume    of 
steam      com- 

Eel. dens,  of  the 
steam — that  at 

Pressure  of  the 

pressure 

in  lbs.  per 

square 

Temperature  by 
Fahrenheit's 
Thermometer. 

pared  to  the 
volume        of 
water       that 

15  lbs.  or  the 
pressure  of  the 
atmosph.  being 

steam  if  only  in 
a  direct  ratio  of 
the   densities — 
in  lbs. 

produced  it. 

called  100. 

15 

213-0 

1669 

100 

150 

20 

228-3 

1280 

130 

19-5 

25 

2407 

1042 

160 

24-0 

30 

251-2 

882 

189 

28-3 

35 

260-3 

765 

218 

32-7 

40 

268-4 

677 

246 

36-9 

45 

275-7 

608 

•    274 

41-1 

50 

282-3 

552 

302 

45-3 

55 

288-4 

506 

330 

49-5 

60 

294-1 

467 

357 

53-5 

65 

299-1 

434 

384 

57-6 

70 

304-2 

406 

411 

61-6 

75 

308-9 

381 

438 

65-7 

80 

313-5 

359 

465 

69-7 

85 

317-8 

340 

491 

73-6 

90 

321-9 

323 

516 

77-4 

95 

325-8 

307 

544 

81-6 

100 

329-6 

293 

569 

85-3 

Again,  at  40  lbs.  pressure  the  density  is  246 ;  but  at  80  lbs.  or, 
double  the  pressure,  it  is  but  465. 

And  again,  at  50  lbs.  pressure  the  density  is  302;  but  at  100  lbs., 
or  double  the  pressure,  it  is  but  569. 

By  referring  to  the  fifth  column,  which  represents  the  pressures  that 
the  steam  should  be  equal  to,  provided  the  law  given  in  the  majority 
of  the  extracts  quoted  in  the  first  part  of  this  paper  was  correct — viz., 
"  that  the  density  is  directly  proportional  to  the  pressure," — we  find  a 
great  discrepancy  between  these  and  the  actual  pressures.  For  instance, 
at  a  temperature  of  251-2  degrees,  the  pressure  is  stated  in  the  first 
column  at  30  lbs.;  but  by  running  the  eye  across  to  the  fifth  column, 
we  find,  if  this  law  be  correct,  that  the  pressure  should  be  onlv 
28-3  lbs. 

Again,  at  a  temperature  of  329-6  degrees,  the  pressure,  as  given  in 
the  first  column,  is  100  lbs.;  but  by  examining  the  fifth  column,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  pressure,  to  be  strictly  proportional  to  the  density,  should 
be  only  85-3  lbs.  The  numbers  in  this  column  also  show  the  relative 
amounts  of  fuel  required  to  maintain  the  steam  at  the' pressures  given  in 
the  first  column. 

Now  let  us  examine  whether  or  not  the  numbers  given  in  the  fourth 
and  fifth  columns  are  correct ;  and  in  order  to  do  this  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  institute  a  comparison  between  the  first  and  third  columns.  In 
so  doing,  it  will  be  found  that  the  volumes  of  steam  (as  compared  with 
the  volume  of  water  which  produced  them)  are  not  precisely  in  an  in- 


verse ratio  to  the  pressure ;  but  that,  when  the  pressure  is  doubled,  the 
volumes  of  steam  are  greater  than  one-half  of  the  number  at  the  former 
pressure.  As  an  instance,  take  15  lbs.  pressure  in  the  first  column,  the 
corresponding  volumes  of  steam  in  the  third  column  are  1669  ;  now,  at 
double  the  pressure,  or  30  lbs.,  the  volumes  of  steam  are  882,  being 
about  47  volumes  greater  than  one-half  the  number  of  volumes  at  15 
lbs.  pressure.  As  another  instance,  take  50  lbs.  pressure  :  the  corre- 
sponding volumes  of  steam  are  552 ;  but  at  double  the  pressure,  or  100 
lbs.,  the  volumes  are  293,  or  17  volumes  greater  than  one-half. 

The  volumes  of  steam  proportional  to  the  water  which  produced 
them,  and  also  the  temperature  of  steam  at  different  pressures,  as  given 
in  the  foregoing  table,  have  been  proved  correct  by  numerous  experi- 
ments, and  implicit  reliance  may  be  placed  upon  their  accuracy.  Now, 
as  the  fourth  and  fifth  columns  are  calculated  from  the  column  of  the 
volumes  of  steam,  we  think  the  whole  table  may  be  considered  correct. 
It  is  necessary  to  be  thus  particular  in  showing  the  accuracy  of  the 
foregoing  table,  as  the  whole  of  the  following  chain  of  reasoning,  which 
is  to  show  the  cause  of  the  asserted  economy  of  high-pressure  engines, 
is  dependent  thereon  for  its  value ;  therefore,  if  the  table  be  inaccurate, 
the  whole  must  be  fallacious. 

It  has  been  satisfactorily  ascertained,  by  numerous  well-conducted 
and  accurate  experiments,  that  any  given  amount  of  fuel  will  convert  a 
certain  quantity  of  water  into  steam,  without  regard  to  the  pressure 
under  which  it  is  evaporated  ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  same  amount  of 
fuel  that  will  evaporate  a  cubic  foot  of  water,  under  a  pressure  of  steam 
equal  to  one  atmosphere,  would  evaporate  the  same  quantity,  were  the 
pressure  of  steam  equal  to  five  or  ten  atmospheres. 

It  follows  from  this,  that  the  amount  of  fuel  required  to  generate 
steam  of  different  pressures  is  in  the  direct  ratio  of  their  densities ; 
therefore,  if  we  represent  the  quantity  or  weight  of  fuel  required  to  ge- 
nerate a  cubic  foot  of  steam  of  a  total  pressure  of  15  lbs.,  or  one  atmo- 
sphere, by  100,  the  fourth  column  of  the  table,  or  the  column  of  relative 
densities,  will  show  the  relative  amount  of  fuel  required  to  generate  a 
cubic  foot  of  steam  of  any  other  pressure  given  in  it. 

We  shall  see,  by  reference  to  the  table,  that  allowing  100  parts  of  fuel 
to  be  required  to  generate  a  cubic  foot  of  steam  of  15  lbs.  pressure,  but 
189  instead  of  200  parts  are  required  to  generate  the  same  bulk  of  steam 
of  30  lbs.  pressure ;  and  but  357  instead  of  400  parts  are  required  to 
generate  the  same  bulk  of  60  lbs.  pressure. 

It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  pressure  and  mechanical  efficiency  of 
steam  increase  in  a  greater  ratio  than  the  consumption  of  fuel ;  conse- 
quently, we  may  arrive  at  so  great  a  pressure,  in  the  use  of  steam  in  non- 
condensing  engines,  as  that  the  advantage  gained  in  this  manner  shall 
equal  in  effect  that  acquired  by  condensing  the  steam  in  a  low-pressure 
engine. 

We  conceive  that  we  have  thus  established  the  truth  of  the  first 
reason  assigned  by  us  for  the  economy  of  high-pressure  non-condensing 
engines,  viz.,  "the  greater  economy  of  fuel  in  the  generation  of  steam  of 
high-pressure  compared  with  that  of  a  lower  one." 

After  having  examined  the  foregoing  table,  and  followed  out  the  chain 
of  reasoning  here  presented,  the  question  naturally  arises,  Why  the 
pressure  of  steam  increases  in  a  greater  ratio  than  the  density? 

We  will  now  endeavour  to  explain  as  clearly  as  possible  what  we  ap- 
prehend to  be  the  cause. 

Suppose  a  boiler  to  be  charged  with  water  and  steam,  in  a  similar 
manner  to  a  boiler  in  ordinary  use,  at  a  pressure  of  15  lbs.,  and  conse- 
quently at  a  temperature  of  213  degrees,  and  the  pressure  is  increased 
to  40  lbs.,  the  temperature  is  consequently  raised  to  268'4  degrees,  or 
an  addition  of  55-4  degrees.  By  reference  to  the  fifth  column  of  the 
table,  it  will  appear  that,  had  the  pressure  increased  only  in  the  same 
ratio  as  the  density,  it  would  be  but  36-9  lbs.  instead  of  40  lbs.,  the 
difference,  or3'l  lbs.  remains  to  be  accounted  for. 
(To  be  continued.) 


1852.] 


Proceedings  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


241 


IMPROVED  SAFETY  VALVE  AND  WATER  INDICATOR. 

Messrs.  Dangerfield  audi  Bennett,  of  West  Bromwich,  have 
lately  registered  an  improved  form  of  safety  valve  and  water  indicator, 


The  weights  hy  which  the  safety  valve  is  loaded  are  entirely  enclosed 
within  the  column,  G,  which  has  a  door  in  the  side,  by  locking  which, 
any  tampering  with  the  weights  is  prevented. 


Fig,  1. 
which  also  forms  a  lock-up  valve  and  alarm  whistle,  arranged  in  a  con- 
venient form. 

Fig.  1  is  an  outside  elevation,  and  fig.  2  the  same  in  section.  A 
float  is  placed  within  the  boiler,  and  connected,  in  the  usual  manner, 
hy  means  of  a  wire,  to  a  band  passing  over  the  pulley  A,  the  weight  of 
the  float  being  balanced  by  the  weight  B.  At  each  end  of  the  band  is 
a  long  link,  C  C,  taking  on  to  two  levers,  D  D,  which  move  on  centres 
attached  to  the  column  G.  The  inner  ends  of  these  levers  take  into 
a  slot  in  the  spindle  of  the  safety  valve,  so  that  if  the  float  and  the 
links  move,  the  safety  valve  is  lifted,  and  the  steam  escaping  strikes  a 
bell,  E,  and  gives  audible  warning,  whilst  the  actual  level  of  the  water 
in  the  boileris  observed  from  the  position  of  the  wheel  in  regard  to  the 
index.  Thus  the  alarm  is  given  when  the  water  is  either  top  low  or  too 
high  in  the  boiler ;  but  to  prevent  slight  fluctuations  in  the  water- 
level  having  this  effect,  the  links,  D  D,  have  slots  in  them,  which  admit 
of  a  certain  range  of  motion,  without  acting  on  the  valve. 

The  weights  of  the  levers,  D  D,  are  balanced  by  the  weights,  F  F. 


Fig.  2. 


PROCEEDINGS     OF    TEE    INSTITUTION    OF    MECHANICAL 
ENGINEERS. 
28th  April,  1852. 

A  supplementary  paper  by  Mr.  J.  Samuel  was  read,  in  continuation  of 
the  paper  on  his  continuous  expansion  steam-engine,  reported  at  p.  53. 

In  the  discussion  on  this  paper,  Mr.  Samuel  explained  that  the  diagrams 
(p.  53)  were  not  actual  indicator  diagrams,  but  theoretical  ones,  as  he  had 
not  had  an  opportunity  of  completing  liis  experiments.  As  far  as  they 
went,  however,  they  showed  that  the  blast  could  be  reduced  without  im]  air- 
ing the  efficiency  of  the  engine.  In  a  goods  engine  cf  the  largest  size,  on  the 
Eastern  Counties,  the  valves  were  altered,  but  the  cylinders  wore  retained 
both  of  the  same  size,  and  the  result  was  a  saving  of  12  lbs.  of  coke  per  mile. 
In  a  passenger  engine,  the  low-pressure  cylinder  was  made  double  the  area 
of  the  high-pressure  one,  and  it  was  never  found  short  of  steam,  though 
running  with  express  trains  of  considerable  weight,  for  a  month's  regular 
work. 

The  chairman  (Robert  Stephenson)  said  there  was  one  circumstance  which 

32 


242 


Proceedings  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


[November, 


did  not  appear  correct  in  theory.  la  other  double-cylinder  engines  the  first 
piston  is  allowed  to  complete  its  stroke  before  the  steam  is  expanded  into 
the  second  cylinder;  but  in  this  engine  the  steam  is  passed  into  the  second 
cylinder  at  the  middle  of  the  stroke  of  the  first  piston,  thereby  taking  the 
steam  away  at  the  very  moment  that  it  is  most  efficient  in  the  small  cylinder. 

Mr.  Samuel  explained  that  at  the  half-stroke  of  the  first  piston  the  second 
piston  was  at  its  dead  point,  and  began  to  move  very  slowly,  when  the  com- 
munication was  opened  between  the  two  cylinders,  and  consequently  took 
very  little  steam,  whilst  the  first  piston  moved  through  the  greater  portion  of 
its  remaining  stroke  ;  but  then,  as  the  first  piston  was  getting  less  effective, 
and  approached  its  dead  point,  the  second  piston  came  gradually  into  full 
action,  making  a  continuous  expansive  action,  which  was  the  peculiar  feature 
of  this  engine,  instead  of  the  intermittent  expansion  of  other  double-cylinder 
engines. 

Mr.  Slate  thought  there  would  be  a  greater  loss  from  the  resistance  of  the 
atmosphere.  If  the  steam  were  employed  at  full  pressure,  say  90lbs.,  in  the 
small  cylinder  alone,  the  atmospheric  resistance  would  only  cause  a  deduc- 
tion of  i  of  the  whole  power;  but  if  the  steam  were  only  about  30lbs.  pressure 
in  the  large  cylinder,  the  deduction  for  the  atmospheric  resistance  would  be 
increased  to  \  of  the  power.  Therefore  it  appeared  most  advantageous  to 
employ  the  steam  only  in  the  small  cylinder,  to  diminish  the  proportion  of 
atmospheric  resistance  as  much  as  possible. 

A  paper  by  Mr.  J.  Wilson,  of  Bridgewater  "Works,  St.  Helen's,  was  then 
read: — On  a  new  mode  of  measuring  high  temperatures. 

The  author  first  noticed  the  existing  plans  in  use  for  measuring  high  tem- 
peratures.—  1.  Wedgwood's  pyrometer,  which  depends  on  the  contraction  of 
clay  at  high  temperatures,  which  has  the  disadvantage  of  requiring  a  fresh 
piece  of  clay  for  every  experiment,  and  the  experimenter  is  thus  never  sure 
that  the  contraction  of  any  two  pieces  will  be  uniform. — 2.  Daniell's  pyro- 
meter, consisting  of  an  iron  or  platinum  bar,  encased  in  blacklead  or  earthen- 
ware, the  expansion  of  which  is  measured  by  an  index.  The  objection  to 
this  method  is  the  extreme  delicacy  required  in  its  manipulation,  which 
renders  it  inapplicable  for  ordinary  purposes. — 3.  The  air  pyrometer,  which 
consists  of  a  globe  of  platinum  containing  air,  the  quantity  of  which  driven 
out  by  the  heat  is  measured  by  collecting  it  over  water. 

The  following  is  the  method  employed  by  the  author: — Take  a  given 
weight  of  platinum,  and  expose  it  for  a  few  minutes  to  the  fire,  the  tempera- 
ture of  which  is  to  be  measured,  and  then  plunge  it  into  a  vessel  containing 
water  of  a  determined  weight  and  temperature,  and  after  the  heat  has  been 
communicated  to  the  water  by  the  heated  platinum,  mark  the  temperature 
which  the  water  has  attained,  and  from  this  is  estimated  the  temperature  to 
which  the  platinum  had  been  subjected.  Thus,  if  the  piece  of  platinum  em- 
ployed be  1,000  grains,  and  the  water  2,000  grains,  and  temperature  60°, 
should  the  heated  platinum,  when  dropped  into  the  water,  raise  its  tempera- 
ture to  90°,  then  90°— 60°=  30°,  which,  multiplied  by  2  (because  the  water  is 
twice  the  weight  of  the  platinum;,  gives  60°,  to  which  an  equal  degree  of 
water  would  have  been  raised.  To  convert  the  degrees  of  this  instrument 
into  the  degrees  Pah.,  we  must  multiply  by  31-25.    Thus,  60°X31'25  =1875° 

The  multiplier  31-25  is  the  number  expressing  the  specific  heat  of  water  as 
compared  with  that  of  platinum,  the  latter  being  regarded  as  1. 

To  guard  against  the  loss  of  heat  by  radiation  and  conduction,  the  vessel 
containing  the  water,  about  2  inches  diameter  and  3  inches  deep,  is  of  polished 
tinned  iron,  and  is  enclosed  in  a  jacket.  In  lifting  the  piece  of  platinum,  a 
pair  of  tongs,  heated  to  redness,  is  employed,  which  prevents  any  abstraction 
of  heat.  A  correction  has  to  be  made  for  the  glass  and  mercury  of  the 
thermometer,  the  iron  vessel  containing  the  water,  and  the  heat  retained  by 
the  platinum,  which,  with  average  dimensions,  raises  the  multiplier  from  31-25 
to  33. 

As  the  platinum  is  expensive,  it  is  proposed  to  use  pieces  of  baked  Stour- 
bridge clay,  not  more  than  J-incli  cube,  to  ensure  their  being  uniformly 
heated. 

A  paper  by  Mr.  D.  K.  Clark,  of  Edinburgh,  was  then  read  :—On  the 
expansive  working  of  steam  in  locomotives* 

*  We  regret  that  we  are  precluded  by  its  length  from  giving  this  valuable  paper  verbatim, 
but  we  have  endeavoured  to  place  the  conclusions  which  the  author  has  arrived  at,  in  a 
condensed  torm,  before  our  readers. 


The  practical  economy  of  expansion  in  locomotives  has  been  doubted,  and 
the  object  of  the  present  paper  is  to  discuss  this  question  in  all  its  bearings. 

On  the  theoretical  economy  of  expansion  there  can  be  no  doubt,  but  it 
necessitates  a  reduction  of  power  of  the  engine,  by  the  reduction  of  the 
mean  pressure  on  the  piston.  But  this  is  merely  saying  that  the  cylinder  is 
not  of  sufficient  capacity.  The  cooling  effect  of  the  atmosphere  is  also  more 
felt  when  working  expansively,  and  especially  when  the  cylinders  are  im- 
perfectly protected.  The  remedies  for  these  defects  are  obvious.  The  en- 
largement of  the  cylinder  to  make  up  for  the  reduction  of  pressure,  and  the 
more  perfect  clothing  of  them  to  prevent  condensation.  But,  in  fact,  the 
using  less  steam  per  stroke  will  admit  of  a  higher  initial  pressure  being 
obtained  in  the  cylinder,  and  the  steam  thus  expanded  will  give  nearly  the 
same  average  pressure  as  if  wire-drawn  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Can  the  steam  be  worked  expansively  to  advantage  with  the  link  motion? 
The  way  in  which  the  valve  is  caused  to  cut  off  the  steam  earlier,  by  the  link 
motion,  is  by  shortening  the  travel  of  the  valve.  Thi3  is  accomplished  by  the 
reversing  gear  in  such  a  manner  tha't,  whatever  be  the  reduction  of  travel 
communicated  to  the  valve,  the  lead  is  always  at  least  the  same  as  in  full 
gear,  and  with  the  shifting  link  is  rather  increased.  In  shortening  the  travel, 
not  only  is  the  steam  cut  off  at  an  earlier  point  of  the  stroke,  it  is  also  ex- 
hausted earlier,  and  admitted  earlier,  and  the  exhaust  port  is  closed  earlier, 
during  the  return  stroke,  upon  the  exhaust  steam. 

1.  Thus,  by  shortening  the  travel,  everything  affecting  the  distribution  is 
done  earlier  in  the  course  of  the  steam  and  return  strokes. 

2.  But,  though  every  change  is  made  earlier — as  measured  in  parts  of  the 
stroke — there  is  less  difference  in  the  position  of  the  points  of  exhaust,  com- 
pression, and  admission  than  in  that  of  the  cutting  off ;  consequently,  the 
shorter  the  admission,  the  longer  is  the  expansion,  as  the  exhaust  point  does 
not  recede  so  much  as  the  point  of  cutting  off. 

3.  By  the  shifting  link  motion,  the  steam  may  be  cut  off  at  from  i  to  |  of 
the  stroke. 

4.  Although  the  exhaust  does  take  place  earlier  for  every  increase  of  ex- 
pansion, it  does  not,  in  any  case,  take  place  within  the  first  half  of  the  stroke. 
For  mid-gear  it  occurs,  in  fact,  at  54  per  cent,  of  the  stroke  ;  and  the  steam 
is  expanded  into  3|  times  the  length  of  stroke  at  which  it  is  cut  off. 

5.  The  period  of  compression  increasing  as  the  admission  is  reduced, 
amounts  to  about  one-half  stroke  in  mid-gear. 

6.  The  pre-admission  of  steam,  not  above  1  per  cent,  of  the  stroke  in  full 
gear,  reaches  about  10  per  cent,  in  mid-gear.  These  results  are  with  an 
ordinary  shifting  link-motion,  in  every  modification  of  which  the  lead 
increases  with  the  expansion,  and  in  the  case  quoted  rises  from  fE  to  fB  inch 
in  mid-gear.  Whereas,  in  stationary  link  motions,  having  the  link  suspended 
directly  from  a  fixed  point,  the  lead  is  constant  for  all  degrees  of  expansion, 
and  if  in  these  the  lead  be  set  at  j  to  -^  constant,  we  should  be  able  to  cut 
off  at  -^  or  |  of  the  stroke. 

The  objections  which  are  brought  against  this  system  of  working  are  : — 

1st.  That  there  is  a  serious  loss  of  steam  from  premature  exhaustion.  In- 
dicator diagrams,  taken  by  Mr.  Daniel  Gooch,  from  the  Great  Britain, 
G.  W.  R.,  show  that  at  high  speeds  it  is  not  above  lib.  per  inch,  whilst  the 
greatest  loss,  at  low  speeds,  is  only  3lbs.  This  supposed  loss  is,  in  reality,  a 
gain,  because  an  early  exhaust  is  essential,  at  high  speeds,  to  the  perfection 
of  the  exhaust  during  the  return-stroke. 

2nd.  That  the  steam  is  wire-drawn  when  under  great  expansion.  From 
the  diagrams  it  is  evident  that  this  takes  place  to  a  small  extent  at  high 
speeds  ;  but  the  mean  loss,  even  with  high  expansion,  is  only  lib.  per  square 
inch  on  the  stroke.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that,  in  this  case,  the  ports  are 
of  unusually  liberal  dimensions,  viz.,  -fa  the  area  of  the  cylinder — a  proportion 
which  it  is  necessary  to  attain  to  ensure  good  results. 

3rd.  That  a  large  proportion  of  the  power  is  lost  by  the  compression  of  the 
exhaust  steam.  "  Compression,  however,  involves  no  loss  of  efficiency  ;  for 
as  by  compression  a  quantity  of  steam  is  incidentally  reserved  and  raised  to 
a  higher  pressure,  it  gives  out  the  power  so  expended  in  compressing  it, 
during  the  next  steam-stroke,  just  as  a  compressed  spring  w-ould  do  in  the 
recoil."  But,  apart  from  this  general  argument,  the  actual  efficiency  of  the 
steam  in  the  cylinder,  with  and  without  compression,  may  be  exactly  esti- 
mated, by  comparing  the  quantities  of  water  evaporated  with  the  mean 
effective  pressures. 


1852.] 


Proceedings  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


243 


The  effect  of  compression  on  the  diagram  is  shown  at  fig.  7,  p.  269, 
Artizan,  1851;  and,  from  a  similar  diagram,  it  is  shown  that  the  effective 
pressure  created  per  cubic  inch  of  water  is,  in  actual  practice,  7-lIbs.;  and 
would  be,  by  removing  the  compression,  6 -9 lbs. ;  figures  so  nearly  identical, 
as  to  show,  "  that  the  resistance  by  compression  in  the  cylinder,  due  to  the 
action  of  the  link-motion,  does  not,  in  the  slightest  degree,  impair  the 
efficiency  of  the  steam." 

5th.  That  at  high  speeds,  considerable  back  exhaust  pressure,  is  created. 
This  is  not  the  fault  of  the  link-motion,  but  of  small  ports,  deficiency  of 
inside  lead  (which  is  regulated  by  the  lap),  a  small  blast  orifice,  and  imperfect 
protection  of  the  cylinder.  A  small  blast  pipe  may  be  necessitated  by  a 
email  boiler,  but  the  diagram  referred  to  shows  what  may  be  accomplished 
by  adopting  good  proportions.  With  the  Great  Britain,  running  at  55  miles 
per  hour,  the  per-centages  of  back  pressure,  in  terms  of  the  positive  mean 
pressure,  are,  at  1st  notch,  8f  per  cent. ;  3rd  notch,  5|  per  cent.;  and  5th 
notch,  nothing.  This  is  all  that  can  be  desired,  since  locomotives,  adapted 
to  their  work  and  running  at  high  speeds,  should  not  expand  less  than  half- 
stroke. 

The  author  then  gives  an  elaborate  table  deduced  from  the  diagrams, 

showing  the  effect  obtained  with  different  rates  of  expansion,  which  may  be 

expressed  by  the  consumption  of  coke  or  water  per  horse  power  per  hour;— 

Eor  the  1st  notch  28-3lbs.  water,  or  3-54lbs.  coke. 

„        3rd     „      24-3lbs.     ,,       „     3"03lbs.     „ 

„        5th     „      20-llbs.     „       ,,     2-511bs.     „ 

STATE   OF   THE   VALVES   OF   THE   "  GREAT  BRITAIN  "   G.  W.  R. 

Cylinder,  18  inches  X  24  inches;  steam  ports,  13  inches  X  2  inches,  or 
-fj  area  of  cylinder;  blast  orifice,  5|  inches  diameter,  or  T'T  area  of  cylinder; 
lap,  1|-  inch  ;  constant  lead,  f  inch  ;  travel  of  slide  in  full  gear,  4jj  inches; 
wheel,  8  feet  diameter. 


No.  of 

Position  of  Points  of  Distribution. 

Period  of  exhaust 

Notch. 

Cutting  off, 

Exhaust. 

Compression. 

during  the  Steam 
Stroke. 

1 
3 
5 

Inches  of  Stroke. 
16 

Hi 

7 

Inches  of  Stroke. 

21f 
19^ 

m 

Inches  of  Stroke. 

3 

5 

H 

Inches  of  Stroke. 
2| 
4 

The  author  gives  a  remarkable  result  of  the  difference  of  working  with 
the  link  motion  and  the  fixed  gab-motion,  which  was  tried  on  the  Europe,  on 
the  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Railway.  The  consumption  of  coke  showed  a 
saving  of  30  per  cent,  in  favour  of  the  link,  from  the  means  which  it  affords 
of  working  expansively,  and  the  consumption  of  water  showed  a  similar 
result. 

In  the  discussion  which  ensued,  Mr.  Clarke  said  that,  in  the  Great  Britain 
locomotive,  the  steam-pipe  was  carried  straight  down  in  front  of  the  tubes, 
instead  of  being  curved  on  one  side  as  usual,,  and  being  of  |-inch  copper, 
the  heat  from  the  tubes  was  rapidly  communicated  through  it,  and  the  steam 
became  much  heated.*  "  It  had  been  found  that  there  was  considerably 
less  difference  between  the  pressure  of  the  steam  in  the  boiler  and  that  in 
the  cylinder,  than  was  the  case  in  other 'engines  where  the  steam  did  not 
get  so  much  heated ;  and  Mr.  Gooch  had  found,  in  repeated  experiments, 
very  carefully  tried,  that  the  pressure  was  actually  a  little  higher  in  the 
steam-chest  than  in  the  boiler,"t  the  difference  being  greater  at  a  higher  speed, 
and  amounting  to  as  much  as  7  to  10  lbs.  per  inch  in  some  cases,  the  pres- 
sure in  the  cylinder  being  equal  to  that  in  the  boiler,  and  in  some  cases  2  or 


*  I  have  made  some  experiments  on  steam  heated  by  passing  it  through  a  large  coil  at  a 
red  heat,  and  from  the  slight  effect  produced  upon  even  a  small  quantity  of  steam,  I  am 
not  inclined  to  lay  much  stress  on  the  position  of  the  steam-pipe,  because  the  amount  of 
surface  and  the  temperature  are  insignificant 'when  compared  with  the  large  volume  ot 
steam  passing  through  the  pipe  Mr.  Hare's  experiment,  hereafter  mentioned,  seems  also 
to  confirm  this  impression. — W.  K  W. 

t  This  astounding  statement  made  us  rub  our  eyes  to  see  where  the  defect  lay,  and  it  was 
only  a  consideration  of  the  context  which  led  us  to  conclude  that  valve-chest  was  meant 
We  have  often  experienced  the  want  of  an  engineering  dictionary,  but  we  never  before  had 
our  faith  shaken  in  the  legitimate  meaning  of  the  word  "  steam-chest,  —a  reservoir  o; 
steam  attached  to  a  boiler. 


3  lbs.  above,  instead  of  being  considerably  below,  as  was  the  case  in  most 
engines  in  regular  work.  He  could  only  suppose  that  the  elastic  force  of 
the  steam  was  increased  by  its  becoming  surcharged  with  heat  in  the  smoke- 
box  after  leaving  the  boiler,  but  could  not  account  for  a  greater  pressure 
being  apparently  maintained  in  the  valve-chest  whilst  the  steam  was  flowing 
into  it  from  the  boiler. 

The  Chairman  said  that  Mr.  Trevithick  had  found  that  one  bushel  of 
coals  burnt  in  heating  the  cylinder  by  a  flue  carried  round  it,  was  as  effica- 
cious as  5  bushels  burnt  under  the  boiler. 

At  a  special  general  meeting  held  in  London,  29th  June,  1852,  J.  E. 
M'Connell,  in  the  chair, 

Mr.  Clark  read  a  continuation  of  his  paper,  in  which  the  condensation 
which  takes  place  in  outside,  or  unprotected  cylinders,  was  considered.  It 
was  shown  that,  in  the  "  Great  Britain,"  no  condensation  took  place,  whilst 
in  engines  on  the  Caledonian  Railway,  a  considerable  loss  was  sustained 
both  by  condensation  and  by  the  presence  of  water  in  the  cylinders,  the 
latter  causing  a  large  increase  in  back  pressure.  To  show  that  the  presence 
of  water  was  due  to  condensation  and  not  to  priming,  it  was  noted  that  the 
water  in  the  cylinders  was  most  when  the  steam  used  was  least  in  quantity. 
It  is  this  loss  which  has  led  many  persons  to  deny  the  economy  of  working 
expansively  in  locomotives,  but  it  is  clearly  attributable  to  the  exposure  of 
the  cylinders. 

Another  collateral  proof  was  found  in  the  proportions  of  inside  lead,  which 
outside  cylinders  require,  to  afford  a  sufficiently  free  exhaust.  As  inside 
lead  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  lap  and  the  outside  lead,  and  is,  in  fact,  re- 
gulated by  the  lap,  it  has  been  found  that  in  Sharp's  inside-cylinder  engines, 
on  the  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Railway,  which  have  only  a  f-inch  lap — 
probably  the  shortest  lap  in  present  practice  for  a  15-inch  cylinder— the 
exhaust  is  as  perfect  as  in  the  Caledonian  passenger  engines  with  li-inch 
lap  for  the  same  cylinder.  In  outside  cylinders  it  is  important  to  keep  the 
valve  gear  in  the  highest  order,  as  the  wear  of  the  gearing  directly  reduces 
the  lead,  and  thereby  increases  the  back  pressure.  In  existing  engines  more 
lap  can  be  given,  and  the  admission  keptas  before,  by  lengthening  the  link 
beyond  the  eccentric-rod  ends. 

Conditions  on  which  the  expansive  working  ofsteam  in  locomotives  may  be 
carried  out  with  efficiency  and  success.— The  first  condition  is  to  perfectly 
protect  the  cylinders,  and  to  maintain  them  at  a  temperature  at  least  as  high 
as  that  of  the  steam  admitted  to  them.  Simple  non-conducting  envelopes  are 
not  sufficient  ;  external  supplies  of  heat  must  be  employed,  and  the  applica- 
tion of  a  steam-jacket  to  the  cylinder  would  be  advantageous,  when  other 
sources  of  heat  are  not  readily  available.  The  author  tried  an  experiment 
with  the  "  Orion,"  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Railway,  which  has  its  cylinders 
suspended  in  the  smoke-box,  like  the  "  Great  Britain's,"  in  which,  by  the  use 
of  partitions,  the  hot  air  from  the  tubes  was  directed  entirely  round  the 
cylinders,  previously  to  its  emerging  by  the  chimney  ;  but  he  coidd  not 
detect  the  slightest  change  in  the  performance  of  the  engine,  probably  because 
the  hot  air  was  really  very  little  hotter  than  the  steam,  and  the  closer  contact 
made  no  difference.  Eor  cylinders  already  well  protected,  more  thorough 
modifications  would  be  required  to  make  a  sensible  improvement  The 
steam  should  also  be  surcharged  previously  to  entering  the  cylinder,  by 
passing  over  an  extensive  heating  surface,  deriving  its  heat  from  the  atmo- 
sphere of  the  smoke-box,  or,  if  necessary,  from  a  hotter  source. 

The  author  has  lately  been  favoured  with  the  results  of«xperimenta  made 
by  Mr.  W.  C.  Hare,  of  Stonehouse,  Devon,  on  a  small  engine,  with  cylinder 
3^  x  8  inch  stroke,  and  a  boiler  having  9  feet  of  heating  surface,  lb-  em- 
ployed a  special  coil  of  40  feet  of  half-inch  copper  tube,  having  :>\  fi 
inside  surface,  and  heated  by  a  circular  row  of  very  small  gas  jets.  A  small 
cock  was  fixed  on  the  top  of  the  boiler,  close  to  the  mouth  of  the  Bteam-pipe, 
and  by  occasionally  opening  it  when  the  engine  was  working,  any  prim 
or  even  mere  dampness  of  the  steam,  could  be  detected  ;  and  thus  the 
experiments  could  be  conducted  with  the  assurance  that  the  results  were  not 
affected  by  priming.  When  the  steam  was  passed  through  this  surcharging 
pipe,  and  was  heated  to  400°  previously  to  its  entering  the  cylinder,  the 
consumption  of  water  from  the  boiler  was  three  gallons  per  hour  ;  and 
when  the  communication  with  the  surcharging  pipe  was  cut  oil,  and  the 
steam  led  directly  to  the  cylinder,  the  water  used  amounted  to  SW  gallons, 
or  twice  the  other,  while  doing  the  same  work,  and  involved  a  great  increase 


244 


The  Freehold  Land  Societies'  Question. 


[November, 


of  fuel  consumed.  To  effect  the  economy  here  noted,  from  which  something 
must  be  allowed  for  the  consumption  of  gas,  it  appears  that  a  surcharged 
surface  equally  to  fully  one-half  of  the  heating  surface  has  been  necessary  > 
and  it  is  probable  that  for  locomotives  a  considerable  allowance  must  be 
made  to  produce  a  very  decided  change.  The  results  of  this  experiment 
show  that  very  much  has  yet  to  be  done  before  the  capabilities  of  the  loco- 
motive are  fully  developed. 

As  steam  has  been  found  so  very  sensitive  to  exposure  on  the  one  hand, 
and  to  surcharging  on  the  other,  it  would  probably  be  of  advantage  to  lead 
the  hot  smoke  round  the  .barrel  of  the  boiler  and  the  fire-box,  or  the  barrel  only, 
previously  to  its  discharge  by  the  chimney.*  The  barrel  only  would  probably 
be  enough  to  tell  with  good  effect,  and  the  hot  air  might  be  led  either  in  a 
winding  flue  round  the  boiler,  or,  what  would  be  better,  led  along  the  entire 
lower  half  towards  the  fire-box,  and  returned  along  the  entire  upper  half  to 
the  chimney.  ,  If  all  the  hot  air  were  found  too  much,  only  a  part  of  it  might 
be  diverted  by  partitions,  or  otherwise,  from  the  upper  or  lower  tubes. 

The  second  condition  of  successful  expansive  working  in  locomotives  is 
the  combination  of  a  sufficiently  high  boiler-pressure  of  steam,  with  suitable 
proportions  of  cylinder  and  driving  wheel,  to  admit  of  highly  expansive 
working  consistent  with  the  required  duty  of  the  engine.  It  is  probable  that 
150  lbs.  per  inch  is  about  the  highest  pressure  at  which  it  is  advisable  to 
work  a  locomotive,  consistent  with  the  fair  working  and  durability  of  its 
parts.  The  maximum  pressure  being  settled,  and  it  being  assumed  that  the 
same  pressure  is  to  be  maintained  in  the  cylinder  during  admission,  the 
degree  of  expansion  to  be  adopted  determines  the  capacity  of  the  cylinder  to 
develope  the  necessary  average  power.  Long  strokes  are  not  advisable  on 
the  score  of  stability,  at  least  for  outside  cylinders,  and  large  diameters 
should  rather  be  adopted  ;  for  the  same  reason,  large  wheels  are  preferable. 
Thirdly,  in  the  details  of  the  mechanism,  the  cylinder  should  be  arranged 
to  have  the  shortest  practicable  steam-ways  ;  as,  for  short  admissions,  a  long 
steam-way  deducts  very  much  from  the  efficiency  of  the  steam.  Such  an 
arrangement  would  be  greatly  promoted  by  the  introduction  of  balanced 
valves,  or  such  as  have  provision  for  preventing  the  steam-pressure  on  the 
back  of  the  valve  ;  as,  by  being  balanced,  they  could  with  facility  be  made 
large  enough  to  embrace  the  whole  length  of  the  cylinder.  The  loads 
which  ordinary  valves  are  forced  to  carry  on  their  backs  are  enormous  ;  and 
though  there  is  certainly  no  momentum  in  these  loads  to  contend  with,  yet 
the  friction  of  surfaces  due  to  the  loads  is  very  great,  even  at  the  most  mo- 
derate computation.! 

Mr.  Crampton  inquired  whether  it  was  intended  in  the  paper  that  outside 
cylinders  could  not  be  effectually  protected  ?  He  was  aware  there  was  a 
strong  opinion  amongst  engineers  that  outside  cylinders  could  not  be  pro- 
perly protected,  but  he  considered  there  was  no  impossibility  in  it. 

Mr.  Clark  replied,  it  was  only  intended  -to,  be  stated  in  the  paper  that  the 
general  effect  in  practice  was,  that  outside  cylinders  were  worse  protected 
than  inside  cylinders,  and  they  were  generally  very  much  exposed. 

Mr.  Crampton  thought  that  enough  attention  had  certainly  not  been  paid 
tQithe  condensation  in  the  cylinders  of  locomotives  at  slow  speed;  he  did  not , 
tlririk'it  was  of  so  much  importance  at  high  speeds.  It  was  also  particularly 
of  ^importance  in  steam-boat  engines,  where  the  question  had  not  received  so 
much  attention  as  it  deserved.  He  remembered  an  experiment  which  showed 
a  remarkable  effect  of  condensation :  four  condensing  engines,  of  equal  size, 
were  working  coupled  together  in  a  boat,  with  the  steam  cut  off  at  one- 
quarter  of  the  stroke  and  expanded  ;  two  of  the  engines  were  then  discon- 
nected, and  the  other  two  engines  were  worked,  cutting  off  at  half-stroke, 
using,  consequently,  the  same  quantity  of  steam  as  the  four  engines  did, 
cutting  off  at  one-quarter, of  the  stroke;  but  a  greater  effect  was  found  to  be 
produced  by  the  steam  than  when  it  was  used  in  the  four  cylinders.  This  in- 
crease of  effect  appeared  to  be  entirely  due  to  the  greater  amount  of  conden- 
sation that  took  place  in  the  four  cylinders  than  in  the  two  cylinders.  There 
were  no  steam  jackets,  only  ordinary  clothing  on  the  cylinders,  and  he 
thought  much  improvement  was  required  in  this  respect  in  marine  engines, 
and  it  was  a  matter  well  deserving  the  consideration  of  engineers. 

*  This  has  been  already  done  by  Messrs.  Barrett,  Exa.ll  &  Andrewes,  in  portable  engines, 
ante  p.  164. 

t  For  an  estimate  of  this  loss,  and  a  plate  of  Mazeline's  equilibrium  slides,  vide  p.  169, 
vol.  1849.  * 


In  reply  to  an  inquiry,  he  said  the  boilers  were  working  with  salt  water, 
but  he  did  not  think  that  would  affect  the  result. 

Mr.  Clark  said  he  had  found  that  even  at  the  highest  speed  in  loco- 
motives there  was  great  condensation  with  high  degrees  of  expansion,  except 
in  the  case  of  well-protected  inside  cylinders. 

Mr.  Peacock  suggested,  that  part  of  the  effect  in  the  experiment  mentioned 
by  Mr.  Crampton  might  have  been  due  to  the  smaller  amount  of  friction  in 
the  two  cylinders  than  in  the  four  cylinders,  when  giving  out  the  same  total 
amount  of  power. 

Mr.  Crampton  replied,  that  a  greater  effect  was  found  to  be  produced  after 
allowance  was  made  for  the  friction,  by  taking  indicator-diagrams,  and  the 
relative  consumption  of  the  water. 

Mr.  Whytehead  thought  the  per-centage  of  loss  by  back  pressure  would 
also  be  less  in  the  case  of  the  two  cylinders  than  with  the  four. 

Mr.  Bovill  inquired  whether  Mr.  Crampton  could  give  the  result  of  any 
trials  of  the  relative  consumption  of  steam,  with  unprotected  cylinders,  and 
with  steam  jackets  ? 

Mr.  Crampton  replied  that  he  could  not  give  the  exact  comparison. 

Mr.  E.  ,A.  Cowper  exhibited  an  indicator-diagram,  which  he  had  obtained 
from  a  35-horse-power  stationary  engine,  cutting  off  at  about  ^-stroke,  and 
working  expansively,  on  which  he  had  drawn  the  true  expansion  curve,  ac- 
cording to  Pambour;  the  difference  between  the  actual  and  the  theoretical 
curve  was  a  confirmation  of  Mr.  Clark's  observations,  the  actual  curve  hav- 
ing fallen  below  the  theoretical  at  the  commencement,  and  gradually  risen  a 
little  above  it  at  the  latter  part  of  the  expansion,  from  the  temperature  of  the 
cylinder  being  higher  at  that  time  than  the  steam.  The  engine  had  an  un- 
covered cylinder  without  a  steam  jacket,  but  was  not  exposed  to  the  cooliu^ 
action  of  passing  rapidly  through  the  air  like  a  locomotive  cylinder. 

THE  FREEHOLD  LAND  SOCIETIES'  QUESTION. 

The  great  number  of  Freehold  Land  Societies  that  have  been  esta- 
blished during  the  present  year,  and  the  circumstance  of  Conservative 
Land  Societies  having  been  formed,  as  well  as  Free-trade  and  Liberal 
institutions,  induces  us  to  bring  before  our  readers  the  views  of  Mr. 
.Scratchley,  the  authority  ou  Benefit  Building  Societies,  in  his  book,* 
on  the  general  principles  of  association  for  land  investment,  exempli- 
fied in  the  case  of  freehold  land  societies,  &c. 

"  In  every  land  investment  society,"  observes  Mr.  Scratchley, 
"  there  are  usually  the  two  classes,  as  in  the  benefit  building  societies, 
who  have  in  view  different  objects,  which,  diversified  perhaps  in  their 
smaller  details,  form  the  basis  of  each  association." 

Among  the  candidates  for  attention  stand  first  in  importance  nume- 
rous institutions  which  have  recently  come  into  existence  under  the 
name  of  "  Freehold  Land  Societies ;"  at  the  same  time  that  they 
tacitly  subjoin  the  more  modest  appellation  of  "  Benefit  Building  So- 
cieties," and  adopt  similar  rules  in  their  formation,  for  the  purpose  of 
being  registered  as  participators  in  the  privileges  of  the  act  of  parlia- 
ment relating  to  the  latter  institutions.  Their  chief  object  is  acknow- 
ledged to  be  the  extension  of  the  elective  franchise  within  the  present 
limits  of  the  constitution.  The  purchase  of  property,  until  quite  lately, 
being  a  merely  secondary  consideration,  or  rather  a  means  to  the 
attainment  of  the  political  end. 

2.  "  These  institutions  have,  therefore,  as  might  be  expected,  received 
the  support,  and  occupied  the  attention  of  some  of  the  most  active 
political  economists  of  the  present  time.  In  consequence,  however, 
of  the  difference  between  their  mode  of  operation,  and  that  of  benefit 
building  societies,  they  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  any  right  to  come 
within  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  parliament  by  which  the  above  are 
regulated ;  and,  by  several  leading  authorities,  it  is  held  that  serious 
legal  difficulties  are  still  likely  to  arise  in  the  completion  of  their  poli- 


*  "  Industrial  Investment  and  Emigration,  being  a  Treatise  on  Benefit  Building  Societies, 
and  on  the  General  Principles  of  Land  Investment  exemplified  in  the  cases  of  Freehold 
Land  Societies,  Tontine  Principle,  in  the  formation  of  Benefit  Emigration  and  Colonization 
Societies."  By  Arthur  Scratchley,  M.A.,  Examiner  of  the  Institute  of  Actuaries  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland.  Second  Edition.  London :  John  W.  Parker  and  Son,  445,  West  Strand. 


1852.] 


The  Freehold  Land  Societies  Question, 


245 


tical  purpose.     They  are,  nevertheless,  daily  becoming  more  and  more 
important,  and  increasing  in  popularity." 

3.  "  Their  object,"  continues  Mr.  Scratchley,  "  is  simple  enough, 
and  easily  understood.  Proceeding  on  the  principle  that  land,  when 
sold  in  the  gross,  fetches  a  lower  price,  per  acre,  than  when  sold  in 
small  portions,  particularly  in  the  vicinity  of  large  towns,  these  societies 
purchase,  with  money  obtained  from  external  sources,  successively,  con- 
siderable estates,  and  divide  the  same  among  the  members  in  allotments 
sufficiently  large  to  constitute  40s.  freeholds.  They  undertake  in  this 
manner  to  enable  persons,  with  limited  incomes  to  become  county  voters 
at  a  moderate  expense.  The  estimate  upon  which  they  proceed  is,  that 
40s.  freeholds  may  thus  be  acquired  at  a  price  which  any  skilled  artizan 
in  steady  employment  may  accomplish  in  the  course  of  five  or  six  years, 
(the  time  usually  mentioned)  by  laying  aside  Is.  6d.  a  week  out  of  his 
wages  for  that  purpose.  It  is  obvious  that,  if  this  assumption  be  cor- 
rect (which  we  will  shortly  examine),  a  number  of  persons  contributing 
to  a  joint  stock  fund  would  speedily  raise  sums  large  enough  to  purchase 
considerable  estates ;  and  the  members  might,  from  time  to  time,  be 
put  in  possession  of  freeholds,  on  paying  up  the  whole  price,  if  they 
are  able  to  do  so,  out  of  their  previous  savings,  or  by  giving  a  mortgage 
on  the  property,  to  be  paid  off  by  their  periodical  subscriptions  as  in- 
stalments. The  scheme  was  first  tried  in  Birmingham  in  a  society 
formed  by  Mr.  J.  Taylor  of  that  town.  The  workmen  there  had  heard 
of  the  efforts  of  the  Anti-Corn  Law  League  to  carry  South  Lancashire 
by  registering  as  many  of  their  members  as  could  be  persuaded  to  pur- 
chase 40s.  freeholds.  The  average  price  of  such  freehold  was  separately 
.£70 ;  and  it  occurred  to  them  that,  by  combining  the  principles  of 
accumulating  a  considerable  fund  through  moderate  weekly  subscrip- 
tions, with  that  of  buying  land  at  a  wholesale  cost,  and  by  dividing  it 
in  allotments  to  subscribers  at  the  same  price,  40s.  freeholds  might  be 
brought  within  the  reach  of  workmen,  or  at  least  of  the  sober  and 
steady  members  of  the  skilled  artizan  class.  Persuading  others  to  join 
them,  and  securing  the  countenance  and  co-operation  of  several  mem- 
bers of  parliament,  the  first  freehold  land  society  was  founded  in  the 
town  of  Birmingham  in  1847." 

4.  "  Its  very  first  purchase  of  land  has  been  referred  to  as  an  instance 
of  the  advantage  of  co-operation.  The  whole  of  an  estate,  for  a  portion 
of  which,  of  sufficient  size  to  be  suitable  for  a  single  house,  the  ovvuer 
declined  to  take  less  than  3s,  Ad.  per  yard,  was  actually  bought  for  a 
sum  which  enabled  the  society  to  convey  it  in  lots  to  its  members  at 
Is.  Id.  per  yard.  These  lots  are  said  to  have  thus  cost  the  new  owners 
about  £19  each,  and  many  have  erected  dwelling  houses  upon  them, 
while  others  are  stated  to  have  let  theirs  upon  building  leases  at  a  rent 
more  than  sufficient  to  give  them  the  franchise. 

"  The  impulse  given  by  this  remarkable  success  was  so  great,  that,  ere 
the  termination  of  the  second  year,  it  was  found  advisable  to  hold  a  great 
conference  at  Birmingham,  in  order  to  organise  a  plan  of  general  union 
and  co-operation  amongst  the  numerous  associations  which  had  sprung 
up,  and  which  have  gone  on  increasing  in  numbers  to  the  present  day." 

5.  Mr.  Scratchley,  whose  experience  on  these  subjects  entitles  his 
opinion  to  respect,  considers  that,  apart  from,  other  considerations,  if 
the  basis  of  each  Society  were  carefully  constructed,  the  movement 
might  be  productive  of  good ;  and  if  extensively  taken  up  by  the  class 
of  small  retail  dealers,  employes,  and  the  superior  class  of  working  men, 
it  will  not  only  add  to  the  county  constituencies  a  large  number  of  in- 
dependent voters,  but  it  will  bring  within  the  pale  of  the  constitution, 
and  reconcile  to  it,  an  important  class  of  the  people.  The  principle  of 
co-operation  adopted,  may  transfer  to  the  body  of  members  the  advan- 
tages which  single  proprietors  have  hitherto  possessed,  and  may  thus 
enable  the  many  to  participate  in  benefits  which  have  been  hitherto  en- 
joyed by  the  few ;  it  will  also  occur  to  every  reflecting  person  that, 
whatever  be  the  peculiar  political  tenets  of  the  individuals  who  thus 


obtain  the  right  of  voting,  incalculable  advantage  cannot  fail,  by  re- 
action, to  accrue  to  the  country  at  large,  from  the  vast  increase  which 
will  arise  in  the  number  of  men  who  will  be  personally  interested  iu  the 
preservation  of  order  and  tranquillity  in  the  land  in  which  they  will  have 
acquired  a  pecuniary  interest.  Nor  should  the  moral  influence  be  over- 
looked which  the  movement  is  likely  to  exert  in  its  tendency  to  create 
and  foster  systematic  habits  of  sobriety  and  self-denial. 

In  the  words  of  a  distinguished  writer,  in  reference  to  another  class 
of  associations,  it  may  be  said  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  sound- 
ness of  the  policy  which  would  encourage  every  class  to  seek  to  obtain 
a  share  in  the  artificial  system  of  property  upon  which  this  country  de- 
pends. At  present  the  property  of  the  labouring  man  is  all  tangible, 
and  immediately  at  hand.  It  would  not  be  a  great  wonder  if  he  were 
found  to  have  no  clear  opinion  of  the  rights  of  a  landowner,  a  fund- 
holder,  a  mortgagee,  or  an  annuitant ;  but  if  he  were  himself  in  pos- 
session of  any  of  those  claims,  which,  by  means  of  the  law  can  be 
created,  enforced,  or  transferred,  in  virtue  of  the  possession  of  a  bit 
of  paper — still  more  if  the  comfort  of  his  old  age  were  connected  with 
the  legal  tenure  of  his  past  earnings — he  would  then  be  interested  in  the 
continuance  of  that  system,  by  the  share  of  it  which  belonged  to  him- 
self. 

Other  eminent  men  have  remarked  to  a  similar  effect,  that  the  object 
of  increasing  the  number  of  freeholders  at  a  county  election  is  uot  an 
object  against  law,  or  sound  policy,  or  morality;  on  the  contrary,  that 
the  increasing  of  the  number  of  persons  who  enjoy  the  elective  franchise 
has  been  held  by  many  to  be  beneficial  to  the  constitution,  and  cer- 
tainly appears  to  have  been  the  essential  object  of  the  legislature  iu 
passing  the  late  act  for  amending  the  representation  of  the  people. 

Also,  that  a  conveyance  of  laud  by  a  vendor  to  one  or  more  vendees 
for  a  bona  fide  consideration  is  valid,  although  the  avowed  object  of  the 
vendor  is  to  multiply,  and  that  of  the  vendees  to  acquire,  the  right  of 
voting. 

Again,  "  When  a  working  man  has  saved  sufficient  to  buy  a  freehold, 
surely  there  is  no  person  who  will  not  say  that  he  is  glad  to  sec  him 
thus  employing  the  fruits  of  his  industry  and  frugality?*" 

But  although  the  promoters  may  be  sauguine  as  to  the  ultimate  re- 
sults of  their  scheme,  on  account  of  the  apparently  flourishing  position 
of  many  of  the  existing  freehold  land  societies,  when  measured  alone 
by  the  great  number  of  shares  subscribed  ;  yet  care  does  not  appear  to 
be  exercised  to  prevent  them  from  falling  into  the  serious  errors  of 
reasoning  and  practice,  that  have,  unfortunately,  too  often  characterised 
the  working  of  their  prototypes,  the  benefit  building  societies.  The 
mode  of  allotting  the  funds  of  the  association  differs  but  little  from 
that  of  the  latter  institutions,  while  the  principle  involved  is  not 
identical.  There  is  one  distinction — the  freehold  land  society  is 
expressly  formed  to  avail  itself  of  wholesale  prices  in  land;  and  yi  t, 
under  the  Building  Societies'  Act,  it  has  no  authority  itself  to  purchase 
estates  and  divide  them ;  and  it  is  powerless,  unless  a  loan  can  be  ob- 
tained from  some  external  source  in  sufficient  amount.  Hitherto,  the 
movement  has  been  kept  up  by  the  liberality  of  political  supporters, 
who  provide  the  necessary  funds  in  each  case  ;  and  the  rapidity  of  the 
extension  of  these  associations  proves  how  little  importance  is  attached 
to  the  contingency,  that  not  only  will  the  price  of  land,  iu  all  proba- 
bility, rise  by  this  increase  in  the  number  of  purchasers,  but  iu  many 
cases  freehold  property  will  not  be  obtainable  at  all  in  such  convenient 
situations,  and  of  such  suitable  magnitudes,  as  to  meet  the  object 
desired. 

Mr.  Scratchley  remarks,  that  the  rules  of  many  of  these  land  socie- 
ties contain  no  definite  understanding  as  to  the  adjustment  of  the  dura- 
tion of  the  payments  of  the  members,  and  no  real  principle  bj  which, 
whatever  be  the  time  of  entry,  the  profits   may   be   equitably  divided 
*  Speech  of  Lord  John  HumoU,  6th  June,  1848. 


24G 


Notes  by  a  Practical  Chemist. 


[November, 


among  the  shareholders,  nor  any  sufficient  provision  by  which  a  mem- 
ber who  may  wish  to  withdraw  may  be  secured  from  the  loss  of  his 
right  to  some  benefits  from  the  past  success  of  the  association ;  although 
in  many  of  the  societies,  in  addition  to  the  weekly  contributions  of 
Is.  6d.,  or  thereabouts,  by  which  the  positive  wholesale  cost  of  the  land 
is  to  be  repaid,  an  extra  payment  by  way  of  interest  is  now  being  required 
from  the  allottees,  ranging  from  5§  to  6J  per  cent.  Yet  the  rides  do 
not  seem  to  guard  against  an  inequality  in  the  advantages  that  may  be 
obtained  by  the  members,  according  as  they  have  their  land  allotted  to 
them  at  once,  or  after  several  years,  such  as  ten  or  twelve,  from  the 
period  of  commencing  their  subscriptions ;  and  it  is  far  from  improba- 
ble, that  the  ultimate  cost  to  each  member  of  his  little  property  will  be 
widely  different.  This  could  only  be  obviated  by  the  adoption  of  some 
more  systematic  and  tabular  scale  of  subscriptions  than  is  at  present 
in  use,  so  as  to  regulate  the  duration  and  amount  of  the  payments 
by  a  fixed  standard  of  years  and  rate  of  interest,  and  by  paying  strict 
attention  to  the  importance  of  making  the  association  perfectly 
mutual,  so  that  the  profits  on  cheap  wholesale  purchases  may  go  to 
the  general  fund,  and  not  to  benefit  incidental  members  to  the  detri- 
ment of  their  successors.  The  main  secret  of  the  prosperity  of  institu- 
tions of  this  kind  consists  in  the  correct  adjustment  of  the  relative 
position  of  each  member,  to  the  exclusion  of  every  attempt  at  favou- 
ritism ;  and  this  depends  upon  a  clear  understanding  existing  between 
the  board  of  directors  and  the  shareholders.  We  fear  that  it  is 
too  rashly  stated,  that  a  freehold  qualification  for  a  county  can  be  ob- 
tained at  the  small  and  definite  sum  of  ,£20.  Such  promises  shoidd 
rather  be  limited  to  a  statement,  that  while  the  directors  remain  re- 
sponsible managers,  all  the  wholesale  property  which  is  bought  shall  be 
divided  without  reservation  of  profit  to  those  persons  who  primarily 
advanced  the  money,  and  that  the  members  of  the  association  shall  have 
its  refusal  at  cost  price.  For  whether  the  cost  is  to  be  j£20,  or  to 
range  up  to  £50,  and  even  £60,  it  is  a  matter  of  vital  importance  to 
the  success  of  the  principle.  It  has  happened  at  Birmingham,  that 
several  persons  obtained  sufficient  land  to  give  them  a  qualification  for 
as  little  as  £20  j  but  that  arose,  in  all  probability,  from  accident,  and 
should  not  be  put  forward,  as  it  is  constantly,  as  the  standard  of  the 
price  of  future  purchases. 

To  the  majority  of  members  the  pecuniary  advantage  will  rank 
above  the  privilege,  and  to  them  the  most  important  question  will 
be,  what  will  it  practically  cost  to  buy  such  a  quantity  of  land  as  will 
produce,  by  being  leased  out  or  otherwise,  an  income  of  £2  a-year,  or, 
what  will  be  the  amount  of  the  annual  pecuniary  profit  arising  from  the 
purchase?  They  will  calculate  that,  if  even  £30  be  the  average  price  of 
such  an  income,  £100  would  give  £6  13s.  8d.  a  year.  This  alone, 
over  and  above  the  abstract  result  of  a  vote,  would  be  so  great  an  attrac- 
tion, as  an  advantageous  investment,  that  it  would  be  by  far  the  best 
the  market  would  afford,  more  especially  with  such  excellent  security 
as  that  of  land.  In  the  extreme  case,  where  the  Birmingham  Society 
bought  land  wholesale,  which  only  cost  .£20  for  the  £2  a  year,  the  rate 
per  cent,  of  annual  profit  was  a  perpetual  income  of  £10  a  year.  The 
improbability  of  such  good  fortune  recurring  ought  to  be  sufficient  to 
rouse  the  industrious  classes  into  making  further  inquiry  into  the  prac- 
ticability of  these  new  candidates  for  popularity ;  the  more  so  when 
the  member  is  required  to  pay  for  this  enormous  advantage  by  such 
easy  instalments  as  3s.  or  4s.  a-fortnight  for  five  or  six  years.  If  the 
principle  be  good,  when  abstractedly  considered,  it  is  unnecessary  and 
unwise  to  expose  it  to  suspicion. 

Again,  we  agree  with  Mr.  Scratchley,  that  when  the  land  is  pur- 
chased it  will  be  utterly  useless,  in  a  pecuniary  sense,  to  its  owner,  unless 
four  or  five  can  join  together  and  let  their  fraction  of  territory  to  one 
tenant,  or  unless  the  purchaser  contemplates  building  thereon  for  his  own 
purposes.  Amechanic  in  a  large  manufacturing  town  cannot  make  anyuse 


himself  of  his  land.  He  is  ignorant  of  its  management,  and  can  only  make 
a  profit  from  his  purchase  by  letting  it  to  others;  and,  even  then,  the 
expense  of  employing  an  agent,  with  the  uncertainty  of  collecting  the 
small  rent  regularly,  would  diminish  the  advantage  of  his  purchase. 
Hence  it  appears  probable,  that  much  discontent  will  shortly  arise 
among  the  poorer  members  of  these  societies,  who  have  entered  under 
the  impression  that,  in  addition  to  the  influence  to  be  acquired  by  the 
possession  of  a  county  vote,  they  would  be  making  a  highly  lucrative 
investment  of  their  savings.  The  comparatively  rich  member,  who  can 
take  up  six  or  seven  shares  or  more,  will  reap  benefit,  not  only  from  the 
greater  certainty  of  being  able  to  turn  his  land  to  account,  but  also 
from  the  increase  in  the  general  profits  of  the  institution,  which  must 
accrue  through  the  forfeited  shares  of  those  members  whose  means  of 
existenca  are  too  precarious  to  enable  them  to  be  regular  in  their  pay- 
ments. 

In  the  establishment  of  freehold  land  societies,  their  political  object 
has  been  considered  essentially  before  the  question  of  their  capabilities 
as  an  advantageous  investment  for  money  to  the  industrious  classes. 
Hence  it  may  be  fairly  expected  that,  as  soon  as  the  political  excite- 
ment by  which  they  are  now  supported  has  subsided,  the  directors  and 
others  will  cease  to  be  so  ready  to  incur  the  risk  of  themselves  pur- 
chasing wholesale  tracts  of  land,  for  a  resale  of  which,  to  the  members, 
by  the  strict  letter  of  the  Benefit  Building  Societies'  Act,  they  can  have 
no  security  whatever ;  and  any  attempt  to  mix  up  the  pecuniary  opera- 
tions of  the  society  with  their  own  voluntary  engagements,  will  not 
fail  to  expose  the  association  to  litigation,  expense,  and  loss. 

To  provide  against  these  difficulties,  as  far  as  may  be  practicable, 
Mr.  Scratchley  suggests  various  improvements,  which  are  deserving  of 
the  consideration  of  those  who  have  connected  themselves  with  these 
institutions. 

These  suggestions  we  will  notice  in  our  next  number. 

NOTES    BY   A    PRACTICAL    CHEMIST. 


Discovery  of  a  new  Metal. — Dr.  Owen  has  discovered  a  new 
metal,  apparently  of  the  earthy  class,  holding  an  intermediate  position 
between  magnesia  and  manganese,  for  which  the  name  thalium  has 
been  proposed.  Its  oxide,  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid,  is  of  a  beau- 
tiful pea-green  colour,  and  gives  the  following  reactions  : — Ammonia, 
a  white,  bulky  precipitate,  only  sparingly  soluble  in  sal-ammoniac  ;  this 
is  one  of  the  characters  which  distinguish  it  from  magnesia. — Phosphate 
of  soda  and  ammonia  :  the  vesicular  precipitate  caused  by  this  reagent 
is  quite  peculiar,  and  forms  one  of  the  marked  characteristics  of  this 
earth.  If  the  phosphate  be  added  without  disturbing  the  liquid,  a 
number  of  little  vesicles  are  formed;  which  remain  distinct.  The  earth, 
when  pure,  has  the  appearance  of  powdered  dried  albumen.  It  has  not 
yet  been  obtained  in  the  metallic  state. 

On  a  brittle  form  of  Silver. — M.  Knop  has  examined  some 
specimens  of  silver,  received  from  a  manufactory  of  cast-silver  articles 
at  Leipzic,  very  remarkable  for  their  brittleness.  This  brittle  silver  was 
formed  in  the  crucible  in  which  the  silver  was  melted  for  casting,  in 
form  of  a  scum  on  the  surface,  and  remained  sticking  to  the  crucible 
when  the  fluid  silver  beneath  was  poured  out.  The  silver  had  been 
extracted  from  the  ore  by  means  of  muriate  of  soda.  The  brittle  silver 
was  partly  in  thin  leaves,  of  the  thickness  of  the  back  of  a  knife,  with 
a  porous,  froth-like  surface ;  partly  in  thicker  masses.  The  thin  pieces 
had  a  crystalline,  fibrous  structure,  and  the  exact  appearance  of  con- 
gealed slag,  the  fibres  being  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  cooling. 
The  specific  gravity  was  10'25;  but  the  pieces  were  always  inwardly- 
porous.  Analysis  gave — silver,  97'5  ;  copper,  2'3  ;  silicate  of  alumina, 
0"1.  This  composition  gives  no  clue  to  the  above-mentioned  brittle- 
ness.    The   silver,  when  re-precipitated  as  chloride,  and  reduced  by 


1852.] 


On  the  China  Stone  and  China  Clays  of  Cornwall. 


247 


means  of  potash  and  sugar,  possessed  its  usual  ductility.  Such  silver, 
when  changed  into  chloride,  required  precisely  the  quantity  of  chlorine 
corresponding  to  the  atomic  weight  of  the  silver.  The  circumstance, 
therefore,  could  not  arise  from  some  unknown  kind  of  admixture  or 
modification  of  the  silver.  That  heat  causes  this  phenomenon  is  not 
to  he  supposed ;  it  seems  rather  to  spring  from  the  mixture  of  small 
quantities  of  foreign  substances,  which  change  the  properties  of  the 
metal  differently  at  different  degrees  of  heat.  On  the  solution  of  silver 
examined  there  remained  some  dense  clouds,  too  little  for  examination, 
but  evidently  containing  silver.  Is  it  possible  that  a  small  quantity  of 
chloride  of  silver  may  remain  under  certain  circumstances  in  the  silver, 
and  cause  these  phenomena  ?  The  supposition  may  also  be  ascertained 
with  regard  to  iodide,  bromide,  and  fluoride  of  silver. 

Reduction  op  Metals  by  Phosphorus  and  Sulphur.  — It 
had  been  observed  by  Woehler,  that  phosphorus  in  combination  with 
copper  excites  an  electrical  current.  M.  Wicke  has  made  the  following 
original  observations : — 

1.  A  stick  of  phosphorus  wound  round  with  a  strip  of  silver  was 
placed  in  a  highly  concentrated  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver.  The  sil- 
ver and  phosphorus  instantly  became  covered  with  a  blackish  film; 
afterwards  silver  began  to  be  reduced  in  a  wart-like  form  upon  the 
strip  of  silver;  and  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  weeks,  it  was  covered 
with  an  extremely  shining  coating  of  crystalline  silver,  although  not 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  phosphorus.  The  whole  of  the  re- 
duced silver  could  be  removed  from  the  strip  of  silver  as  a  compact 
coating  with  a  shining  inner  surface.  The  phosphorus  was  only  covered 
superficially  with  a  thin  coating  of  dark  phosphuret  of  silver,  and  re- 
mained unchanged  internally.  The  silver  separated  so  evenly,  and  with 
such  a  shining  surface,  that  this  process  might  perhaps  be  employed  for 
galvano-plastic  purposes. 

2.  In  a  similar  manner,  by  a  combination  of  phosphorus  and  lead 
in  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  lead,  the  reduction  of  crystallised  lead  took 
place  upon  the  lead,  whilst  the  phosphorus  was  covered  with  a  thin 
black  film ;  the  action,  however,  was  weak,  and  soon  stopped  altogether. 

3.  A  stick  of  phosphorus  was  placed  as  the  axis  of  a  closely-pressed 
mass  of  oxide  of  copper,  both  covered  with  water,  with  which  the  tube 
was  filled,  and  then  made  air-tight ;  the  reduction  of  the  oxide  to  me- 
tallic copper  was  gradually  effected,  so  that,  after  several  weeks,  the 
stick  of  phosphorus,  which  was  still  remaining,  was  surrounded  by  a 
capsule  of  crystalline  copper. 

4.  Sulphur,  surrounded  with  a  strip  of  lead  and  laid  in  solution  of 
nitrate  of  lead,  effected  the  reduction  of  lead  upon  the  lead  in  form  of 
a  loose  crystalline  coating. 

5.  When  a  piece  of  sulphur,  surrounded  with  a  bright  copper  wire 
was  laid  in  a  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  it  became  covered, 
after  some  time,  in  the  place  where  the  copper  touched  it,  with  a  loose 
crystalline  coating  of  indigo-coloured  sulphuret  of  copper,  whilst  the 
copper  wire  was  dissolved.  A  solution  of  nitrate  of  copper  acted  still 
more  rapidly.  On  the  other  hand,  no  action  took  place  on  the  em- 
ployment merely  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

Preparation  of  Sulphate  of  Alumina. — Sulphate  of  alumina 
and  ammonia  is  placed  in  shallow  earthenware  vessels  in  a  drying  fur- 
nace. When  it  has  lost  all  its  water  of  crystallisation,  it  is  powdered 
and  placed  in  a  cast-iron  cylinder,  one  end  of  which  is  closed  with  an 
iron  cover,  luted  air  tight.  From  the  other  end  of  the  cylinder  a  bent 
cast-iron  tube  issues,  connected  with  leaden  tubes  perforated  with  a 
number  of  holes,  and  lying  horizontally  in  a  wooden  water-cistern  lined 
with  lead ;  the  water  must  absorb  the  gas  evolved.  A  safety-tube  pre- 
vents the  rising  of  water  into  the  cylinder.  The  products  of  the  de- 
composition of  the  sulphate  of  ammonia  and  alumina  are  now  to  be 
expelled  at  a  cherry  red  heat ;  sulphate  of  alumina  remains  n  the  cylin- 
der.    The  sulphite  of  ammonia  that  goes  over  serves  again  for  the  pre- 


paration of  the  alum,  after  being  changed  into  sulphate  by  oxidation  in 
the  air.  The  drying  furnace  lies  above  the  furnace  in  which  the  cylin- 
der is  heated  to  redness  and  is  heated  by  it. 

On  Cod-liver  Oil. — According  to  some  authors,  cod-liver  oil  is  a 
mixture  of  several  proximate  organic  principles.  M.  Winckler  contro- 
verts this  opinion.  According  to  him  it  is  an  organic  whole,  containing 
propyle  C5  B."  instead  of  glycyle  Cs  H3.  By  the  saponification  of  cod- 
liver  oil  with  potash  he  procured  oleic  and  margaric  acids.  By  the 
distillation  of  a  mixture  of  24  parts  cod-liver  oil,  24  parts  water  and  G 
parts  caustic  potash,  frequently  shaken  up  together  during  several  days, 
he  obtained  oxide  of  propyle.  By  saponification  with  oxide  of  lead  he 
procured  no  glycerine,  but  oleic  and  margaric  acids,  and  a  new  acid — 
propylic  acid. 

ANSWERS    TO    CORRESPONDENTS. 

"  Eman,  Salop." — We  have  several  reasons  for  declining  to  enter 
upon  the  "  beer  controversy." 

"  Medicus." — Liebig  maintains  that  arsenious  acid  is  capable  of 
forming  with  albumen  a  definite  and  stable  compound,  but  this  view  is 
entirely  contrary  to  the  results  obtained  by  other  chemists. 

"  Z.  A." — To  platinise  vessels  of  brass  or  copper,  take  1  part  am- 
monia-chloride of  platinum,  8  parts  sal-ammoniac,  and  place  them  in  a 
flat  porcelain  dish ;  add  32  parts  of  water  and  let  the  whole  boil.  Then 
dip  in  the  vessels,  previously  made  quite  clean  and  bright.  In  a  few 
seconds  they  will  be  coated  with  a  shining  and  firmly-adhering  surface 
of  platinum. 

"  Tyro,"  Durham. — 1.  Phosphorus  must  not  only  be  kept  under 
water,  but  preserved  from  the  action  of  light.  2.  Coal  naphtha  cannot 
be  used  for  preserving  potassium. 

S. 


ON  THE  CHINA  STONE  AND  CHINA  CLAYS  OF  CORNWALL. 

BY   MR.    H.    M.    STOCKBK,    OF    ST.    AUSTELL. 

(Abstract  of  a  paper  read  before  the  Royal  Cornwall  Polytechnic  Society.) 

The  fact  that  the  disintegrated  granite  and  clays  of  Cornwall  and  Devon, 
when  fused  or  burnt,  could  be  rendered  available  to  the  potter,  was  first 
directed  attention  to  by  the  late  Mr.  Cookworthy,  of  Plymouth}  in  17G8. 
That  gentleman  extensively  exported  them  to  the  potteries  of  Staffordshire, 
from  Devon;  and  subsequently,  large  beds  of  a  like  description  of  clay  were 
found  in  the  parish  of  St.  Stephens  ;  and  a  large  trade  was  at  once  opened, 
which  has  continued  progressively  to  increase  to  the  present  time.  China 
stone  began  to  be  exported  at  a  later  period  than  the  China  clay,  or  kaolin  ; 
it  not  having  been  introduced  till  the  year  1802,  when  it  was  first  raised 
from  a  bed  of  great  purity,  containing  no  iron  or  manganese,  but  merely 
felspar,  silica,  and  mica,  in  varying  proportions  ;  and  this  is  at  present  the 
only  source  from  which  it  can  be  obtained  of  a  sufficient  degree  of  purity  for 
ordinary  purposes.  Most  of  the  granites  from  which  the  China  stone  was 
formed  differ  from  ordinary  granite  only  in  the  existence  in  the  latter  of 
plates  of  talc,  hornblende,  or  dialluge,  which  render  the  China  stone  in  which 
they  are  found  quite  useless,  in  consequence  of  the  black  or  brown-coloured 
slag  of  silicate  of  iron  or  manganese,  formed  on  fusion.  The  bed  from  which 
the  article  is  at  present  obtained  in  Cornwall  is  about  three- quarters  of  a  mile 
in  extent,  on  the  contiguous  borders  of  the  parishes  of  St.  Dennis  and  St.  Ste- 
phens, occupying  almost  the  centre  of  the  central  granite  district  of  the 
county,  and  is  surrounded  by  other  primary  rocks  of  igneous  origin,  winch, 
as  they  stretch  towards  the  coast  on  either  side,  merge  into  beds  of  killas, 
or  clay  slate.  On  the  eastern  and  northern  boundaries  the  granite  is  more 
irregular  and  abrupt  in  character  than  on  other  sides,  is  more  porphyritic, 
contains  a  much  larger  proportion  of  felspar  in  largo  white  or  red  opaque 
cubic  or  rhomboidal  crystals  ;  while,  on  the  south,  it  is  separated  from  the 
neighbouring  granite  by  a  large  elvan  dyke  ;  ami  il  is  worthy  of  notice,  that 
while  on  one  side  of  this  may  be  found  China  stone  perfectly  pure,  on  the 
other,  only  from  one  to  two  feet  distant,  the  stone  is  rendered  useless  by  the 
presence  of  small  plates  of  tale  imbedded  in  dense  grey  granite,  which  also 
forms  a  portion  of  the  eastern  boundary.  Alter  the  expression  of  Some 
conjectures  as  to  the  causes  of  disintegration  of  the  granite,  and  the  formation 
of  China  stone  and  China  clay,  Mr.  Siockcr  proceeds:— 

At  present,  while  there  is  a  great  demand  for  the  article,  the  spot  from 
whence  China  stone  is  procured  presents  the  appearance  ol  a  large  rabbit- 
burrow,  as  there  are  no  less  than  nine  Betts  lor  the  district,  the  proprietor  ol 

each  of  which  has   his   portion    of   the    hill    covered  with  the   moiuli- 
around  which  are  stationed  a  number  of  men  with  their  waggon.-,  who,  alter 


'248 


On  the  China  Stone  and  China  Clays  of  Cornwall. 


[November, 


the  China  stone  has  been  raised  by  quavrymen  and  the  employment  of  pow- 
der, carry  it  to  one  of  the  nearest  ports  to  be  shipped  for  the  potteries  of 
Staffordshire  ancl  Worcestershire.  These  ports  of  shipment  are  distant  from 
seven  to  nine  miles  from  the  quarries;  the  distance  necessitating  a  consider- 
able amount  of  land  carriage  and  a  consequent  increase  in  the  price  of  the 
article,  which  of  late  years  has  been  raised  from  12s.  to  20s.  per  ton  free  on 
board,  at  Par,  Pentewan,  or  Charlestown.  Still,  the  demand  has  by  no 
means  diminished,  and  the  proprietors  of  these  setts  have  been  obliged  to  fix 
a  certain  limit  to  their  annual  supply,  of  18,000  tons,  at  which  rate  of  con- 
sumption all  the  China  stone  in  these  beds  will  have  been  removed  in  rather 
less  than  fifty  years.  ! 

The  number  of  people  employed  in  its  preparation  is  comparatively  small, 
as  the  operation  of  blasting  requires  but  two  or  three  persons  in  each  pit  ; 
and  in  loading  the  waggons,  the  parties  employed  as  carriers  are  but  too 
eager  to  fill,  in  order  to  get  a  load. 

Mr.  Stocker  goes  on  to  state  the  constituents  of  China  stone,  which,  in  its 
purest  state,  consists  of  a  mixture  of  quartz,  felspar,  and  mica,  blended  so  as 
to  form  a  homogeneous  mass,  which  very  much  resembles  granite,  though 
its  texture  is  not  so  compact ;  and  he  gives  his  opinion  that  until  some  cheap 
mode  be  discovered  of  separating  deteriorating  ingredients — hornblende, 
diallage,  talc  and  iron — the  China  stone  at  present  in  use  must  retain  its 
pre-emmenee,  consisting,  as  it  does,  of  a  pure  double  silicate  of  potass  and 
alumina,  which,  v/hen  fused,  forms  a  pearl-white  translucent  mass,  firm  and 
resonant,  consisting  of  an  opaque  body,  of  nearly  perfectly-formed  kaolin, 
surrounded  by  and  diffused  through  the  glaze  of  silicic  acid,  to  which  its 
transparency  is  due.  Not  only  does  the  presence  of  the  before-mentioned 
deteriorating  substances  render  the  article  useless,  but  should  there  be  a 
very  great  excess  of  quartz  crystals  or  silica,  the  article  will  not  be  capable 
of  fusion  at  any  temperature ;  though  this  fault  may  be  remedied  by  the 
addition  of  either  potass  or  soda. 

The  mode  in  which  the  China  stone  or  cla]'  is  prepared,  for  the  purposes 
of  pottery,  is  thus  described  : — The  China  stone  is  ground  to  a  fine  powder, 
by  means  of  a  number  of  stones  which  are  kept  rotating  on  the  bottom  of  a 
vat,  when  it,  as  well  as  the  clay  and  ground  flint,  is  mixed  with  a  certain 
quantity  of  water,  till  it  becomes  of  the  consistence  of  cream.  It  is  then 
passed  through  a  series  of  cambric  or  lawn  sieves,  kept  rapidly  revolving  by 
a  water-wheel :  each  pint  of- the  clay  slop  weighing  twenty-four  ounces, 
while  that  of  the  flint  or  China  stone  weighs  thirty-two  ounces.  It  is  then 
passed  through  a  very  fine  silk  sieve,  after  which  these  ingredients  are  mixed 
together  in  various  proportions  in  a  large  vat  or  tub ;  and  as  soon  as  the 
mixture  has  attained  its  requisite  consistence,  the  water  is  driven  off  by 
evaporation,  and,  as  this  process  causes  the  slop  to  contain  numerous  air 
globules,  it  is  submitted  to  a  process  of  kneading  or  beating ;  after  which  it  is 
considered  to  be  fit  for  the  lathe.  Formerly,  it  was  thought  necessary  that 
the  mass,  after  kneading  or  beating,  should  lie  fallow  for  three  or  four 
months ;  but  this  plan  has  been  abandoned. 

, Of  the  extent  of  the  trade  in  China  clay,  Mr.  Stocker  writes,  that  when 
obtained  by  Mr.  Cookworthy  in  1768,  from  the  Lescrouse  and  Trethose  clay 
works,  in  the  parish  of  St.  Stephens,  a  large  supply  was  at  once  demanded 
for  the  Staffordshire  potteries,  which  has  gradually  increased  till  the  present 
time.  The  average  annual  export  of  past  years,  which  he  has  been  enabled 
to  supply  through  the  kindness  of  the  most  influential  shipping  agents  in 
.  the  neighbourhood,  is  as  follows  ; — 

At  Charlestown       40,000  tons  of  China  clay. 

At  Par  10,000  ditto. 

At  Pentewan  18,000  ditto. 

At  other  harbours 12,000  ditto. 

Total 80,000  tons. 

^From  the  little  attention  paid  to  former  exports  of  this  article,  he  has  been 

'  unable  to  form  an  accurate  estimate  of  them  ;  but  some  idea  of  the  increase 

may  be  gleaned  from  the  following  estimates  of  the  value  of  the  exports  of 

the  manufactured  article  to  the  various  countries  with  which  England  has 

any  commercial  relations  : — 

In  1835  £280,000  shipped  from  Staffordshire. 

1837 ■■■. 560,000  '     ditto!  '.    , 

1841   600,759  ditto. 

1851   1,210,000  ditto. 

Adding  to  this  the  exports  from  the  Derby,  Worcester,  and  other  potteries, 
•we  gain  a  total  of  £2,150,000  shipped  during  the  past  year  ;  in  addition  to 
•which,  of  late  years,  a  considerable  amount  of  crude  kaolin  has  been  ex- 
ported to  many  potteries  on  the  continent  and  in  America,  while  a  small 
portion  has  also  been  used  for  bleaching. 

"  Kaolin  (Mr.  Stocker  proceeds)  is  found  intermixed  with  quartz,  and 
scales  of  mica,  in  most  valleys  contiguous  to  the  decomposing  hills  of  the 
primary  strata  of  our  county,  and  is  not,  as  is  the  case,  as  far  as  is  at  present 
;known,  with  regard  to  China  stone,  confined  to  any  particular  district,  being 
'now  obtained  or  obtainable,  though  of  different  qualities,  on  the  south- 
western sides  of  any  of  the  granite  districts  ;  yet,  of  course,  purest  near 
jthose  beds  of  China  stone  which  are  free  from  most  deteriorating  substances, 
as  in  the  parish  of  St.  Stephens. 

"  It  exists  in  these  beds,  or  stopes  as  they  are  designated,  as  an  amorphous 


whitish  blue  opaque  powder,  and,  from  the  softening  influence  and  rainy 
character  of  the  south-westerly  winds,  these  beds  are  most  frequent  in  valleys 
situated  on  the  same  aspect  ;  often  lying  on  the  contiguous  borders  of  the 
granite  and  killas,  clay  slate,  grauwacke,  or  transition  strata,  by  which  this 
is  surrounded  ;  where,  being  exposed  to  the  action  of  lodes  and  co-existing 
springs,  on  the  occurrence  of  the  slightest  convulsion,  it  has  slid  to  the  ad- 
jacent valleys,  where  its  presence  is  indicated  by  the  generally  smooth  and 
flattened  appearance  of  the  surface,  by  the  vegetation  in  it,  which  is  often 
luxuriant,  especially  if  the  clay  contains  an  excess  of  potass,  and  by  the 
number  of  springs  to  which  it  gives  rise  in  the  immediate  vicinity ;  their 
height  being  above  the  level  of  the  sea  is  necessarily  limited  by  that  of  the 
valleys  in  which  it  is  deposited. 

"  The  character  of  the  clay  very  much  assimilates  to  that  of  the  granites, 
from  which  it  has  been  formed  by  disintegration,  not  only  as  to  the  quantity 
obtainable  from  a  given  amount  of  clay  stope,  but  also  as' to  the  purity  of  the 
article,  and  its  whiteness  ;  the  whitest  clay  being  formed  from  that  granite 
which  has  the  whitest  felspar,  and  is  most  free  from  iron,  the  presence  of  this 
giving  the  manufactured  wares  an  appearance  termed  'foxy ;'  while,  lastly, 
the  amount  of  mica  scales,  which  give  to  them  their  tenacity  or  strength  of 
body,  considerably  influences  the  character  and  value  of  the  clay,  so  that,  as 
a  general  rule,  we  can  form  a  very  good  diagnosis  of  the  character  of  the 
clay,  by  an  examination  of  the  granite  from  which  it  has  been  formed  ;  and, 
in  doing  this,  I  would  advise  the  use  of  a  good  microscope,  by  which  the 
clay-producer  can  only  hope  to  obtain  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  value 
and  purity  of  our  clays. 

"  The  kaolin  of  both  Devon  and  Derbyshire  is  of  good  working  quality, 
but  can  by  no  means  compare  with  that  of  our  county,  either  for  whiteness  or 
strength.  It  contains  sixty  of  alumina,  twenty  of  silica,  and  twenty  of  potash 
(Wedgwood),  and  to  this  peculiarity  of  constitution  (excess  of  silica)  is  due 
the  property  of  being  infusible  and  unchanged  at  the  highest  temperature  ; 
it  is  extremely  tenacious  of  moisture,  and  hence  one  great  difficulty  in  its 
preparation,  to  be  hereafter  discussed. 

"  The  clay  beds  or  stopes  are  formed  by  small  irregular  crystals  of  quartz, 
the  edges  of  which  are  by  no  means  so  well  marked  as  in  the  granite,  nor  is 
their  opacity  so  great ;  the  mica  is  apparently  unchanged,  consisting  of 
silicic  acid,  potash,  and  alumina  in  the  form  of'  double  silicate,  while  the 
felspar  of  the  granite  or  China  stone  by  the  loss  of  its  potash  has  become 
converted  into  the  amorphous  powder  I  have  just  described  ;  a  single  instance 
of  the  effect  of  slight  natural  chemical  changes,  giving  rise  to  the  formation 
of  two  such  dissimilar  bodies,  when  fused,  as  biscuit  china,  white,  glassy, 
sonorous,  and  translucent  ;  when,  if  the  disintegrating  process  have  but  just 
overstepped  this  limit,  we  find,  on  fusion,  a  brick-like  mass,  white,  opaque, 
adherent  to  the  tongue,  tenacious  of  moisture,  and  earthy  on  fractures. 
There  are,  however,  many  and  varied  intermediate  productions,  from  the 
pasty  pipe-clay,  or  tile,  to  porcelain  or  glass,  which  is  but  another  form  of  a 
fusible  silicate. 

"  The  clay  stopes  are  oftentimes  rendered  useless  by  the  presence  of  some 
iron  lode,  which  causes  them  to  become  loosened  in  texture  and  reddened. 
The  stope  is  then  termed  "  branny,"  and  this  has  to  be  thrown  aside  as  useless. 

"  Having  thus  briefly  given  a  general  outline  of  the  nature,  composition, 
and  history  of  these  clays,  I  shall  proceed  to  the  notice  of  the  mode  of  pre- 
paration of  them  in  this  county,  which,  though  simple  in  theory,  requires 
much  care  and  attention  in  its  execution,  and  consists  essentially  in  the 
separation  of  the  quartz  from  the  mica  and  kaolin,  and  the  subsequent  col- 
lection of  the  latter. 

"  The  execution  of  this  process  in  any  of  the  extensive  works  in  St.  Ste- 
phens' parish,  one  of  which  would  cover  from  ten  to  thirteen  acres  of  ground, 
and  from  which  2,000  to  3,000  tons  are  annually  raised  and  fitted  for  the 
market,  forms  a  curious  and  interesting  spectacle  of  white-washed,  happy  in- 
dustry, for  the  contemplation  of  the  traveller,  during  the  months  of  summer. 

'5  Distant  about  from  five  to  eight  miles  from  St.  Austell ;  situated  in  the 
centre  of  barren,  rugged,  heathery  wilds,  enclosed  by  stone  walls,  and  bor- 
dered on  every  side  by  cold,  bleak,  rugged  hills,  these  works  have  a  very 
picturesque  appearance.  In  one  part  of  them  may  be  seen  from  thirty  to 
forty  men,  boys,  and  women,  who,  with  their  white  bonnets,  white  aprons, 
and  sleeves,  carry  the  still  whiter  clay  in  large  junks  to  the  surrounding  hills 
or  drying  grounds,  to  be  exposed  to  the  warm  rays  of  the  sun,  the  dry  winds, 
and  the  bleaching  power  of  the  air  ;  in  another  may  be  seen  other  parties 
scraping  the  clay,  prior  to  its  being  packed  in  casks,  to  be  sent  to  various 
parts  of  the  old  and  new  world.  Circular  or  ova!  pits  and  square  pans  are 
lying  in  all  directions,  their  continuity  here  and  there  disturbed  by  one  or 
two  water-wheels  in  incessant  motion,  or  piles  of  dried  clay,  covered  with 
reeds,  or  lying  in  sheds  ;  while  at  one  extremity  of  the  works  may  be  seen  a 
number  of  men  and  boj's  employed  in  excavating  the  clay  stope,  removing 
the  overburden,  or  streaming  the  stope  to  wash  away  its  clay,  the  sand  at  the 
same  time  being  removed  to  the  drying-ground  by  means  of  a  tramroad, 
the  waggons  passing  along  which  are  worked  by  the  aid  of  water  power  ; 
while  overhead,  launders  (gutters),  attached  to  pumps  for  various  purposes, 
seem  to  perform  a  skeleton  roof  to  the  whole. 

"  The  beds  of  clay  slope  are  exposed  by  the  removal  of  the  overburden, 
which  varies  in  thickness  ;  in  some  places  lying  but  a  few  feet  from  the  sur- 
face, while  in  others  the  only  bed  fit  to  be  washed  is  placed  at  a  depth  of  from 
ten  to  twenty  fathoms  from  the  surface.  The  removal  of  the  superimposed 
earth  is  effected  by  a  number  of  men,  with  their  pickaxes  and  shovels ;  they  then 


1852.] 


On  the  China  Stone  and  China  Clays  of  Cornwall. 


249 


transport  the  earth  to  the  adjacent  rugged  country,  so  as  to  render  it  smooth 
and  level,  m  order  to  form  drying  fields  for  the  summer.  Whilst  this  is  in 
progress,  the  clay  stope,  over  the  top  of  which  flows  a  small  stream  of  water, 
is  being  excavated  by  another  set  of  men,  which,  as  the  water  passes  through, 
has  the  clay  suspended  in  it,  by  the  kneading  action  to  which  the  stope  is 
subjected  by  means  of  the  large  boots,  often  seven  pounds  weight,  with  which 
the  '  clay  streamers'  are  supplied.  The  sand  is  thus  separated  from  the  clay 
and  mica,  which  are  carried  on  by  the  water,  and  the  sand  is  then  carried  by 
rail  or  carted  to  the  top  of  the  work,  whence  it  is  taken  to  be  spread  over  the 
drying  grounds,  or  it  is  thrown  into  the  pits  and  pans. 

"  The  water  to  be  supplied  to  the  clay  stope  should  consist  of  two-thirds  of 
spring  to  one-third  of  rain-water,  this  mixture  causing  a  deposit  of  the  sus- 
pended clay  much  more  readily  than  any  other,  Great  attention  is  often 
necessary  in  this  part  of  the  process;  from  an  excess  of  rain-water  it  is  often 
requisite  that  it  should  be  saturated  with  some  earthy  base  ;  common  alum 
is  at  present  used  for  this  purpose,  though  any  other  cheap  salt  would  answer 
the  purpose,  as  it  is  only  necessary  to  saturate  the  water  fully  with  eartby 
bases,  when  the  clay  speedily  becomes  thrown  down— a  law  not  generally 
known. 

"As  a  substitute  for  this,  I  have,  at  times  had  recourse  to  finely-ground 
peat,  or  wood  charcoal,  which,  thrown  over  the  surface  of  a  pit  on  which  it 
floats,  by  a  process  of  angular  attraction  or  repulsion,  causes  the  clay  to  be 
deposited  even  from  distilled  water  far  more  readily  than  by  the  addition  of 
any  soluble  earths,  as  may  be  demonstrated  with  ease  by  experiments  in  two 
or  three  tumblers  ;  but,  as  I  am  rather  in  advance  of  the  water  in  which  I 
4eft  the  clay  and  mica  suspended  at  the  bottom  level  of  the  clay  work,  I  must 
return  thither,  till,  by  the  aid  of  wooden  or  iron  pumps  from  forty  to  eighty 
feet  deep,  worked  by  a  powerful  water-wheel,  this  milky-looking  fluid  is  ele- 
vated to  the  level  of  the  large  mica  launders,  where  the  clay,  being  lighter 
than  it,  leaves  it  deposited  in  these  inclined  pits,  which  are  generally  three  or 
four  in  number,  placed  in  tiers,  with  a  slight  elevation  at  the  upper  end  of 
each.  They  vary  in  length  from  ten  to  twenty  feet,  are  generally  three  feet 
in  breadth,  and  six  or  nine  inches  deep,  though  both  the  number,  size,  and 
degree  of  inclination  vary  with  the  size  and  rapidity  of  flow  of  the  stream  of 
water,  no  less  than  with  the  amount  of  mica  contained,  in  the  stope.  In 
some  clay  works  the  stream  is  so  large,  that  most  of  the  mica  is  carried  on 
with  the  clay,  so  that  it  possesses,  when  fused,  a  greater  degree  of  tenacity, 
though  of  an  inferior  quality  as  to  whiteness,  plasticity,  &c.  In  the  separa- 
tion of  the  best  clays,  these  pits  require  that  the  motion  of  the  stream  through 
them  should  be  slow  and  equable,  the  stream  of  small  size,  and  the  launders 
should  be  trapped  or  cleaned  out  once  every  six  or  seven  hours  ;  a  careful 
attention  to  which  will  repay  any  amount  of  labour  in  the  production  of  a 
good  article.  That  portion  of  the  mica  collected  in  the  first  of  these  launders, 
often  having  mixed  with  it  scales  and  crystals  of  hornblende  or  diallage,  is 
thrown  aside  as  useless,  while  that  collected  in  the  others  is  generally  sold  as 
a  second  quality  clay. 

"  The  clay  water  having  left  the  micas,  now  flows  on  to  a  large  circular  or 
oval  collecting  pit,  thirty  or  forty  feet  in  circumference,  and  from  six  to  ten 
feet  deep,  where  the  clay  subsides,  forming  an  under  strata  of  the  consistence 
of  cream,  the  supernatant  water  flowing  off  from  the  top  of  the  pit,  until  it  is 
filled.  As  soon  as  this  happens,  the  clay  is  allowed  to  pass  out  by  a  trap- 
hatch,  to  the  pans  below  it ;  or  should  there  be  none  at  this  level,  recourse 
is  had  to  the  pumps,  by  means  of  which  and  attached  launders,  the  clay  is 
passed  to  the  drying  pans  in  any  portion  of  the  works.  Of  these,  there 
should  be  from  ten  to  twelve  capable  of  holding  from  forty  to  fifty  tons  to 
each  large  collecting  pit.  They  have  been  made,  till  lately,  on  any  part  of 
the  adjacent  ground,  frequently  on  that  covering  the  clay  bed,  where  the 
surface,  after  being  levelled  and  covered  with  fine  loose  gravel,  is  edged  in  by 
walls  of  granite,  the  joints  of  which,  as  well  as  those  of  the  pits,  are  rendered 
impervious  by  interposed  moss  ;  they  are  generally  from  twenty  to  forty  feet 
square  and  two  feet  deep;  the  pans  when  two-thirds  filled  with  the  clay  are 
thus  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun  or  the  dry  winds  of  March,  to  the  aid  of 
which  alone  the  proprietors  of  the  majority  of  these  works  have  hitherto  had 
recourse. 

"  In  the  model  which  I  have  sent  for  the  inspection  of  the  committee  of  the 
Royal  Cornwall  Polytechnic  Society,  I  have  employed  drainage  as  an  addi- 
tional means  of  aiding  the  drying  of  clay,  by  forming  a  kind  of  filter  of  the 
clay  pan.  A  substratum  of  large  pebbles,  increasing  in  depth  from  behind 
forwards,  but  with  the  surface  level,  is  first  laid  down  above  this  coarse 
-gravel,  between  which  and  the  clay  to  be  dried  is  a  thin  layer  of  fine  sand  ; 
through  this  the  water  quickly  runs  to  the  corner  towards  which  the  inclined 
bottom  is  made  to  fleet,  which  communicates  with  the  country  by  means  of 
a  launder,  over  the  inner  end  of  which  is  placed  a  wire-gauze  grating  ;  by 
the  employment  of  these,  from  experiments  I  have  made,  I  have  ascertained 
that  the  clay  can  be  dried  thrice  as  rapidly  as  by  the  ordinary  methods  ;  in 
addition  to  the  introduction  of  which,  I  should  recommend  to  the  notice  of 
parties  employed  in  these  operations,  the  propriety  of  placing  their  pans  as 
closely  together  as  possible,  so  that,  on  the  occurrence  of  heavy  showers  of 
long  duration,  or  in  the  heavy  dews  of  the  nights  of  summer,  the  clay  may 
be  kept  from  this  accession  of  moisture  by  some  cheap  covering,  as  these  ob- 
stacles very  much  increase  the  difficulty  of  drying  clay  in  any  given  period. 

"The  kaolin  is  by  this  means  only  partially  deprived  of  moisture.  In  order 
to  effect  its  complete  removal,  it  is  taken  from  the  pans,  where  it  has  been 
allowed  to  remain  from  three  to  four  months,  to  the  drying  grounds  on  the 


hills,  in  summer,  in  cubic  blocks  about  one  foot  square.  In  order  to  effect 
its  removal  from  the  pans,  a  number  of  parallel  incisions  are  made  the  whole 
length  of  the  pan  in  one  direction  by  means  of  a  perpendicular  knife  attached 
at  right  angles  to  a  long  handle  ;  these  long  blocks  are  then  divided  trans- 
versely by  men,  who  with  spades  throw  them  on  a  board,  on  which  they  are 
carried  by  women  and  boys  to  a  sandy  drying-yard,  where  they  soon  become 
perfectly  dry  and  white  ;  but  as  this  can  only  be  done  in  summer,  and  not 
even  then  if  a  wet  season,  it  has  become  necessary  that  recourse  should  be 
had  to  other  means.  Those  hitherto  employed  have  all  required  the  use  of 
a  fuel  obtainable  only  from  Newport  or  some  distant  coal  district,  and  hence 
requiring  considerable  outlay,  so  much,  in  fact,  that  but  few  persons  are  able 
or  willing  to  make  use  it.  The  heat,  in  these  cases,  is  applied  by  means  of  a 
large  kiln,  or  by  passing  the  clay  over  a  heated  drum,  neither  of  which  could 
be  made  available  in  the  return  of  several  thousand  tons  of  clay  annually. 

"  But  it  appeared  to  me  that  the  deleterious  floods  of  the  winter,  or  the 
wind  on  the  adjoining  hill,  might  be  rendered  available  as  a  motor  power, 
provided  it  could  be  employed  in  the  construction  of  a  kaolin  drying  machine. 
The  success  of  my  attempts  will  be  best  learned  by  a  few  turns  of  the  handle 
of  the  accompanying  model,  made  and  invented  by  the  author,  by  one  of 
which,  twelve  times  the  size  of  the  model,  two  tons  of  clay  can  be  dried  com- 
pletely every  five  minutes.  It  consists  of  a  number  of  perforated  fans,  having 
on  them  shelves  similarly  perforated,  or  made  of  wire-gauze,  which  arc  kept 
rotating  200  times  per  minute,  or  faster,  if  necessary,  by  the  four  attached 
multiplying  wheels.  These  wheel-fans  have  six  perpendicular  screen-like 
arms,  on  each  of  which  are  a  number  of  transverse  shelves  for  the  carriage  of 
the  clay,  where,  from  the  rapid  motion  of  the  wheel,  and  the  opposed  currents 
of  air  it  causes  to  be  thrown  against  the  clay,  it  rapidly  becomes  dry. 

"  The  fact  of  doing  away  altogether  with  fuel,  and  the  substitution  of  a 
power  which  can  be  obtained  with  the  greatest  ease,  on  the  occurrence  of  a 
very  rainy  season,  render  it  at  once  a  cheap  and  advantageous  substitute, 
either  for  the  labour  at  present  employed,  or  for  the  still  more  expensive  fueL 

"  The  junks  of  clay,  after  being  again  collected,  are  now  piled  away  in 
sheds,  under  a  number  of  thatched  gates  or  reeders,  or  are  placed  in  some 
sheltered  spot,  so  that  they  may  nevertheless  have  a  constant  current  of  cold 
dry  air  surrounding  them,  and  be  at  the  same  time  kept  from  rain.  When, 
required  for  exportation,  these  square  blocks  are  scraped  by  a  number  of  the 
clay  women,  who,  armed  with  their  'Dutch-hoe '-like  instruments,  as  they 
surround  the  scraping  tables,  present  a  rather  formidable  appearance  ;  after 
this  it  is  piled  in  waggons,  to  be  sent  from  one  of  the  nearest  ports,  or  is 
packed  in  a  number  of  small  casks,  each  capable  of  holding  about  half  a  ton, 
in  which  it  is  sent  off. 

"The  prices  of  these  clays  vary  much  with  the  quality  of  the  article,  al- 
though they  seldom  alter  as  far  as  those  of  a  superior  stamp  are  concerned, 
which  have  held  their  price  for  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years,  and  always  com- 
mand an  excellent  sale  in  the  market  at  from  36s.  to  46s.  per  ton  ;  while 
those  of  an  inferior  quality  may  be  procured  at  any  price  below  this,  down 
to  17s.  per  ton,  varying  with  their  purity,  hardness  after  calcination,  degree 
of  whiteness,  both  in  and  out  of  water,  and,  lastly,  the  degree  of  shrinking 
they  undergo  on  calcination  or  fusion. 

"  Having  already  entered  as  fully  as  the  limits  of  the  present  essay  will 
permit  me  on  the  subject  of  the  uses  of  kaolin,  further  information  on  that 
head  must  be  dispensed  with;  but,  before  concluding,  I  must  introduce  to 
your  notice  a  few  facts,  bearing  directly  on  the  influence  the  preparation  and 
production  of  this  article  exercises  on  this,  the  central  portion  of  the  county. 
The  first  and  most  important  of  which  is,  the  number  of  people  employed 
in  its  preparation,  and  the  amount  of  capital  expended  annually  in  labour; 
next,  I  shall  show  the  amount  of  the  cost  of  land  dues;  thirdly,  that  of  land 
carriage,  which  will  necessarily  afford  additional  aid  to  the  labourers  in  the 
vicinity,  as  the  whole  of  this  work  is  executed  by  a  number  of  small  farmers, 
each  of  whom  is  generally  provided  with  his  waggon  and  team  of  from  three 
to  four  horses;  the  cost  of  cooperage  and  quay  dues  is  next  on  the  list; 
forming  a  total  of  £240,500  spent  in  the  preparation  and  production  of  this 
article  in  this  country  alone;  but  it  should  also  be  recollected  that  no  less 
than  80,000  labourers  are  employed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Staf- 
fordshire potteries,  and  20,000  more  in  those  of  Derby,  Worcester,  Wales, 
and  Bristol,  in  its  subsequent  manufacture,  while,  prior  to  its  arrival  in  or  .it 
either  of  those  districts,  a  sum  of  12s.  per  ton  for  carriage  by  sea  and  canal 
is  entailed,  forming  a  total  of  about  £300,000  spent  in  China  clay  and  Stone, 
before  it  arrives  in  the  potteries,  where  an  immense  amount  of  capital  is 
again  spent  in  its  manufacture. 

"  Labour,  7,200  men,  women,  and  children,  Is.  G(i  per  diem    £197,100 

Carriage  of  clay  and  stone  to  one  of  the  nearest  ports  at 

•  °2  000 

average  price   ..         ••         ••         ■■       7     ! 

Dues  to  landowner         14,000 

Dues  to  proprietors  of  harbours  -•;,,H 

Cooperage  on  best  clays  

.£240,500 
Load  and  canal  carriage  at  12s.  per  ton  58,800 

£299,300 


"  Having  thus  as  briefly  as  possible  stated  the  chief  facts  with  which  I  am 

33 


250 


Manufacturing  Progress  in  England. 


[November, 


acquainted,  relative  to  the  history,  preparation,  and  commercial  importance 
of  these  articles;  after  reiterating  the  advantages  derivable,  and  the  field  of 
improvement  offered  for  contemplation  and  study,  to  the  enterprise  of  the 
Englishman,  in  the  substitution  of  machinery  for  the  great  amount  of  manual 
labour  and  cost,  at  present  necessarily  entailed  by  the  previously  existing 
want  of  information  on  this  subject,  I  must  conclude  by  again  calling  atten- 
tion to  the  distance  of  these  beds  from  the  potteries,  and  their  surrounding 
beds  of  fuel,  which  by  substitution  at  a  subsequent  period  may  considerably 
alter  the  present  state  of  the  central  portion  of  the  county,  and  with  it  the 
price  of  the  various  articles  of  pottery  so  necessary  to  our  comfort  and  con- 
venience." 

August  21th,  1852. 


MANUFACTURING  PROGRESS  IN  ENGLAND. 

,  (Illustrated  by  Plate  20.) 

A  most  interesting  history  might  be  written  of  the  rise,  progress, 
and  decline  of  the  various  branches  of  art  for  which  certain  manufac- 
turing towns  in  this  country  are,  or  have  been,  celebrated.  Time  was, 
when  the  "West  of  England  "  broad  cloth  "  had  no  competitor,  when 
Bristol  was  the  great  port  of  the  kingdom,  and  when  the  western  dis- 
trict, extending  from  Gloucester  to  Exeter,  filled  a  more  important 
position  than  it  is  likely  ever  again  to  occupy.  On  the  east,  again, 
Norwich  has  lost  what  Bradford  has  gained,  and  it  is  not  long  since 
Staffordshire  was  threatened  with  a  dangerous  opposition  in  the  shape 
of  Northampton  iron  ore.  Amongst  the  various  towns  which  have 
"  held  their  own,"  Birmingham  stands  pre-eminent.  Here  manufac- 
turers have  never  been  content  to  follow  a  declining  trade ;  and  no 
sooner  does  one  branch  of  business  show  symptoms  of  being  ex- 
hausted, than  another  vein  is  hit  upon,  with  a  judgment  which  is 
rarely  at  fault. 

We  look  upon  the  gain  to  the  capitalist  as  only  one  of  the  advantages 
to  be  derived  from  this  system  of  universal  adaptation  to  the  wants  of 
the  day.  The  artizan  class,  instead  of  dragging  on  a  miserable  ex- 
istence like  the  hand-loom  weavers  of  Spitalfields,  or  some  of  the 
mechanical  trades  at  Sheffield,  reap  as  much,  if  not  more,  advantage, 
for  they  naturally  possess,  in  a  less  degree  than  their  employers,  the 
power  of  taking  up  a  new  branch  of  trade. 

The  spread  of  information,  however,  is  doing  wonders,  and  we  learn 
from  an  article  in  the  Sheffield  Times,  which  has  suggested  the  present 
train  of  ideas,  that  a  successful  effort  has  been  made  in  that  town  to 
introduce  a  new  manufacture,  the  brass  trade,  a  branch  which  has  been, 
hitherto,  almost  monopolised  by  Birmingham. 

It  is  obvious  that  an  establishment  starting  unencumbered  in  the 
race  of  competition  has  a  better  chance  of  success  than  an  older  rival, 
just  as  our  new  railways  have  the  advantage  of  obtaining  gratuitously 
the  advantage  of  experience  already  gained  in  construction  and  working. 
Accordingly,  in  the  case  before  us,  the  Atlas  works  have  been  esta- 
blished on  the  largest  scale ;  and  as  it  is  not  often  that  we  have  the 
advantage  of  obtaining  sueh  a  graphic  description  as  in  the  present 
instance,  we  shall  avail  ourselves  of  the  opportunity  of  giving  an 
abstract  of  the  article  in  our  contemporary. 

"  The  Atlas  works  have  been  founded  by  Messrs.  William  W.  Cutts 
and  Co.,  for  the  prosecution  of  a  manifold  business — the  manufacture  of  gas- 
fittings,  chandeliers,  oil  lamps,  candle  lamps,  plumbers'  brass  foundry,  and 
railway  lamps  and  signals.  Within  a  very  recent  period  the  site  which  these 
stupendous  buildings  now  occupy  was  a  piece  of  unappropriated  ground, 
large  enough  to  afford  pasturage  for  one  or  two  cows.  It  is  now  the  theatre 
of  a  system  of  mechanical  operations,  which  give  regular  and  well-paid 
employment  to  hundreds  of  artizans.  That  small  area  of  suburban  pas- 
turage is  destined  to  occupy  the  largest  entire  building  for  manufacturing 
pursuits  ever  erected  within  the  precincts  of  old  Hallamshire,  and  which  at 
this  early  day  has  become  the  seat  of  a  vast  thriving  trade.  The  situation 
of  the  new  works  is  near  the  Sheffield  terminus  of  the  Midland  Railway, 
on  the  east  side  of  New  Saville-street,  and  exactly  opposite  to  the  Cyclops 
works.    The  general  aspect  of  the  building,  as  the  engraving  shows,  is  in 


Sheffield  by  no  means  common  ;  it  has  more  the  appearance  of  those  lofty, 
extensive,  regularly-built  structures  observable  in  Manchester  and  the 
clothing  district.  Messrs.  Weightman,  Hadfield,  and  Goldie  are  the  archi- 
tects ;  and  they  have,  by  this  example,  proved  themselves  as  capable  of  pro- 
viding a  building  perfectly  adapted  to  manufacturing  pursuits  as  an  edifice 
of  higher  architectural  pretensions.  The  building  is  of  brick,  with  stone 
facings  ;  and  while  it  makes  no  great  pretensions  to  ornamentation,  it  pre- 
sents that  pleasing  appearance  which  is  always  associated  with  appropriate- 
ness. One  of  its  chief  characteristics  is  perfection  of  arrangement — a  quality 
which,  in  many  of  our  local  manufactories,  is  remarkably  wanting,  in  con- 
sequence of  their  having  undergone  a  series  of  enlargements  and  alterations 
necessitated  by  increased  business,  but  neither  provided  for  nor  contemplated 
in  the  original  structure.  In  this  respect  the  Atlas  works  possesses  a  great 
advantage.  Some  idea  of  the  vastness  of  the  concern  is  afforded  by  the  fact 
that  the  site  is  upwards  of  two  acres  in  extent,  and  the  principal  front 
of  the  building  about  500  yards  long. 

"  The  principal  building  is  arranged  in  three  storeys,  each  of  which  is  an 
unbroken  level,  and  consists  chiefly  of  ranges  of  very  long  and  lofty  rooms, 
the  apartment  on  the  several  floors  varying  in  height  from  10  to  about  13 
feet.  Each  room  is  lighted  by  a  row  of  circular-topped  windows  on  both 
sides,  set  in  iron  frames.  In  the  entire  suite  of  buildings  there  are  more  win- 
dows than  days  in  a  year, 

"  It  is  impossible  to  observe  the  hundreds  of  industrious  hands  in  active  oper- 
ation at  this  vast  hive  of  industry  without  thinking  of  the  immense  benefit  which 
its  establishment  must  have  conferred  upon  the  working  classes  directly,  and 
upon  every  other  class  consequentially;  including  an  inconsiderable  portion  of 
outworkers,  the  proprietors  of  the  Atlas  works  give  employment  to  some  four 
hundred  individuals.  The  industrial  population  of  Sheffield  is  benefited  in 
a  peculiar  manner,  inasmuch  as,  while  most  of  the  skilled  trades  are  effectu- 
ally hemmed  in  by  stringent  trade-union  regulations,  this  new  branch  of 
business  acts  to  a  great  extent  as  a  safety-valve,  by  absorbing  a  large  amount 
of  labour.  Every  worker  is  paid  on  a  liberal  scale,  in  proportion  to  his  or 
her  individual  worth,  altogether  independent  of  any  factitious  operations  con- 
trived to  create  an  artificial  scarcity  of  labour,  Another  interesting  fact  is 
the  great  diversity  of  persons  employed.  While  many  of  the  operations  are 
such  as  require  the  highly-educated  hand  and  eye,  there  is  a  large  amount 
of  work  so  simple  as  to  admit  of  being  done  by  boys  and  adults  of  both  sexes 
who  have  not  had  the  advantage  of  a  specific  mechanical  training.  None  of 
the  work  involves  great  expenditure  of  muscular  strength  ;  and  much  of  it, 
being  closely  associated  with  the  beautiful  in  art,  must  be  of  a  very  pleasant 
nature.  A  more  commodious  set  of  workshops,  or  better  constructed  with 
respect  to  the  laws  of  health,  we  have  never  had  the  satisfaction  of  inspecting. 
Everything  is  kept  in  a  state  of  admirable  order  and  cleanliness.  The  con- 
trast presented  to  some  of  the  Sheffield  manufacturing  establishments,  as  well 
in  internal  circumstances  as  in  external  appearance,  is  very  broad  indeed. 
Everything  is  reduced  to  a  harmonious  system.  Discipline  is  a  principle 
that  prevails  amongst  the  artisans  of  Sheffield  less  perhaps  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  country ;  whereas,  in  this  individual  establishment  we  observe 
the  manufacturing  system  at  work  with  a  smoothness  and  precision  very 
remarkable  for  a  concern  of  such  recent  origin.  The  order  and  regularity 
that  prevail  are  producing  a  marked  effect  upon  the  workpeople,  in  their 
habits  as  well  as  appearance.  The  juveniles  must  of  necessity  turn  out  a 
more  sober  and  industrious  class,  in  consequence  of  the  training  which  they 
here  undergo.  A  code  of  rules  have  been  introduced,  and  are  observed  with 
great  cheerfulness,  the  intelligence  of  the  workpeople  convincing  them  that 
any  little  sacrifice  of  personal  freedom  is  not  only  justified  by  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case,  but  amply  compensated  by  the  manifold  attentions  paid 
to  their  comfort  and  convenience  by  the  proprietors.  The  reasonableness  of 
the  rules  and  their  necessity  are  evinced  by  the  perfect  facility  with  which 
they  were  introduced  and  their  successful  working. 

"  To  give  a  detailed  description  of  the  various  and  complicated  modus 
operandi  involved  in  the  productions  of  this  manufactory  is  beyond  our 
present  purpose.  The  following  brief  sketch  of  the  successive  processes  may 
not,  however,  be  uninteresting  to  the  uninitiated.  Every  new  design  is  in 
the  first  instance  modelled  in  wax,  after  the  same  manner  as  in  the  silver 
trade.  The  design  is  then  transferred  to  lead,  as  a  material  easily  worked. 
From  the  lead  a  brass  casting  is  taken,  which  is  highly  chased  by  skilled 


1852.] 


Dimensions  of  Steamers. 


251 


hands,  and  becomes  a  permanent  pattern,  from  which  any  number  of  dupli- 
cates may  be  cast.  The  casting  is  carried  on  as  a  totally  distinct  department 
from  the  rest  of  the  works,  in  a  range  of  roomy,  well  -adapted  buildings  at 
the  rear  of  the  structure  shown  in  the  drawing.  The  art  of  casting  in  brass 
has  of  late  years  arrived  at  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  At  the  Atlas  works 
all  the  ornamental  castings  have  a  fine,  sharp,  crisp  outline,  which  gives  to 
them  the  spirit  of  the  original  design,  and  leaves  very  little  to  be  accomplished 
by  subsequent  processes.  Some  asperities  necessarily  remain,  however,  to  be 
dressed  off;  but  the  operation  is  a  very  simple  one,  and  it  gives  employment 
to  a  great  number  of  boys,  who  may  be  seen  in  the  fitting-rooms  standing  in 
long  rows,  filing  away  with  amusing  briskness.  The  castings,  having  now 
undergone  the  process  of  dressing,  are  given  to  skilled  workmen  to  be  made 
up  into  an  infinite  variety  of  beautiful  ornamental  objects.  In  this  depart- 
ment a  very  large  proportion  of  the  hands  in  the  entire  establishment  are 
employed.  This  department  having  been  completed,  the  articles,  now  com- 
plete in  respect  of  form,  are  dipped  in  acids,  in  order  to  approximate  them  to 
that  deeper  rich  colour  which  finally  they  assume.  The  burnishing  process 
follows,  imparting  a  new  and  beautiful  effect.  After  that  the  operation  of 
lacquering  is  performed,  which  gives  completeness  to  the  colour  s  in  other 
words,  an  article  of  brass  so  treated  assumes  the  glowing  richness  of 
Australia's  choicest  auriferous  treasures.  This  last  process  is  carried  on  ex- 
clusively by  women,  in  separate  apartments.  The  chandeliers,  lamps,  &c, 
that  have  to  be  bronzed  are  of  course  treated  in  a  very  different  manner,  the 
higher  departments  of  bronzing  being  a  close  secret,  preserved  with  scrupu- 
lous care  from  the  uninitiated.  The  bronzer  works  alone  in  a  remote  room 
like  an  old  alchymist,  with  all  the  solemnity  and  reserve  of  a  civilised 
"  mystery  man."  This  arcanum  being  so  closely  guarded,  the  etiquette  of 
the  establishment  forbids  a  closer  ken.  We  therefore  quit  the  scene,  and  join 
company  with  a  more  ordinary  class  of  mortals,  namely,  the  men  who  apply 
the  touchstone,  as  it  were,  to  the  various  articles  of  manufacture,  in  order  to 
make  sure  that  everything  is  sound  and  tight,  for  "  Sheffield  wasters"  are 
strictly  tabooed  at  the  Atlas  works. 

"  The  department  most  attractive  to  the  ordinary  visitor  to  the  Atlas 
works  is  the  show-room,  an  exceedingly  handsome  and  spacious  apartment 
at  the  north-western  extremity  of  the  building,  very  tastefully  fitted  up  and 
decorated,  stored  with  a  great  variety  of  rich  elegant  chandeliers  and  lamps, 
costly  and  otherwise,  fabricated  at  the  establishment.  One  sees  here  a 
variety  of  novel  styles,  designed  in  accordance  with  the  purest  taste,  and 
adorned  with  oriental  splendour,  before  which  a  Chinese  '  feast  of  lanterns  ' 
would  pale  its  fires.  Not  only  do  we  find  the  highest  beauty  of  form,  but 
the  most  charming  combinations  of  colour — an  intermingling  of  burnished 
and  dead  gold,  electro-silver,  ormolu,  elegant  porcelain  and  Bohemian  glass, 
finely  modelled  Parian  marble  figures,  rich  bronze,  sparkling  crystal-like 
glass,  &c.  The  best  specimens  of  bronze  work  are  in  nowise  surpassed  by 
those  charming  products,  in  respect  of  which,  at  the  Great  Exhibition  of 
1851,  the  French  bronzers  ranked  pre-eminent.  But,  amidst  a  profusion  of 
costly  splendour,  the  cheap  and  useful  class  is  by  no  means  unrepresented  ; 
there  are  several  new  specimens  which  command  notice,  from  the  fact  of 
their  possessing  in  a  very  striking  degree  the  qualities  of  great  and  general 
utility,  beauty,  and  extreme  cheapness.     The  '  patent  Atlas  night-lamp,'  for 


instance,  is  a  perfectly  unique  contrivance,  and  being  sold  for  a  trifling  sum 
at  the  retail  shops,  is  likely  to  become  very  popular.  These  lamps  are  pro- 
duced in  bronze  and  also  with  opal  glass  pillars.  At  an  infinitesimal  cost 
they  burn  without  occasioning  any  trouble,  and  in  perfect  safety,  for  seven  or 
eight  consecutive  hours,  and  they  may  be  carried  about  with  the  greatest 
facility,  the  glass  being  so  secured,  that  it  cannot  fall  off,  and  of  such  a  form, 
that  the  light  cannot  be  extinguished  by  a  current  of  air.  Amongst  the 
other  novelties  which  arrested  our  attention  as  we  inspected  the  show-room, 
was  the  Atlas  oil-lamp,  for  the  sole  manufacture  of  which  Messrs.  William 
W.  Cutts  and  Co.  have  recently  obtained  Her  Majesty's  royal  letters  patent. 
The  simplicity  of  its  mechanical  arrangement,  the  ease  with  which  it  is 
trimmed  and  replenished,  and  the  beautiful,  brilliant,  steady,  gas-like  light 
which  it  emits,  must  cause  an  increase  of  the  present  great  demand  for  the 
article,  and  extend  Messrs.  Cutts'  reputation  to  every  part  of  the  world 
where  a  good  artificial  light,  unattended  by  trouble,  is  appreciated. 

"Another  new  design,  a  chandelier  for  a  drawing-room,  we  observed,  which 
struck  us  as  a  remarkable  combination  of  beauty  with  perfect  novelty.  The 
design  is  modelled  from  a  bough  of  crisp,  sparkling  holly,  the  stems,  green 
leaves,  and  bright  red  berries  represented  in  their  proper  colours,  a  perfect 
counterpart  of  nature.  Beautifully-modelled  birds  in  Parian  marble  are 
seen  perching  upon  the  twigs,  and  coloured  glass  shades  of  harmonious 
design  are  placed  in  the  interstices  between  the  boughs.  A  more  cheerful 
ornament  of  the  drawing-room  on  a  winter  night  could  scarcely  be  imagined. 
The  picturesque  foliage  of  the  oak,  rich  in  acorns,  the  graceful  lily,  the  vine, 
the  hop,  and  numerous  other  of  nature's  choicest  products,  are  wrought  up  in 
like  manner,  and  made  to  produce  the  most  delightful  effects.  The  mind 
cannot  dwell  upon  these  creations  of  the  artist's  fancy  without  a  gratifying 
consciousness  that  the  relation  between  our  local  manufactures  and  orna- 
mental art  has  been  largely  extended,  and  one  is  led  insensibly  to  reflect 
upon  the  consequently  rising  value  and  importance  of  that  seminary  of 
artistic  merit  the  Sheffield  school  of  design,  the  policy  of  fostering  which  with 
a  liberal  hand  is  daily  becoming  more  apparent. 

"A  pleasing  and  not  unimportant  manifestation  of  taste  and  spirit  associated 
with  the  Atlas  works  is  displayed  by  the  style  of  the  pattern  books.  The 
pattern  books  sent  out  by  other  houses  in  the  trado  are  even  at  the  present 
day  of  the  old  stereotyped  order  —plain  coarse  black  and  white  engravings 
or  lithographs,  shadowing  forth  very  imperfectly  the  articles  they  are  intended 
to  represent.  A  pattern  book  of  the  Atlas  works  is  a  very  different  and  vastly 
superior  affair.  Not  only  are  the  pages  very  large,  but  the  specimens  are 
executed  after  the  manner  of  Digby  Wyatt's  finely-illustrated  new  work, 
'The  Industrial  Arts  of  the  Nineteenth  Century:'  in  fact,  they  arc  got  up  in 
a  style  that  renders  them  a  becoming  ornament  for  the  drawing-room  table. 
In  a  purely  mercantile  point  of  view,  however,  we  are  disposed  to  regard 
this  new  style  of  pattern  book  as  vastly  moro  important  than  it  may  at  first 
sight  appear." 

The  advantage  of  this  to  purchasers  at  a  distance  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated, as  they  are  enabled  to  judge  accurately  of  the  style  which 
they  must  adopt,  in  order  that  no  want  of  harmony  may  be  felt  between 
the  various  fittings  and  furniture  of  the  rooms  to  be  lighted — a  most 
important  point,  and  one  often  entirely  overlooked. 


DIMENSIONS  OF  NEW  STEAMERS. 


THE   "PRINCESSE  MATHILDE,"    "CHAMOIS,"    AND 
"  CASTOR." 


Built  by  M.  Nillus,  of  Havre  (France).     Engines  by  the 
same,  of  70,  50,  and  25  (nominal)  horse-power 


"  PRINCESSE  MATHILDE." 

Dimensions. 
Length  on  deck 
Breadth  of  beam 
Depth  of  hold  do. 
Length  of  engine-space 

Tonnage. 
Hull,  displacement  load 

Oscillating  engines,  with  tubular  boilers. 


ft.  tenths. 

145     2 

16     8 

8     5 

26     0 

Tons. 
145 


Diameter  of  cylinders 
Length  of  stroke 
Diameter  of  paddle-wheel 
Length  of  boards 
Length  of  do. 
Number  of  do.     . . 
No.  of  boilers 
Length  of  do.  at  bottom 
Breadth  of  do.     . . 
Height  of  do.,  in  all 
No.  of  furnaces  . . 
Breadth  of  do.     . . 
Length  of  fire-bars 
Number  of  tubes.. 
Internal  diameter  of  do. 
Length  of  do. 
Diameter  of  chimney 


over  boards 


,243 


ft. 

ins. 

2 

9 

2 

10 

4 

6 

5 

5 

2 

3 

7 

0 

9 

10 

8 

G 

2 

8 

6 

2 

0 

2J 

6 

0 

3 

4 

ft. 

21 


in*. 
0 


Height  of  chimney 

Load  on  safety  valve,  in  pounds,  per  square 

inch 
Area  of  immersed  section 
Contents  of  bunkers,  in  tons 

Draft  forward 

Do.  aft      ••         

Average  revolutions 

Weight  of  engines  and  boilers  with  water 

DESCRIPTION. 

Frames,  3  inches  X  2i  inches  X  {',-,  '"<■'',  nml  1 
foot  8  inches  apart -,  number  of  Btrakei  <>t  plates 
from  keel  to  gunwale,  5;   thickness  of  plat 
and  ft;  number  of  bulkheads,  5j  masts, '-';  aobow- 

sprit;  round  stern  ;    schooner-rigged.       The  bOW 


22J  lbs. 

SO  sq.  It. 

6  tons. 

ft.  Ins. 

:i    6 

•i     n 

46  to  SO 

42  tons. 


252 


Revieivs. 


[November, 


falls  perpendicularly  in  the  water.  She  is  intended 
to  run  from  Havre  to  Rouen,  in  four  hours  and 
a  half,  including  stoppages;  the  distance  is  36 
leagues. 

This  steamer  is  on  the  stocks,  and  will  be  ready 
next  month  of  April,  to  begin  her  service  by  sum- 
mer time.  This  steamer  is  very  sharp  at  the  bow, 
and  the  engines  are  very  near  the  stern  ;  boiler  is 
after  the  engines,  nearer  the  stern. 


"  CHAMOIS." 

Dimensions.  ft-  tenths. 

Lengthondeck 118     2 

Breadth  of  beam          ..          ..          ..  14     6 

Depth  of  hold  do 8     1 

Length  of  engine-space          . .          . .  22     0 

Tonnage.  Tons. 

Hull,  displacement  load          . .          . .  80 

Oscillating  engines,  with  tubular  boilers. 

ft.    ins. 

Diameter  of  cylinder^    ..         ..          ..  2     5 

Length  of  stroke . .          . .          . .          . .  2     6 

Diameter  of  paddle-wheel  over  boards. .  14     0 

Length  of  boards            . .          . .          . .  4     5 

Depth  of  do 19 

Number  of  do.    ..         ..  ..         ..11 

Number  of  boilers           . .          . .          . .  1 

Length  of  do.  at  bottom            . .          . .  6     5 

Breadth  of  do 7  11 

Height  of  do.,  in  all       . .          . .          . .  8     0 

Number  of  furnaces       . .          . .  3 


Breadth  of  furnaces 
Length  of  fire-bars 
Number  of  tubes. .  ..  ..  -.196 

Internal  diameter  of  do. 
Length  of  do. 
Diameter  of  chimney 
Height  of  do. 

Load  on  safety-valve  in  pounds  per  square 
inch      . .  . . 

Area  of  immersed  section 
Contents  of  bunkers,  in  tons      . . 
Consumption  of  coals  per  horn- 
Date  of  trial 


ft. 
2 
6 

0 

5 

2 

21 


ins. 
1 
0 

4 


Draft  forward 

Do.  aft     . .  

Average  revolutions 

Speed  in  knots  with  tide 

Do.  against  tide 

Weight  of  engines  and  boilers  with  water 


Dimensions. 
Length  on  deck 
Breadth  of  beam 
Depth  of  hold  do. 
Length  of  engine- space 

Tonnage. 
Hull,  displacement  load 


48  sq.  ft. 
5  tons. 
7  cwt. 
July,  1850. 
ft.  ins. 
.3     6 
4     0 
42 

14  knots. 
11       „ 
34  tons. 


ft.  tenths. 
85     0 
13  10 
7  10 
18     0 


Tons. 
60 


Oscillating  engines,  with  tubular  boilers. 


Diameter  of  cylinders 

Length  of  stroke 

Diameter  of  paddle-wheel  over  boards. . 

Length  of  boards 

Depth  of  do. 

Number  of  do. 

Number  of  boilers 

Length  of  do.  at  bottom 

Breadth  of  do. 

Height  of  do.,  in  all 

Number  of  furnaces 

Breadth  of  do.    .. 

Length  of  fire-bars 

Number  of  tubes 

Internal  diameter  of  do.. . 

Length  of  do. 

Diameter  of  chimney 

Height  of  do. 

Load  on  safety-valve  in  pounds  per  squar 

inch 
Area  of  immersed  section 
Contents  of  bunkers,  in  tons 
Consumption  of  coals  per  hour. . 
Date  of  trial 


Draft  forward 

Do.  aft  

Average  revolutions 

Speed  in  knots  with  tide 

Do.  against  tide 

Weight  of  engines  and  boilers  with  water  15  tons. 


ft. 

ins. 

1 

10 

1 

10* 

11 

6 

4 

0 

1 

3 

12 

.      1 

5 

8 

5 

6 

7 

0 

.      2 

1 

10 

5 

4 

.130 

0 

2| 

5 

0 

2 

2 

20 

0 

.     15  lbs. 

.      30  sq.  ft. 

3  tons. 

•       H 

cwt. 

July,  1849. 

ft. 

ins. 

3 

0 

3 

4 

.    38 

.    13  knots. 

.      9 

REVIEWS. 

The  Assayer's  Guide.  By  Oscar  M.  Lieber,  late  Geologist  to  the  State 
of  Mississippi.  Philadelphia :  H.  C.  Baird.  London  :  Trubner 
and  Co. 
The  appearance  of  the  present  volume  is  well-timed ;  and  when  so 
much  attention  is  directed  to  the  mineral  wealth  of  our  colonies,  it 
cannot  fail  to  be  acceptable  to  a  large  circle  of  readers.  It  is  eminently 
practical  in  its  tone,  and,  without  being  diffuse,  gives  sufficient  detail  of 
the  apparatus  employed,  as  to  enable  the  student  to  manufacture  for 
himself  wherever  the  raw  material  is  available.  We  believe  the  author 
is  correct  in  saying  that  his  work  will  fill  the  void  between  the  too 
scientific  and  the  too  popular  divisions  of  chemical  literature ;  and  we 
are  also  glad  to  repeat  his  commendations  of  two  other  treatises,  which 
the  student  may  consult  with  advantage,  if  he  have  mastered  the  lan- 
guages in  which  they  are  written.  The  one  is  the  Traite  des  Essais  par 
la  Voie  Seche,  by  Berthier ;  Paris,  1834  :  the  other,  in  German,  "  In- 
structions on  Assaying,  for  Miners  and  Smelters,"  by  Bodeman ; 
Clausthal,  1845. 

The  Encyclopedia  of  Chemistry.     By  James  C.  Booth,  A.M.,  M.A.P.S., 
Melter-and  Refiner  in  the  U.  S.  Mint,  Professor  of  Applied  Chemistry 
in  the  Franklin  Institute.    Assisted  by  Campbell  Morfitt.      Second 
edition.      Philadelphia  :   H.  C.  Baird.     London  :    Trubner  and  Co. 
8vo.,  pp.  974. 
To   review   an    encyclopaedia   such    as   this  would  require  at  least  a 
whole  number  of  the  Artizan.     We  may  give  our  readers  an  idea  of  its 
contents  by  comparing  it  with  Dr.  Ure's  Dictionary,  which  it  resembles 
in  its  chemical  character,  whilst  it  is   superior  to  that  work,  inasmuch 
as  the  history  of  the  science  is  brought  down  to  a  later  date.     An  ad- 
mirable feature  in  it  is,  the  constant  reference  to  the  authorities  of 
which  the  editor  has  availed  himself— a  system  which  enables  the  stu- 
dent to  refer,  without  trouble,  to  the  best  sources  of  information  on 
any  special  branch  of  the  subject  to  which  he  wishes  to  apply  himself. 

We  hope  to  avail  ourselves,  as  occasion  may  offer,  of  the  immense 
mass  of  information  contained  in  its  pages.     The  price  at  which  it  is 


published  is  very  moderate ;  but  any  of  our  readers  who  might  wish  to 
examine  a  copy  before  ordering  it,  are  at  liberty  to  do  so,  on  presenting 
their  cards  at  our  office. 

A  new  general  Theory  of  the  Teeth  of  Wheels.  By  Edward  Sang, 
Professor  of  Mechanical  Philosophy  in  the  Imperial  School,  Mu- 
hendis,  Hana  Berrii,  at  Constantinople.  Edinburgh  :  A.  and  C. 
Black. 
The  author  of  this  work  appears  to  have  endured  a  most  enormous 
amouut  of  labour  in  producing  a  monument  of  mathematical  research. 
He  confesses  in  the  introduction,  that  it  is  impossible  to  render  all  his 
investigations  intelligible  to  those  unacquainted  with  the  integral  and 
differential  calculus,  but  we  find  no  attempt  to  smooth  the  path  to  the 
great  body  of  practical  men,  who,  we  imagine,  will  still  prefer  the 
simple  formulae  of  Professors  Willis  and  Cowper.  If  a  mechanic, 
anxious  to  make  his  stock  of  wheels  of  the  most  approved  form,  were 
to  purchase  this  book  only,  he  would  throw  it  down  in  despair,  and  go 
on  in  his  old  rule-of-thumb  style  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  Mr.  Sang  re- 
minds us  of  those  stars  which  shine  very  brilliantly  in  their  own  spheres, 
but  are  so  immeasurably  elevated  above  this  common-place  world,  that 
their  usefulness  is  very  materially  diminished. 

The  Practical  Lithographer.     By  Cyrus  Mason.     London  :   published 

by  the  Author. 
This  little  treatise  contains  some  practical  hints  on  the  manipulations 
of  lithography,  which  will,  we  doubt  not,  be  found  valuable  in  removing 
the  difficulties  in  the  path  of  the  student,  whilst  those  unacquainted 
with  the  art  may  be  tempted  to  learn  it,  when  they  find  there  is  not  so 
much  mystery  about  the  matter  as  might  be  imagined. 

THE  ATLAS  LAMP. 
On  a  recent  visit  to  the  show-rooms  of  Messrs.  Cutts  and  Co.,  in 
Hatton-garden,  we  were  shown  a  new  and  ingenious  lamp  just  patented, 
and  not  yet,  we  believe,  issued  to  the  public.  We  have  tried  a  great 
many  lamps,  and  never  found  one  yet  which  was  not  attended  with 
some  disadvantage.    The  one  before  us  appears  to  be  less  open  to  ob- 


1852.] 


Millers  Patent  Slip. 


253 


jection  than  any  other  we  have  seen ;  the  accompanying  engraving  will 
explain  its  peculiarities.  The  lamp  is  of  that  form  in  which  the  reser- 
voir of  oil  is  placed  level  with  the  wick,  and  forms  the  support  for  the 
glass  shade ;  part  of  it  is  supposed  to  be  removed,  to  show  the  interior. 
There  are  two  novelties— one,  the  way  in  which  motion  is  given  to  the 
wickholder,  and  the  other  the  method  of  attaching  the  wick,  without 
using  the  ordinary  cotton-stick.  The  wickholder  slides  on  the  outside 
of  the  air-tube,  in  the  centre  of  the  lamp,  and  is  commanded  by  a  ver- 
tical screw,  to  which  motion  is  given  by  a  pair  of  small  bevel  wheels, 


the  driving  one  being  turned  at  pleasure  by  means  of  a  small  button  on 
the  outside  of  the  lamp.  This  arrangement  very  much  simplifies  the 
mechanism  of  the  lamp,  and  renders  it  less  liable  to  get  out  of  order. 

The  method  by  which  the  wick  is  fixed  is  equally  simple  and  in- 
genious. The  wickholder  is  made  in  two  parts,  which  hinge  upon  one 
another  in  such  a  way  that,  when  fully  raised,  it  can  collapse  from  the 
cylindrical  form  shown  in  the  sketch,  into  the  conical  form,  and  the 
wick  can  thus  be  readily  slipped  on  the  reduced  diameter.     But  when 


the  wickholder  is  screwed  down,  the  centre  tube,  over  which  it  passes, 
compels  it  to  open,  and  hold  the  wick  securely. 

Messrs.  Cutts  and  Co.  have  a  profusion  of  elegant  chandeliers,  and 
other  apparatus  for  lighting,  from  the  most  economical  to  the  most 
expensive,  some  of  which  we  may  take  occasion  to  notice.  In  the 
meantime,  any  of  our  readers  will  find  their  time  well  bestowed  in  pay- 
ing them  a  visit. 


MILLER'S  PATENT  SLIP. 

At  p.  45  of  the  present  volume,  we  have  given  an  engraving  of  the 
patent  hydraulic  purchase  machinery,  patented  by  Mr.  Miller,  C.E.,  for 
raising  vessels  on  slip  docks,  and  as  we  have  had  some  inquiries  from 
persons  not  intimately  acquainted  with  the  details  of  slip  docks,  we 
have  thought  it  worth  while  to  give  a  general  engraving  of  the  whole 
machinery,  which  will  be  more  readily  understood  by  the  uninitiated. 

Fig.  1  is  a  side  elevation  of  the  vessel  on  the  slip,  the  weight  of  the 
hull  being  taken  by  a  series  of  trucks  connected  together,  the  wheels  of 
which  run  on  a  railway  of  three  rails  on  the  slip.  Figs.  2  and  3  are 
transverse  sections  of  the  slip,  looking  from  the  stern  and  the  stem 
respectively. 

Fig.  3  is  a  view  of  one  arrangement  of  the  hydraulic  purchase 
machinery.  A  is  the  cylinder  of  the  hydraulic  press  ;  13  the  ram,  the 
motion  of  which  is  communicated  to  the  truck  by  the  links  d,  d.  F  is 
the  cylinder  of  the  steam-engine  which  gives  motion  to  the  pumps  II, 
the  supply  from  which  is  regulated  by  the  cock  k. 

As  we  have  already  explained,  the  immense  power  obtained  by  the 
hydraulic  ram  draws  up  the  ship ;  and  when  the  ram  has  made  one 
stroke,  it  is  disengaged  from  the  links,  and,  one  link  being  taken  out,  the 
ram  is  allowed  to  descend,  and  a  fresh  hold  taken ;  and  so  on,  until  the 
vessel  is  raised  the  desired  height. 


Fig. 1. 


Fig.  3. 


254 


Briefs  Patent  Gazogene  Apparatus. 


[November, 


BRIET'S  PATENT  GAZOGENE  APPARATUS. 

One  of  the  most  useful  inventions  which  we  have  seen  for  some  time, 
is  the  above  apparatus,  which  has  been  submitted  to  us  by  M.  Mathieu, 
the  representative  in  England  of  the  manufacturer,  and  which  we  have 
engraved.  By  its  use,  any  liquid  can  be  impregnated  with  any  of  the 
cases  formed  by  the  mutual  decomposition  of  bodies  in  the  presence 
of  the  fluid,  and  with  this  advantage,  that  the  materials  employed  do 
not  come  in  contact  with  the  body  of  the  liquid.  The  apparatus  is 
more  especially  applicable  to  making  soda  water,  ginger  beer,  lemonade, 
&c,  which  can  be  made  at  convenience,  and  kept  for  any  length  of  time 
without  deteriorating  in  quality. 


f  Fig-  5. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  1  is  a  side  elevation  of  the  apparatus  complete,  drawn  to  a  scale 
of  1^  inch  to  a  foot.  When  it  is  to  be  charged,  the  top  receiver  is 
screwed  off,  and  being  inverted,  as  in  fig.  2,  is  filled  with  water  or  any 
desired  liquor.  The  powders  to  form  the  gases  are  then  poured  into 
the  lower  receiver,  fig.  3,  by  means  of  the  funnel,  fig.  4.  In  the  inside 
of  the  apparatus,  fig.  1,  will  be  seen  a  tube,  shown  separate  at  fig.  5. 
This  tube  is  inserted  into  fig.  3,  and  the  receiver,  together  with  the 
pipe,  inverted,  and  screwed  into  receiver  fig.  2.  By  re-inverting  the 
whole  apparatus,  as  in  fig.  1,  the  operation  is  completed.  A  small 
quantity  of  the  water  in  the  upper  receiver  flows  down  the  pipe,  and 
mixing  with  the  powders  in  the  lower  receiver,  causes  the  disengage- 
ment of  the  gas,  which  bubbles  up  into  the  upper  receiver,  and  not 
being  able  to  escape,  is  subjected  to  considerable  pressure,  which  assists 
its  absorption  by  the  water.  By  opening  the  cock  shown  in  the  side, 
the  aerated  water  is  drawn  off  at  pleasure.  An  apparatus  of  this  descrip- 
tion may  be  seen  in  operation  at  our  office. 

NOVELTIES. 

New  Water  Gauge. — The  annoyance  and  expense  caused  by  the 
breakage  of  gauge  glasses  often  causes  their  disuse,  although  there  can  he 
no  doubt  of  their  great  value,  seeing  how  large  a  proportion  of  boiler  explo- 
sions occur  from  shortness  of  water.  We  notice  in  the  American  Mechanic 
a  description  of  an  invention  designed  to  remedy  this  objection,  invented  by 
a  Mr.  Echol.  A  correct  idea  of  it  may  be  formed  by  supposing  the  glass  to 
be  taken  out  of  an  ordinary  gauge,  and  a  metal  tube  substituted,  having  in 
the  centre  two  bosses,  one  back  and  one  front.  Into  each  of  these  bosses  is 
screwed  a  brass  plug,  containing  a  glass  lens,  which  will  obviously  show 
daylight  through  the  centre  of  the  tube.  If  now,  a  strip  of  glass,  or  other 
suitable  material,  be  marked  with  a  series  of  numerals,  a  float  be  fixed  at 
the  upper  end  of  it,  and  the  whole  be  placed  in  the  tube,  it  is  obvious  that, 
as  the  level  of  the  water  varies,  the  float  will  rise,  and  the  various  figures  be 
visible  through  the  lens,  and  the  level  of  the  water  thus  observed. 


The  advantages  claimed  by  the  inventor  are,  that,  owing  to  the  strong 
form  of  the  glass,  and  its  being  constantly  immersed  in  the  water,  it  will  be 
much  less  likely  to  be  broken,  whilst,  at  the  same  time,  by  shutting  the  cocks, 
if  that  accident  should  occur,  the  broken  lens  can  be  taken  out,  and  a  spare 
one  screwed  in  in  a  few  minutes.  Another  advantage,  perhaps,  would  be, 
that  the  light  of  a  small  lamp  placed  behind  the  back  lens  would  be  mag- 
nified, and  the  figure  accurately  noticed. 


Culverwell's  Registered  Portable  Vapour-Bath, — It  must  be  con- 
fessed that  in  this  country  we  have  very  little  notion  of  the  sanitary  uses  of 
the  bath.  With  the  million,  it  is  only  regarded  as  a  means  of  cleanliness,  to 
be  used  occasionally  in  hot  weather,  although  its  beneficial  effect  in  such  a 
variable  climate  as  this  ought  to  make  it  an  appendage  to  every  house.  The 
vapour-bath,  from  the  small  space  which  it  occupies,  and  the  ease  and 
rapidity  with  which  it  can  be  prepared,  deserves  to  be  more  generally  adopted. 
A  neat  and  economical  form  of  it  has  been  submitted  to  us  by  Mr.  W.  Culver- 
well,  a  gentleman  of  the  medical  profession.  The  annexed  sketch  shows  the 
apparatus  for  supplying  the  vapour.    It  consists  of  a  boiler,  b,  which  is  filled 

with  water  (either  pure,  or 
medicated,  as  may  be  required), 
and  is  beated  by  the  spirit-lamp, 
c.  As  soon  as  the  water  boils, 
dispersers,  fig.  2,  are  placed 
over  the  steam  jets  d,  d,  d,  d,  fig. 
1,  and  the  apparatus  is  placed 
under  a  cane-bottomed  chair, 
upon  which  the  patient  sits, 
enveloped  in  a  blanket  or  other 
suitable  covering.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  bath  may  be 
varied  by  adjusting  the  wick  of 
the  spirit-lamp  to  give  more 
or  less  heat.  By  adapting  a 
flexible  tube,  fig.  3,  to  one  of 
the  steam  jets,  stopping 
the  rest,  the  vapour 
can  be  conveyed  to 
any  part  of  the  body 
From  personal  experi- 
ence we  can  speak  of  the  beneficial  effects  of  the  vapour-bath  in  preventing 
the  progress  of  that  very  disagreeable  malady,  popularly  understood  as 
"  taking  cold,"  if  it  be  ODly  applied  in  time. 


Fig  1. 


Fig.  3. 


Clayton's  Patent  Pipe-joint. — Some  difficulty  has  been  experienced 
in  making  the  joints  of  the  earthenware  pipes  now  so  commonly  adopted 
for  drainage  purposes.  Mr.  Clayton  has  patented  a  very  convenient  me- 
thod of  doing  it,  which  renders  the 
pipes  perfectly  smooth,  inside  and 
and  out.  Pig.  1  is  a  single  pipe, 
prepared  for  jointing  in  this  way, 
by  which  it  will  he  seen  that  one 
end  of  the  pipe  is  cored  out,  whilst 
the  other  end  is  turned  down,  to 
suit.  The  pipes,  when  laid  toge- 
Fig.  1.  ther,  as  in  fig.  2,  form  a  perfectly 

flush  joint,  which  possesses  many  advantages.      Mr.   Clayton  has  a  very 


Fig.  2. 

pretty  machine  for  making  the  pipes  to  this  form,  which  we  will  describe  on 
some  future  occasion. 


1852.] 


Channels  for  Investment, 


255 


CHANNELS  FOR  INVESTMENT. 

LIST  OF  NEW  COMPANIES  RECENTLY  ESTABLISHED 

OR  PROPOSED. 


Amount  of 

_,        ,     _.     ,     ,  Share.  No.  of  Shares. 

Strood,  Canterbury,  and  Dover 

Railway  £25  ..        60,000 

Great  Western  and  City  Junc- 

_  tion 20  ..        15,000 

Severn  Valley  Railway  . .  20  . .       30  000 

Isle  of  Wight  Railway  ..         ..        10  ..       24000 

Hull  and  Holderness  Railway  . .  20  . .         6,000 

Dartmouth,    Brixham,    Torbay, 

and  South  Devon  Railway  . .  10  . .        12  000 

Boston  and  Midland  Company's 

Railway  and  Dock     ..  ..        10  ..       30  00Q 

South  Midlands  Union  Railway  20  . .       45  000 

Mid-Kent  and  London  Railway  2.0  . .       50  000 

Cheltenham  and  Oxford  Railway  20  ..       30000 

London  and  Mid- Western  Rail- 
way       . .  20  . .       50,000 

Staines,  Wokingham,  and  Wo- 
king Railway  ..         ..  20  ..       15,000 

Montgomeryshire  Railway       . .  10  . .       25,000 

West-End     and  Crystal  Palace 

Railway  ..  10  ..       38,600 

Belgian  Eastern  Junction  Rail-  $   £5  sh.  42,500 

way 1    40  deb.  4,500 


Capital. 

£1,500,000 

300,000 
600,000 
240,000 
120,000 

120,000 

300,000 

900,000 

1,000,000 

600,000 

1,000,000 

300,000 
250,000 

386,000 
392,500 


NOTES    PROM    CORRESPONDENCE. 

***  We  cannot  insert  communications  from  anonymous  correspondents. 

"Ericsson's  Caloric  Engine."— "An  incredulous  one,"  wishes  to  know 
whether  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  air  will  pass  through  the  regene- 
rators at  the  requisite  speed,  without  occasioning  a  large  amount  of  back- 
pressure. We  presume  that  that  has  been  taken  into  account ;  but  we  must 
confess  that  the  information  accorded  to  the  public  by  Captain  Ericsson  is 
so  meagre,  that  no  proper  grounds  exist  for  forming  an  opinion  upon.  We 
do  not  think  the  public  have  a  right  to  complain,  but  it  justifies  them  in 
suspending  their  judgment.  With  reference  to  the  regenerators  acting  with 
sufficient  rapidity — a  point  on  which  we  expressed  a  doubt  (p.  177,  vol. 
1851) — it  has  been  suggested,  that  small  drills  are  cooled  almost  instantane- 
ously by  merely  passing  them  through  the  air. 

"P.  H." — A  very  neat  planing  machine  can  be  made  by  working  the  table 
to  and  fro  by  means  of  a  double-threaded  screw,  the  length  of  the  machine, 
the  motion  and  speed  of  which  can  be  changed  by  crossed  straps,  as  usual, 
without  any  bevel-gear  or  toothed  wheels  at  all.  We  have  seen  such  a  one 
at  Messrs.  Summers  &  Co.'s,  Southampton,  of  their  own  make,  which  gives 
great  satisfaction. 

"C.  P.  H." — A  rope,  made  of  twisted  cow-hide  (untanned)  is  used  in  rope- 
grounds,  to  convey  power  a  long  distance,  and  would  probably  answer  his 
purpose.  It  is  much  superior,  in  durability,  to  the  best  hemp  rope  for  that 
purpose. 

"  Lucifer." — We  have  a  sketch  of  a  match-machine  in  hand  for  him, 

Patent-Office  Regulations. — Strangers  who  write  to  us  for  information 
on  the  Patent-Office  regulations  must  enclose  twelve  postage  stamps,  for  a 
reply,  as  we  are  overwhelmed  with  letters  on  the  subject,  which  it  would 
take  the  whole  time  of  a  clerk  to  answer. 

Books  received. — "The  Canadian  Journal;"  "  The  American  Mechanic  ;" 
(both  new  periodicals);  Fincham's  "Outlines  of  Ship-building;"  Bell's 
"  Outline  from  Outline  ;"  "  The  Farmer's  Magazine." 

A  bottle  of  "  Harding's  Cherokee  Zest,  or  Royal  Household  Sauce." 

LIST  OF  ENGLISH  PATENTS, 

From  27th  of  September  to  21st  October,  1852. 

Six  months  allowed  for  enrolment,  unless  otherwise  expressed. 

Henry  Medhurst,  of  Clerkenwell,  Middlesex,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  water- 
meters,  and  in  regulating,  indicating,  and  ascertaining  the  supply  of  water  and  lipids. 
September  27. 

Auguste  Edouard  Loradoux  Beliford,  of  Castle-street,  Holborn,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  part  of  which  said  improvements  are  also  applicable  to  the 
manufacture  of  various  other  articles  of  dress.    (Being  a  communication.)    September  30. 

Moses  Poole,  of  London,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  combs. 
(Being  a  communication.)    September  30. 

Sarah  Lester,  of  St.  Peter's-square,  Hammersmith,  Middlesex,  executrix  of  the  late 
Michael  Joseph  John  Donlan,  of  Rugeley,  Staffordshire,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in 
treating  the  seeds  of  flax  and  hemp,  and  also  in  the  treatment  of  flax  and  hemp  for  dressing. 
(Being  a  communication  from  the  said  M.  J.  J.  Donlan.)    September  30. 

Christopher  Nickels,  of  York-road,  Lambeth,  manufacturer,  and  Benjamin  Burrows,  of 
Leicester,  for  improvements  in  weaving.     September  30, 

Henry  Gardener  Guion  Jude,  of  Lower  Copenhagen-street,  Barnsbury-road,  Islington, 
for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  type.    (Being  a  communication.) 

Charles  Billson,  of  Leicester,  manufacturer,  and  Caleb  Bedells,  of  Leicester  aforesaid, 
manufacturer,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  articles  of  dress  where  looped 
fabrics  are  used,  and  in  preparing  looped  fabrics  for  making  articles  of  dress  and  parts  of 
garments.    September  30. 


Edouard  Moride,  of  Nantes,  France,  for  certain  improvements  in  tanning.     Septem- 

William  Hunt,  of  Stoke  Prior,  "Worcester,  manufacturing  chemist,  for  certain  improved 
modes  or  means  of  producing  or  obtaining  ammoniacal  salts.    September  30 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  the  firm  of  J.  C.  Robertson  and  Company,  of  1G6,  Fleet- 
street,  London,  patent  agents,  for  improvements  in  knitting  machinery.  (BeinL' a  com- 
munication.)   October  7. 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  the  firm  of  J.  C.  Robertson  and  Company,  of  166  Fleet- 
street,  London,  patent  agents,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar  and  in  the 
machinery  and  apparatus  employed  therein.    (Being  a  communication.)    October  7 

Alexander  Shairp,  of  the  Patent  Office,  166,  Fleet-street,  London,  for  an  improved  cut- 
ting and  slicing  machine.    (Being  a  communication.)    October  7. 

John  Reed  Randell,  of  Newlyn  East,  Cornwall,  farmer,  for  improvements  iu  cutting  and 
reaping  machines.    October  7. 

Pierre  Armand  Lecomte  de  Fontainemoreau,  of  South-street,  Finsbury,  for  certai  n  im- 
provements in  washing,  bleaching,  and  dyeing  flax  and  hemp,  and  in  mixing  them  with 
other  textile  substances.    (Being  a  communication.)    October  7. 

Solomon  Andrews,  of  Perth  Amboy,  in  the  United  States  of  America,  engineer,  for  im- 
provements in  machinery  for  cutting,  punching,  stamping,  forging,  and  bending  metals 
and  other  substances,  which' are  also  applicable  to  the  driving  of  piles  and  other  similar 
purposes,  and  to  crushing  and  pulverising  ores,  and  other  hard  substances.    October  7 

William  Edward  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements 
in  steam  and  other  gauges.    (Being  a  communication.)    October  11. 

Richard  Archibald  Brooman,  of  Fleet-street,  London,  patent  agent,  for  improvements  in 
mowing,  cutting,  and  reaping-machines.    (Being  a  communication.)    October  l-l 

Walter  Ricardo,  of  the  firm  of  A.  and  W.  Kicardo,  of  London,  share-broker,  for  improve- 
ments in  gas-burners.    (Being  a  communication.)    October  14. 

Thomas  Carter,  of  Padstow,  Cornwall,  ship -builder,  for  improvements  in  propelling 
October  14. 

John  Field,  of  Warnford-court,  Throgmorton-street,  for  improvements  in  transferring 
and  printing.    October  14. 

William  Brown,  of  Heaton,  near  Bradford,  York,  mechanist,  for  certain  improvements  in 
machinery  and  apparatus  for  preparing  and  spinning  wool,  hair,  flax,  silk,  and  all  other 
fibrous  materials.    October  18. 

Alfred  Vincent  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  mechanical  draughtsman,  for  an 
improved  mode  of  manufacturing  railway  chairs".    (Being  a  communication.)    October  19. 

Joseph  Palin,  of  Liverpool,  Lancaster,  wholesale  druggist,  and  Robert  William  Sievier,  of 
Upper  Holloway,  Middlesex,  for  improvements  in  brewing ;  and  also  in  the  production  of 
extracts  or  infusions  for  other  purposes.    October  1 9. 

William  Edward  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements 
in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  sewing.    (Being  a  communication.)    October  19. 

William  Edward  Newton,  of  Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements 
in  machinery  or  apparatus  applicable  to  public  carriages  for  ascertaining  and  registering 
the  number  of  passengers  who  have  travelled  therein  during  a  given  period,  and  the  dis- 
tance each  passenger  has  travelled.     (Being  a  communication.)    October  19. 

Edward  Henry  Jackson,  of  Titchfield-street,  Soho,  Middlesex,  machinist,  for  certain  im- 
provements in  producing  artificial  light,  and  also  in  producing  motive  power.    October  St. 

Edward  Brailsford  Bright,  of  Liverpool,  Secretary  to  the  English  and  Irish  Magnetic 
Telegraph  Company,  and  Charles  Tilston  Bright,  of  Manchester,  telegraphic  engineer,  for 
improvements  in  making  telegraphic  communications,  and  in  instruments  and  apparatus 
employed  therein  and  connected  therewith.    October  2 1 . 

William  Reid,  of  University-street,  electric-telegraph  engineer,  for  improvements  in 
electric  telegraphs.    October  21. 

William  Boggett,  of  St.  Martin's-lane,  Westminster,  gentleman,  and  George  Brooks  Pettit 
of  Lisle-street,  Westminster,  gas-engineers,  for  improvements  in  obtaining  and  applying 
heat  and  light.    October  21. 

John  Charles  Wilson,  of  the  Redford  Flax  Factory,  Thornton,  near  Kirkcaldy,  of  Fife 
North  Britain,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in  the  machinery  and  processes  employed 
in  and  for  the  manufacture  of  flax  and  other  fibrous  vegetable  substances.    October  2 1 . 


LIST  OF  IRISH  PATENTS, 
From  the  7th  of  September  to  the  11th  of  September,  1852. 
Joshua  Crockford,  of  Southampton-place,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in 
brewing  and  in  brewing  apparatus.     September  7. 

Henry  Bessemer,  of  Baxter  House,  Old  Saint  Pancras-road,  Middlesex,  for  improvements 
in  expressing  saccharine  fluids,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  refining  and  treating  sugar. 
September  11. 


PATENTS  APPLIED  FOR  WITH  COMPLETE  SPECIFICATIONS  DEPOSITED. 

Edwin  Bates,  an  invention  for  retarding  and  effectually  stopping  at  discretion  railway 
carriages,  and  also  for  carriages  of  all  descriptions,  for  the  more  safely  descending  inclined 
planes,  either  in  the  streets,  or  on  turnpike  roads,  to  be  called  l|  Bates's  Break."    Oct.  1. 

Henry  Mortlock  Ommanney,  an  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  guns,  cannon,  an.! 
other  ordnance.    October  1. 

Henry  Mortlock  Ommanney,  an  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  cylinders  tor 
hydraulic  presses  and  other  engines.     October  1. 

Henry  Mortlock  Ommanney,  an  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  wheels  for  railway 
carriages.    October  1. 

Henry  Mortlock  Ommanney,  an  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  stamp-heads  for 
crushing  ores.    October  1. 

Professor  Andrew  Crestadoro.    Certain  improvements  in  impulsoria,  or  machinery  for 
applying  animal  power  to  railways,  waterways,  and  common  roads,  and  toother  me 
purposes,  part 'pf  which  improvements  relate  to  railway  and  other  carriage-,  to  I 
springs,  breaks,  and  chains,  and  in  the  propelling  vessels  across  liquid  element-.     Oct  B. 


PROVISIONAL  PROTECTION  UNDER  THE  NEW  LAW. 
Dated  October  1,  1852. 
Robert  Adams.    Improvements  In  ball  cartridges. 
George  Henry  Brockbank.    Improvements  in  upright  pianofortes. 
Peter  Spenee.    Improvements  in  obtaining  power  bj  -Irani. 
James  Hodgson.    Improvements  in  constructing  Iron  ships  and  vessels, 
Joshua  Smith.     Improvements  in  tuble  knives. 
Moses  Poole.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  guns  and  pistols. 
John  Henry  Gardner.     Improvements  in  toilet  table- 
George  Green.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  casks. 
Freeman  Roe.    Improvements  in  valve-  and  cooks 
Thomas  Wood  Gray.    Improvements  in  COCks  and  valves. 
Thomas  Wood  Gray.     Improvements  in  -Irani  engine.-. 

Edward  Lambert  Hayward.    Improvements  In  lock  splndli 

Thomas  Christy.     Improvements  in  weaving  hat  plush,  and  other  plied  fabric-. 
Joseph  Barker.    Improvements  In  fastenings. 

MosesPooie.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  ol  tel    oopi   ind  other  tubes, 
Charles  Henry  Newton.    Improvements  in  protecting  electric  telegraph  » 
Thomas  Dickason  Rotch,    Improvements  In  treating  peat,  and  in  manunKturing 
fuel  and  other  products  therefrom. 


256 


List  of  Patents, 


[November, 


19.  Moses  Poole.    Improvements  in  moulding  articles,  when  India-rubber  combined  with 

other  materials  are  employed. 

20.  Charles  Frederick  Bielefeld.    Improvements  in  constructing  portable  houses  and 

buildings. 

21.  George  Duncan  and  Arthur  Button.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  casks. 

22.  Henrv  Walker  Wood.    Improvements  in  the  construction  of  ships  and  other  vessels. 

23.  JeanBaptiste  Lavanchy.    Improvements  in  wind  musical  instruments  where  metal 

tongues  are  employed. 

24.  Moses  Poole.    Improvements  in  making  covers  for,  and  in  binding,  books  and  port- 

folios, and  in  making  frames  for  pictures  and  glasses. 

25.  John  Mackintosh.    Improvements  in  regulating  and  governing  the  flow  of  fluids. 

26.  John  Macintosh.    Improvements  in  evaporation. 

27.  John  Macintosh.    Improvements  in  packing  for  steam  engines  and  other  machinery. 

28.  Moses  Poole.    Improvements  in. coating  metal  and  other  substances  with  a  material 

not  hitherto  used  for  such  purposes. 

29.  John  Daniel  Ebingre.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  animal  charcoal. 

30.  Moses  Poole.  Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  trunks,  cartouche  and  other  boxes, 

in  knapsacks,  pistol-holsters,  dressing,  writing,  and  other  eases,  and  sword  and 
other  sheaths. 

31.  John  Dunkin  Lee.    Improvements  in  covering  railway  tracks  and  other  vehicles. 

32.  William  Pym  Flynn.    Improvements  in  paddle-wheels. 

33.  Moses  Poole.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  pails,  tubs,  baths,  buckets,  mea- 

sures, drinking  and  other  vessels,  basins,  pitchers,  and  jugs,  by  the  application  of  a 
material  not  hitherto  used  in  such  manufactures. 

34.  Robert  Beart.  Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  bricks  and  other  articles  through 

moulding  orifices. 

35.  Thomas  Huckvale.     Improvements  in  instruments  for  administering  medicine  to 

horses  and  other  animals. 

36.  James  Hare.    Improvements  in  expanding  tables  and  in  music  stools. 

37.  Moses  Poole.    Improvements  in  covering  and  sheathing  surfaces  with  a  material  not 

hitherto  used  for  such  purposes. 

38.  The  Honourable  William  Erskine  Cochrane.    Improvements  in  unloading  coals  from 

shins  or  'vessels 

39.  Felix  Abate,  and  John  Julius  Clero  de  Clerville.    Improvements  in  preparing,  -orna- 

menting, and  printing  on  surfaces  of  metal  and  other  substances. 

40.  Frederick  Richard  Holl.    Improvements  in  watches  and  chronometers. 

41.  Joseph  Barrans.    Improvements  in  steam-engine  boilers. 

42.  Oswald  Dodd  Hedley.    Improvements  in  getting  coal  and  other  minerals. 

43.  Moses  Poole.    Improvements  in  harness,  and  in  horse  and  carriage  furniture. 

44.  James  Hodgson.    Improvements  in  machinery  for  draining  land. 

45.  Charles  William  Rowley  Kickards.    Improvements  in  tongs  for  screwing  pipes  and 

tubes. 

46.  James  Stewart.    Improvements  in  the  action  of  pianofortes. 

47.  Stephen  Perry.    Improvements  in  inkstands  or  inkholders. 

48.  Edmund  Morewood  and  George  Rogers.  ■  Improvements  in  rolling  metals. 

49.  Edmund  Morewood  and  George  Rogers.    Improvements  in  coating  metals. 

50.  Walter  Henry  Tucker.    Certain  improvements  in  locks  (applicable  to  locks  for  all 

purposes),by  which  they  can  be  made  so  as  to  combine  increased  and  perfect  secu- 
rity with  simplicity  and  cheapness  of  construction. 

51.  Thomas  Craddock.    Certain  improvements  in  the  steam  engine  and  the  steam  boiler. 

52.  Walter  McLellan.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  rivets  and  in  working  in 

metals. 

53.  Thomas  Browne  Dalziel.    Improvements  in  the  treatment  or  manufacture  of  textile 

fabrics  or  materials. 

54.  George  Pearson  Renshaw.    Improvements  in  turn-tables  and  traverse-tables,  and  in 

apparatus  connected  therewith. 

55.  George  M unity .  Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  envelopes,  and  the  machinery, 

apparatus,  or  means  to  be  employed  therein. 

56.  John  Finlay.    Improvements  in  grates  and  fire-places,  or  apparatus  for  the  genera- 

tion of  heat. 

57.  John  Joseph  Maedonnell.    Certain  improvements  in  the  construction  of  railways. 

59.  Marcus  Davis.    Certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  carriages,  carts,  military 

and  other  wagons,  and  wheels  for  locomotive  and  other  purposes. 

60.  William  Wolfe  Bonney  and  Robert  Archbutt.  Improvements  iu  machinery  for  raising 

a  pile  on  linen,  cotton,  silk,  or  other  fabrics. 

61.  John  Baylis.    Improvements  in  hatbands  and  armlets. 

62.  John  Sayers.    Improved  arrangements  for  maintaining  a  level  surface  or  level  sur- 

faces upon  or  in  connection  with  bodies  subject  to  a  rocking  motion. 

63.  John  Fordham  Stanford.    Improved  machinery  and  apparatus  for  manufacturing 

bricks,  tiles,  and  similar  building  inatsrials,  which  is  hereby .  denominated  "  The 
Complete  Brickmaker." 

64.  Henry  Richardson  Fanshawe.    Certain  improvements  in  shawls,  scarfs,  neckerchiefs, 

handkerchiefs,  mantles,  sails  or  sail-cloth,  table-cloths  and  table-covers,  napkins, 
and  umbrella  and  parasol  tops  and  covers,  and  in  an  .improved  loom  for  weaving, 
applicable  especially  to  the  said  improvements,  In  respect  to  some  of  the  said 
articles, 

65.  James  Stocken.    An  improved  plaster  spatula. 

66.  George  Holmes.    Certain  improvements  in  the, manufacture  or  construction  of  coats, 

capes,  and  other  upper  garments  of  personal  attire. 

67.  James  Brown.    An  improved  method  of  making  ships'  or  other  vessels'  anchors. 

69.  William  Moore,  and  William  Harris.    An  improvement  in  repeating  pistols  and  rifles. 

70.  Robert  Lakin,  and  William  Henry  Rhodes.    Improvements  in  machines  for  spinning 

and  doubling  cotton  and  other  fibrous  substances. 

71.  John  Ambrose  Coffey.    Improvements  in  apparatus  for  performing  various  chemical 

and  pharmaceutical  operations,  hereby  denominated  "  Coffey's  Improved  Patent 
Esculapian  Apparatus,"  parts  whereof  are  applicable  to  steam  boilers,  steam  and 
liquid  gauges,  stills,  and  syphons. 

72.  Edward  Wilkins.     Improvements  in  the  distribution  and  application  of  water  or 

other  liquid  manure  to  promote  vegetation. 

73.  Edward  Wilkins.    Improvements  in  ruling  and  folding  the  leaves  of  account-books 

or  other  books  used  for  mercantile  purposes,  and  in  making  entries  therein,  and 
delivering  vouchers  therefrom,  with  accuracy  and  dispatch. 

74.  Christopher  Kingsford.    Machinery  for  solidifying  peat,  coal,  and  other  substances  of 

a  like  nature. 

75.  Laurentius  Mathias  Eiler.    An  apparatus  to  release  or  separate  carriages  on  railroads 

in  case  of  accident,  giving  at  the  same  time  a  signal  of  distress. 

76.  Christopher  James  Schofield.    Improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  cutting 

the  pile  of  fustians  and  other  fabrics. 

77.  Stephen  Soulby.    Improvements  in  machinery  for  letter-press  printing. 

78.  William  Smith.    Improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  cleaning  currants, 

raisins,  and  other  fruits  or  vegetable  substances. 

79.  Henry  Smith.    Improvements  in  reaping  machines. 

80.  Matthias  Walker.    An  improved   ash-pan  or  apparatus  for  taking  up  ashes  and 

cinders,  and  separating  or  sifting  them. 

81.  Frederick  Osbourn.    A  machine  or  apparatus  for  facilitating  the  manufacture  of 

various  kinds  of  garments  or  wearing  apparel. 

82.  Henry  Mortlock  Ommanney.    Improvements  in  certain  parts  of  machinery  for  spin- 

ning cotton  and  other  fibrous  substanoes. 


83.  Henry  Mortlock  Ommanney.  An  improved  furnace  for  melting  of  metals  in  crucibles. 

84.  Edwin  Pettitt.  Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  ammoniacal  salts  and  manures. 

85.  Joseph  Brandeis.  Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar  and  saccharine  solu- 

tions. 

86.  David  Dunne  Kyle.    An  improved  method  of  excavating  and  removing  earth. 

87.  Robert  Robertson  Menzies.  Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets,  and  other 

fabrics. 

88.  George  Holcroft.  Certain  improvements  in  steam  engines. 

89.  James  Nichols  Marshall.    An  improved  wheel  for  carriages  and  other  vehicles. 

90.  John  Aspinall.     Improvements  in  evaporating  cane  juice  and  other  liquids,  and  in 

apparatus  for  that  purpose. 

91.  William  Walker.  Improvements  in  wheels  for  railway  carriages,  and  in  the  mode  or 

modes  of  manufacturing  the  same. 

92.  Thomas  Lawes.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements,  or 

an  improved  agricultural  implement. 

93.  Thomas  Lawes.    An  improved  quilt  or  coverlet. 

94.  Thomas  Lawes.    Improvements  in  generating  steam. 

95.  William  Oxley.    Improvements  in  apparatus  for  heating  and  drying. 

96.  Henry  Bridson.  Improvements  in 'machinery  to  facilitate  the  rinsing,  washing,  and 

cleansing  of  fabrics,  which  machineiy  is  also  applicable  to  certain  operations  in 
bleaching  and  dyeing. 

97.  John  Macmillan  Dunlop.  Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  wheels  for  carriages. 

98.  Thomas  Firth.  Improvements  in  machinery  for  preparing  to  be  spun,  wool,  mohair, 

flax,  cotton,  and  other  fibrous  materials. 

99.  Robert  Anderson  Rust.    Improvements  in  pianofortes. 

100.  William  Potts.    Improvements  in  sepulchral  monuments. 

101.  Thomas  Allen.    Improvements  in  the  application  of  carbonic  acid  gas  to  motive 

purposes. 

102.  George  Rennie.    An  improved  chain  cable. 

103.  Charles  Lungley.    Improvements  in  ship-building. 

104.  Martyn  John  Roberts.   Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  oxides  of  zinc  and  tin. 

105.  Richard  Archibald  Brooman.    Improvements  in  machines  for  cleaning  knives. 

106.  Thomas  Allen.    Improvements  in  propelling. 

107.  Henry  Columbus  Hurry.    An  improved  construction  of  fountain  pen,  or  reservoir 

penholder. 

108.  Thomas  Fearn.    Certain  improvements  in  ornamenting  metallic  surfaces,  and  in 

machinery  and  apparatus  to  be  employed  therein. 

109.  William  Austin  and  William  Sutherland.    Improvements  in  ornamenting  glass. 

110.  John  Wright  and  Edwin  Sturge.    Improved  machineiy  for  the  manufacture  of  en- 

velopes. 

111.  John  Remington  and  Zephaniah  Deacon  Berry.    Improvements  in  gas  meters   or 

apparatus  for  measuring  gas  or  other  elastic  fluids. 

112.  Hermann  Tuxck.    Improvements  in  packing  goods. 

113.  Richard  Harczyk.    An  improved  preparation  or  composition  of  colouring  matter  to 

be  used  in  washing  or  bleaching  linen  and  other  washable  fabrics,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paper  and  other  substances. 

114.  George  Jenkins.     Improved  means  of  obtaining  motive  power  through  an  atmo- 

spheric engine,  by  facilitating  the  attainment  of  exhaustion  by  currents  of  caloric, 
the  engine  being  worked  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

115.  Charles  John  Carr.    Improvements  in  machinery  for  making  bricks,  and  other 

similar  articles. 

116.  William  Bolivar  Davis.    Improvements  in  ships' buoys,  life  buoys,  ships' tenders, 

and  other  similar  articles. 

117.  John  Wilson  Fell.    Improvements  in  preparing  and  spinning  hemp   and   other 

fibrous  materials,  for  the  purpose  of  making  ropes,  twines,  and  other  similar  arti- 
cles. 

118.  Alexander  Stewart.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  or  production  of  ornamen- 

tal fabrics. 

119.  George  Enn is.    Improvements  in  gaffs  and  booms. 

120.  George  Collier.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets  and  other  fabrics. 

121.  John  L,ee  Stevens.    Improvements  in  furnaces. 

122.  Duncan  Bruce.    Improvements  in  rotary  steam  engines. 

123.  Richard  Whytock.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  fringes,  and  of  plait  for 

these  and  other  ornamental  work. 

124.  Richard  Husband  Heighway.    Improvements  in  paring  roads  and  other  surfaces. 

125.  Thomas  Hunt,  Improvements  in  fire-arms. 

126.  George  Bell.    Improvements  in  saturating  canvas  and  other  fabrics  in  order  to 

render  them  buoyant  and  waterproof. 

127.  Robert  W.  Parker.    A  new  or  improved  mode  of  giving  rotary  motion  to  a  shaft  of 

a  circular  saw,  or  other  mechanical  contrivance. 

128.  William  Rogers.    Improvements  in  studs,  buttons,  and  other  fasteners. 

129.  Joseph  Cox.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  gates  and  hurdles. 

130.  Isaac  Westhorp.     Improvements  in  grinding  wheat  and  other  grain. 

135.  Robert  Griffiths.    Improvements  in  apparatus  for  indicating  the  number  of  persons 

entering  and  the  distance  travelled  in  public  or  other  conveyances  and  places,  and 
for  the  prevention  of  fraud  upon  proprietors  of  public  conveyances. 

136.  William  George  Nixey.    Improvements  in  tills  and  other  receptacles  for  money. 

137.  Arthur  Jackson,    improvements  in  gas  burners. 

138.  Richard  Atkinson  Peacock.    An  improved  construction  of  culverts  for  sewers,  for 

the  purposes  of  drainage. 

139.  William  Lewis.     Improvements  in  compounding  medicines  in  the  form  of  pills. 

140.  Thomas  Robson.    Improvements  in  apparatus  for  igniting  signal  and  other  lights. 

141.  Astley  Paston  Price.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  citric  and  tartaric  acids, 

and  of  certain  salts  of  potash,  soda,  ammonia,  lime,  and  baryta. 

142.  Henry  Bernoulli  Barlow.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  cylinders  for  carding 

cotton  and  other  fibrous  substances. 

143.  John  Lawrence  Gardner.    Improvements  in  bottles  and  other  vessels  for  holding 

liquids. 

144.  Wi.liam  Seaton.    Improvements  in  the  construction  of  iron  vessels,  and  in  sheathing 

or  covering  the  same. 

145.  Donald  Nicoll.    Improvements  in  mourning  bands  for  the  arm  or  hat. 

146.  Edwin  Lewis  Brundage.    Improved  machinery  for  forging  nails,  brads,  and  screw 

brads. 


Sept.  23, 
>■     24, 


,.    25, 

Oct.      2, 
„     12, 


DESIGNS  FOR  ARTICLES  OF  UTILITY", 

FfiOJt  THE  23KB    OF   SEPTEMBER,  TO  THE    12TH   OF   OCTOBEE,    1852. 

3375,  Christopher  Dam,  Southampton,  "  Perpetual  daily  indicator." 

3376,  Samuel  Whitfield  and  Jean  Teychenne,  Birmingham,  "  Bedstead  con- 

vertible into  ottoman  and  sofa." 
««  f  ™  D-4 H°rn3l).5""  j  Gfref  Bartholomew-close  )«  Netting-pattern 

3377,  {  Thos.  A.  Burnage  <  St.  Jonn's-square    >        tvne 

(  John  L.  Barber ...  (  Cotton-mills,  St.  Martiu's-lane . .  )  '  ^ 

3378,  Henry  Stanbrough,  Esq.,  Nutford-place,  Edgeware-road,  "  Invalid  table." 

3379,  A.    Lyon  and  S.  Middleton,  32,  Windmill-street,  Finsbury,  "  Seamless 
lithographic  roller." 


m  m  I 


JUU] 


THE    AETIZAN. 


No.  XII.— Vol.  X.— DECEMBER  1st,   1852. 


EVENTS  OF  THE  MONTH. 

Before  this  sheet  reaches  the  hands  of  the  reader,  nearly  seven 
hundred  inventors  will  have  received  provisional  protection  under 
the  Patent  Law  Amendment  Act,  which  has  only  been  in  operation  since 
1st  October  !  What  an  idea  does  this  fact  give  of  the  blighting  influ- 
ence which  Deputy  Chaffwax  and  his  numerous  red-tape  progeny  have 
hitherto  exercised  over  the  inventive  genius  of  this  country !  If  the 
directors  of  the  Crystal  Palace  are  wise,  they  will  not  miss  the  oppor- 
tunity of  securing  the  co-operation  of  some,  if  not  all,  of  these 
inventors.  If  only  half  of  them  respond  to  the  appeal  to  deposit 
models,  such  a  collection  would  be  a  most  interesting  one.  Indeed, 
there  would  be  a  peculiar  fitness  in  inventors  thus  contributing  to  the 
attractions  of  that  building  which  is  the  monument  which  commemorates 
that  great  national  movement  to  which  they  are  indebted,  in  a  great 
measure,  for  their  emancipation. 

The  month  has  not  been  suffered  to  pass  unimproved  by  railway 
promoters.  Several  new  schemes  have  appeared;  the  boldness  of 
one  of  which  has  taken  most  people  by  surprise.  It  is  the  project  of 
Mr.  J.  Samuel,  C.E.,  and  aims  at  nothing  less  than  carrying  a  railway 
along  the  middle  of  the  Thames,  on  piles,  wide  openings  being  left  at 
intervals  to  allow  the  steamers  and  larger  craft  to  cross.  It  is  designed 
to  run  from  London  Bridge  to  Westminster,  leaving  the  steamboats  to 
take  off  the  traffic  at  either  end.  The  trains  will  have  to  be  worked  either 
by  a  rope  or  by  atmospheric  method ;  and  it  is  stated  that  the  bridges 
would  not  be  interfered  with,  although  the  rails  must  be  kept  at  a  safe 
distance  above  high-water  mark.  This  would  relieve  the  river  as  well 
as  the  streets,  and  if  well-lighted  at  night,  would  facilitate  the  ordinary 
navigation.  Whether  this  plan  or  Mr.  Pearson's  will  meet  with  the 
more  favour,  remains  to  be  seen.  It  is  admitted,  at  any  rate,  that  some- 
thing must  be  done  to  relieve  the  streets  of  London  of  the  congestion 
of  traffic. 

In  March,  1851,  having  a  vision  of  the  Great  Exhibition  before  our 
eyes,  we  ventured  to  suggest  to  civic  wisdom,  that  if  New  Cannon-street 
(which  had  then  been  begun  a  long  time,  and  but  very  little  progress 
made)  were  to  have  the  houses  within  its  limits  cleared  away  at  once, 
the  street  might  be  opened  for  traffic,  and  the  new  houses  on  either 
side  built  at  leisure ;  that  at  the  rate  at  which  the  road  was  being  cleared, 
it  would  be  some  time  in  1852  before  the  street  was  opened;  and  that, 
until  that  consummation,  so  devoutly  to  be  wished  for,  took  place,  the 
street  resembled  a  railway,  which  would  be  very  valuable,  if  it  only  had 
a  terminus.  We  hasten  to  acknowledge  our  error  in  over-appreciating 
civic  energy — we  should  have  said  1853  ! 

If  the  questions  are  not  impertinent,  we  should  like  to  know  when 
it  is  proposed  that  the  street  should  be  finished,  and  whether  it  is 
intended  that  all  the  heavy  traffic,  which  will  inevitably  pour  into  it 
from  London- bridge  and  Thames-street,  is  to  be  discharged  at  the 
narrow  end  of  St.  Paul's-churchyard,  where  the  street  debouches?  If 
so,  we  suspect  that  the  churchyard  will  prove  very  like  a  lobster-trap, 
which  the  fish  creep  into,  but  cannot  get  out  <i:  and  that  Ludgate-hill 
will  be  twice  as  difficult  to  pass  as  it  is  at  present,  if  such  a  thing  can 


be  possible.  A  glance  at  the  map,  or,  what  is  better,  a  walk  along  the 
route,  will  show  that  the  new  street  ought  to  have  been  carried  through, 
in  its  full  width,  to  Bridge-street,  Blackfriars,  which  is  of  ample  width, 
whilst  a  lane  already  exists  which  might  have  been  widened,  to  form 
the  greater  portion  of  the  street.  This  would  have  relieved  Ludgate- 
hill  of  the  heavy  traffic ;  and  the  importance  of  making  a  distinction 
between  slow  and  fast  traffic  does  not  appear  to  have  yet  occurred  to 
our  street  improvers.  Where  there  is  only  room  for  two  lines  of 
vehicles  passing  in  opposite  directions,  it  is  obvious  that  a  single 
slow  vehicle  willprevent  all  the  rest  from  going  any  faster,  If,  therefore, 
the  slow  traffic  could  be  mainly  confined  to  one  line  of  streets,  the  fast 
traffic  would  take  the  other;  as,  although  it  might  be  a  little  farther  by 
distance,  it  would  be  much  shorter  in  point  of  time,  and  a  given-sized 
street  would  pass  double  the  quantity  of  traffic  that  it  does  at  present. 

In  fact,  if  the  respective  interests  concerned  could  be  induced  to  pull 
together,  there  would  be  very  little  difficulty  in  laying  down  a  railway 
along  Thames-street,  Wapping,  &c,  to  Limehouse,  for  the  heavy  traffic. 
Such  a  railway  is  in  use  in  New  York,  where,  we  believe,  it  is  worked 
by  locomotives,  which  we  do  not  contemplate,  as,  from  the  slow  speed 
required,  probably  horses  would  be  as  economical  and  more  convenient. 

Another  detail,  which  seems  entirely  neglected,  is  the  improvement 
of  the  crossing  points  of  the  main  thoroughfares — Graceelmrch-street 
and  Leadenhall-street  form  a  notable  case.  Tivo  immense  streams  of 
traffic  are  perpetually  crossing  one  another  at  right  angles ;  and  the  four 
corners  of  the  junction  are  perfectly  sharp.  The  removal  of  a  house 
at  each  corner  would  effect  an  immense  improvement,  at  a  compara- 
tively small  cost.  At  present,  the  streams  are  alternately  stopped,  to 
allow  of  a  passage  in  the  transverse  direction. 

Mr.  Pearson's  scheme  for  making  Farringdon-street  the  City  railway 
terminus  (vide  p.  266,  vol.  1851)  seems  to  have  secured  sufficient  sup- 
port to  reuder  its  adoption  very  probable. 

We  observe,  that  both  the  railway  newspapers  ridicule  it,  which  is 
very  natural,  it  being  their  bounden  duty  to  run  down  anything  which 
does  not  emanate  from  the  magnates  of  the  railway  world. 

Whatever  may  be  the  ultimate  fate  of  this  project,  it  has  had  the 
good  effect  of  wakening  up  the  companies,  who,  though  they  can  see 
nothing  good  in  Mr.  Pearson's  plan,  will  have  no  objection  to  try  some- 
thing on  their  own  account.  Thus  the  Great  Western  Company,  finding 
that  the  "suburban  residing  "  public  have  discovered  that  the  two  or 
three  shillings  spent  in  cab-hire,  in  getting  up  to  Paddington,  may  be 
saved  by  going  to  Waterloo  or  London-bridge,  have  decided  in  going 
to  Parliament  for  powers  to  effect  a  junction  with  the  Last  and  West 
India  Dock  Junction  and  Blackwall  Railways,  which  would  give  them  a 
terminus  at  Fcnchurch-street. 

The  break  of  gauge,  in  this  case,  would  militate  very  much  against 
the  transit  of  goods,  whatever  it  might  do  as  regards  the  passengers. 

If  all  the  junctions   now  talked   of  take  place,  it  will  he  absolutely 

necessary  to  lay  down  two  additional  lines  of  rails  on  the  Blackwall 

Railway,  from  Stepney  junction  to  Fciiclmrch-strcet,  as  the  trains  arc 

even  now  far  too  close  one  on  the  other. 

34 


258 


Beet  Sugar  Manufacture. 


[December, 


BEET  SUGAR  MANUFACTURE, 

WITH    PLANS    OF    SUGAR.  WORKS,    AS    CONSTRUCTED    BY   M. 
DEWILDE,    ENGINEER. 
Translated  for  Tlie  Artizan  from  the  French  of  M.  Armengaud  Aine. 
Illustrated  by  Plates  11  and  12. 
(Concluded  from  page  213.) 
The  introduction  of  the  more  improved  processes  for  trie  extraction 
of  the  juice,  the  filtration  through  animal  charcoal,  the  use  of  the 
vacuum  pan,  or  of  the  tubular  evaporators  of  Rillieux,  appear  indis- 
pensable to  the  existence  of  the  colonial  interests.     By  the  aid  of  these 
improvements  the  colonial  sugar  growers  have  already  effected  improve- 
ments, which  may  be  estimated  as  follows  : — 

Instead  of  1  cwt.  costing  14s,  9'75<£,  they  obtain 
1*4  cwt.,  costing  lGs.  \\d.,*  which  reduces  the 
price  per  cwt.  to 
Carriage  and  loss 

Commission,  storage,  tares,  discounts     . . 
Duty  

Selling  price  of  fine  sugar 
Net  profit       , . 

We  give  also,  on  the  authority  of  M.  Lequince,  a  sugar  manufacturer 
in  the  Departement  du  Nord,  a  statement  of  the  labour  employed  in  a 
factory,  as  well  as  the  result  of  a  day's  work  in  the  refinery.  These 
figures  show  accurately  the  amount  of  the  expenses,  as  far  as  the  hand- 
labour  is  concerned. 

Cost  of  hand-labour  in  a  factory  producing  5,700  cwt.  of  brown  sugar, 
1,96S  cwt.  of  molasses,  and  21,065  cwt.  of  pulp  : — 

Hand  labour  on  10,375  cwt,  of  beet-roots,  produced 
from  284  acres  of  land,  and  comprising  the  cultiva- 
tion, the  seed,  the  weeding,  the  gathering  of  the  crop, 
the  burying  in  pits,  the  taking  out,  the  bringing  in, 
the  scraping,  the  weighing,  and,  generally,  all  the 
hand-labour  up  to  the  rasping  machine  . .  . .  ,£3305 
Cost  of  labour  in  the  sugar  house  . .  . .        , .        529 

Add, 
590  cwt.  of  animal  charcoal. .  . .  . .  £312 


£0  12 

1 

0 

7 

2-3 

0 

5 

6 

1 

o  117 

£2 

5 

9 

2 

8 

8-1 

£0 

2 

11-1 

1400  tons  of  coals. . 
Cloths,  bags  for  pulp,  &c. 
Oil  and  tallow 
Repairs 

Total 

Deduct  expenses  not  chargeable  to  hand- 
labour 


937 

184 

70 

250 


£1753 


350 


■    1403 
£5237 


Cost  of  labour  to  produce  5700  cwt.  of  brown  sugar. 

Or  about  18s.  A\d.  per  cwt. 
We  now  proceed  to  give  the  details  of  the  wages  expenditure  in  refi- 
nery which  rasps  885  cwt.  of  beet  roots,  and  produces  31  "5  cwt.  of 
sugar  per  24  hours. 

One  foreman  . .  , .  . .  ..£026 

In  rasping  house 
7  men,  earning  together 
13  boys,  ditto 
2  women,  ditto 

Carried  forward 

*  There  is  here  an  error  of  calculation  in  the  original,  by  which  the  price  is  apparently 
reduced  still  lower. 


0 

8 

6| 

0 

9 

1 

0 

1 

7 

£\ 

1 

8* 

Defecating  and  skimming. 
Brought  forward 

4  men,  earning  together 

1  boy       . . 

Clarifying  and  filtering. 
6  men,  earning  together        . .  . .  . . 

Evaporating  and  boiling. 

2  men,  earning  together 

Filling. 

3  men,  earning  together 

Liquoring  the  sugars. 

5  men,  earning  together        , .  . .  . , 
2  boys,  ditto 

2  women,  ditto 

Warehouses. 
2  men,  earning  together 
5  women,  ditto 

Firing  boilers. 

2  men,  earning  together        , .  . . 

Wages  of  57  work-people,  who  work  for  12  hours 

Wages  of  114  ditto  for  24  hours 

To  be  added,  who  work  for  the  day  only  : — 

4  men,  smiths,  wheelwrights,  and  joiners 

10  men  at  furnaces,  for  revivifying  animal  black  ,. 
1  man,  lamp  trimmer 
1  man,  porter 
1  man,  book-keeper 

3  women,  sempstresses         , . 

Total  wages  for  24  hours 


The  general  presumption,  based  on  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the 
colonies,  is  in  favour  of  an  extraordinary  impulse  being  imparted  to  the 
home-grown  sugar  interest.  The  rise  in  price  which  has  lately  taken 
place  seems  to  confirm  this  opinion. 


.£1 
0 
0 

1    8| 

5    0 
0  10 

0 

7    8§ 

0 

3    4 

0 

3    9 

0 
0 
0 

6    3 
1  10i 

1     7 

0 
0 

2  11 

3  9 

0 

2  11 

£3 

I    7\ 

£6 

3    3 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

7  11 
12    6 

0  10 

1  8 
4    2 

2  3 

£7 

10  11 

ON  THE  EFFICIENCY  OF  HEATING  SURFACE  IN  BOILERS. 

We  have  often  endeavoured  to  impress  upon  our  readers  the  import- 
ance of  studying  the  question  of  the  relative  values  of  different  kinds 
of  heating  surfaces ;  but  we  fear,  that  engineers  in  general  are  content 
to  copy  servilely  the  boilers  of  other  makers,  rather  than  institute  a 
rigid  course  of  experiment  for  themselves.  We  feel  convinced  that  a 
boiler  yet  remains  to  be  invented,  which  will  be  as  superior  to  the  pre- 
sent tubular  boiler  as  that  is  to  the  old  flue-boiler.  Rich  will  be  the 
reward  of  the  inventor  who  can  supply  the  want  of  a  boiler  which  shall 
possess  all  the  advantages  of  the  locomotive  boiler,  without  those  faults 
which  unfit  it  for  the  purposes  of  steam  navigation. 

The  defects  of  this  boiler,  and  of  all  the  marine  tubular  class,  are 
the  immense  number  of  stays  required,  and  the  difficulty  of  keeping 
the  tubular  heating  surface  free  from  deposit.  These  two  leading 
defects,  translated  into  commercial  language,  mean  heavy  first  cost,  and 
expensive  maintenance.  In  addition  to  this,  we  must  next  inquire,  "  Of 
what  value  is  the  tubular  heating  surface  obtained  in  these  boilers  ?''  An 
engineer  says,  complacently  enough,  "  There  are  so  many  hundred  feet 
of  heating  surface  in  this  boiler."  Although  the  question  is  rather 
"  How  many  pounds  of  water  will  it  evaporate  per  hour,  and  with  how 
much  fuel  ? "  We  have  often  been  struck  with  the  large  evaporative 
power  possessed  by  cylindrical  boilers  of  small  diameter,  set  over  the 
fire,  without  any  side  flues  or  internal  tubes,  the  draft  passing  directly 
to  the  chimney.  Going  a  step  farther,  we  find  these  same  boilers,  when 
united  together,  as  in  the  "French"  boiler  (vide  p.  2G0,  vol.  1S51), 
evaporating  more  economically,  as  regards  time  and  quantity,  than  any 


1852.] 


On  the  Economical  Application  of 'Hydraulic  Power 


259 


other  boiler  known.  Most  of  our  readers  well  know  that  Messrs.  Hall, 
of  Dartford,  put  these  boilers  to  all  their  double-cylinder  engines,  and, 
as  there  is  no  secret  about  their  productions  beside  good  proportions 
and  workmanship,  we  may  fairly  conclude  that  the  economy  for  which 
they  are  celebrated  is  due  as  much  to  the  boilers  as  to  the  engines.  At 
any  rate,  the  duty  done  by  each  square  foot  of  heating  surface  in  these 
boilers  is  much  superior  to  that  done  by  a  square  foot  of  surface  in 
small  tubes,  as  in  a  marine  boiler. 

The  main  difference  in  the  surface  itself  is,  that  in  one  case  a  convex, 
and  in  the  other  a  concave,  surface  is  submitted  to  the  action  of  the 
flame ;  and  the  advantage  appears  to  rest  with  the  former. 

The  reason  of  this  appears  to  be,  that  the  gases  do  not  conduct  heat 
by  radiation,  but  by  contact,  and  that  circulation  of  the  gases,  therefore, 
is  the  only  means  of  enabling  the  heating  surfaces  to  abstract  the  heat 
from  the  gases.  Hence,  large  tubes,  through  which  the  heated  gases 
pass,  cannot  be  the  best  form  of  heating  surface  ;  firstly,  because  the 
hottest  gases  will  pass  in  an  unbroken  stream  through  the  centre  of 
the  tube,  leaving  the  cooler  particles  next  the  metal ;  and,  secondly, 
because  the  lower  semi-periphery  of  the  flue  is  valueless  as  conducting 
surface.  It  is  true  that  the  economy  obtained  on  the  Cornish  system 
appears  to  contradict  this  theory ;  but  it  will  also  be  noticed,  that  in 
Cornwall  a  very  slow  draft  is  employed,  which  gives  the  heated  gases 
time  to  give  out  their  heat ;  and,  hence,  a  larger  and  costly  boiler  is 
required  to  do  a  given  quantity  of  work.  It  is  well  known  in  Cornwall 
that  any  attempt  to  hasten  the  draft  causes  a  much  larger  proportionate 
consumption  of  fuel ;  and  an  attempt  has  been  accordingly  made  to 
break  up  the  current  of  heated  gases  passing  through  the  large  flue, 
by  placing  in  the  centre  of  it  a  generator,  about  half  the  diameter  of  the 
flue.  This  generator  is  supplied  with  water  by  a  vertical  pipe,  con- 
necting the  front  end  of  it,  behind  the  fire-bars,  with  the  bottom  of  the 
boiler  flue,  whilst  an  escape  pipe  for  the  steam  generated  within  it  is 
provided  at  the  farther  end  of  it,  being  led  from  the  top  into  the  steam 
space  in  the  boiler.  The  generator,  it  may  also  be  remarked,  is  pro- 
longed until  it  reaches  the  back  of  the  boiler  setting ;  so  that,  by  taking 
off  a  loose  cover,  it  can  be  cleaned  out  without  the  trouble  of  going 
inside  the  boiler,  or  pulling  down  the  brickwork. 

In  the  description  of  the  Cornish  engine  at  the  East  London  "Water 
Works  (by  Mr.  Wicksteed  :  London,  J.  Weale),  the  flue  is  shown  3ft. 
10in.  diameter,  and  the  generator,  1ft.  9in. 

As  another  proof  of  the  low  evaporative  power  of  large  tubes,  when 
the  draft  is  rapid,  we  may  refer  the  reader  to  the  statistics  contained  in 
Bartol's  Marine  Boilers  (ante,  p.  64),  which  show  that,  in  a  large  num- 
ber of  boilers,  constructed  with  tubes  varying  from  7  to  18in.  in  diameter, 
the  evaporation  is  as  low,  on  an  average,  as  61bs.  of  water  to  lib.  of  coal. 
An  example  given  (ante,  p.  69)  of  the  Franklin,  is  as  low  as  51bs.  of 
water. 

The  importance  of  breaking  up  and  agitating  the  heated  gases  has 
been  admitted  by  the  best  authorities,  amongst  whom  we  may  mention 
Messrs.  Bolton  and  Watt,  who  have  constructed  marine  flue  boilers,  with 
stops  in  the  flue,  which  consisted  of  a  vertical  water  space,  extending 
partly  across  the  flue,  and  arranged  alternately,  right  and  left-handed, 
so  as  to  throw  the  current  of  air  against  the  sides  of  the  flues.  The 
same  effect  has  been  sought  to  be  attained  by  hanging  bridges  of  fire- 
brick, which  throw  the  smoke  up  and  down,  and  cause  a  reverberation 
of  the  flame. 

Mr.  Baker's  (American)  arrangement  appears  to  be  of  this  description 
(vide  p.  120,  vol.  1849),  and,  according  to  Mr.  Wicksteed's  report,  he 
succeeded  in  saving  11*8  per  cent,  of  fuel  at  the  East  London  Water 
Works,  which  may  be  taken  as  equivalent  to  20  per  cent,  in  ordinary 
boilers,  where  the  economy  has  not  been  pushed  so  far  to  begin  with. 

Mr.  Overman,  the  eminent  American  engineer  (in  his  "Mechanics"), 
strongly  supports  this  theory,  and  proposes,  in  setting  cylindrical  land 


boilers,  to  carry  the  flame  up  a  series  of  side  flues,  which  unite  above 
the  boiler  in  a  channel  or  flue  common  to  the  whole.  The  top  of  the 
boiler  is,  of  course,  protected  from  the  heat  by  a  covering  of  fire-brick. 
He  says,  "  Tubes  or  other  vessels  containing  water  must  be  placed  so 
that  the  hot  gases  play  around  the  outside.  If  we  lead  a  current  of 
air  around  a  cylinder,  we  may  observe  that  a  particle  of  air  plays  but 
a  short  time  on  its  surface,  when  it  gives  way  to  another.  This  experi- 
ment may  be  easily  tried  by  putting  a  pipe  in  a  strong  draft  of  air,  in 
which  a  little  dry  flour  is  diffused ;  we  see  then  that,  after  a  particle  of 
the  flour  touches  the  pipe  once,  it  is  thrown  off  from  it,  to  make  room 
for  the  next  following  particle.  The  particles  play  almost  all  around 
the  cylinder,  and  a  concentration,  or  increase  of  density,  behind  the 
pipe,  is  the  consequence." 

We  have  quoted  Mr.  Overman  verbatim,  but  his  expression,  "behind 
the  pipe,"  may  mislead  the  reader.  That  side  facing  the  current  is 
meant,  which  we  should  rather  term  the  front  of  the  pipe. 

It  is  observed,  in  the  American  boilers  with  vertical  water-tubes,  that 
at  the  side  of  the  pipe  not  exposed  to  the  curreut,  a  tail  of  soot  is 
collected ;  and  it  has  been  suggested  to  us  by  an  eminent  practical 
authority,  that  this  might  be  avoided  by  making  the  back  of  the  pipe 
of  that  shape,  to  which  the  soot  would  not  adhere.  The  convenience, 
however,  of  having  the  pipes  circular,  would  probably  counterbalance 
any  advantage  to  be  gained  by  such  an  expedient. 

From  the  various  arguments  here  recapitulated,  we  infer,  that  the 
course  which  improvement  must  follow  will  be  the  putting  the  water 
into  the  tubes,  and  not  the  heated  gases. 

To  combine  the  numerous  requisites  of  a  good  marine  boiler,  viz., 
lightness,  strength,  facility  for  cleaning  out  and  repairs,  and  the  con- 
densation of  the  requisite  quantity  of  heating  surface  into  a  small  bulk, 
with  this  condition,  is  no  doubt  a  difficult  problem  ;  but  it  is  one  which 
will  pay  for  the  solving — and  that  is  the  test  for  all  things  in  this  utili- 
tarian age. 

ON  THE  ECONOMICAL  APPLICATION  OF  HYDRAULIC 
POWER. 

We  are  not  about  to  advocate  the  more  extended  application  of  water 
power  in  this  country,  for  reasons  which  we  will  presently  notice,  but, 
on  behalf  of  our  colonies,  where  we  have  many  readers,  wc  feel  bound 
to  notice  any  plans  which  promise  to  be  of  advantage  to  them. 

With  regard  to  the  economy  of  water  power,  we  entirely  agree  with 
the  opinion  expressed  by  a  writer  in  the  Times,  that,  in  a  thickly  popu- 
lated country  like  England,  the  saving  of  coals  and  capital  invested  iu 
steam  power  is  usually  far  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  loss 
arising  from  the  imperfect  drainage  of  the  land,  forming  the  watershed 
of  the  stream.  The  immense  improvement  effected  by  good  drainage 
is  evident,  not  only  in  its  increasing  the  productiveness  of  the  land,  but 
also  in  its  rendering  the  harvest  time  more  early,  and  thus  securing  the 
crop  against  many  of  the  accidents  to  which,  in  bad  seasons,  it  is  liable. 
When  it  is  considered  how  many  thousand  acres  of  valuable  land  are 
often  deteriorated  for  the  sake  of  keeping  some  jog-trot  old  water-mill 
going,  it  is  manifestly  the  interest  of  the  landowners  to  combine,  and 
seek  to  extinguish  the  rights  of  water-power,  wherever,  from  the  ter- 
mination of  leases,  or  the  decay  of  structures,  it  is  practicable  to  do  so  with 
economy.  To  the  reasons  already  urged,  may  be  added  the  sanitary 
improvement  which  never  fails  to  follow  perfect  drainage.  In  our 
colonies,  however,  the  case  is  different — abundance  of  water  power,  the 
scarcity  of  capital  to  erect  expensive  machinery,  and  the  cheapness  of 
land,  combine  to  render  the  proper  application  of  water  power  a  subject 
of  the  highest  importance. 

As  the  paddle  wheel  is  being  superseded  by  the  screw  propeller,  so  is 
the  cumbrous  water  wheel  giving  place  to  its  "  re-actionary  "  rival,  the 
turbine,  which  appears  a  convenient  generic  name,  under  which  may  be 


260 


Cotton  and  its  Manufacturing  Mechanism. 


[December, 


included  all  that  numerous  family  in  which  the  reacting  power  of  the 
water  is  utilised. 

The  person  to  whom  we  are  most  indebted,  in  this  country,  for  de- 
veloping the  advantages  of  the  reaction  wheel,  is,  undoubtedly,  Mr. 
James  Whitelaw,  whose  experiments  are  recorded  in  the  Artizan  1846- 
7-8,  and  9.  At  page  760  of  the  latter  volume  will  be  found  a  detailed 
drawing  of  the  most  approved  form  in  actual  use,  with  an  account  of  its 
performance.  On  the  continent  the  turbine  has  long  been  regarded 
with  favour,  and  we  have  evidence,  that  in  the  United  States  it  is  being 
very  extensively  used.  If  our  own  colonies  have  not  also  availed 
themselves  of  this  motor,  we  believe  it  to  be  chiefly  owing  to  the  fact, 
that  no  English  engineers  have  thought  it  worth  while  to  manufacture 
them  as  a  marketable  article,  like  portable  steam  engines.  "With  the 
present  stream  of  emigration  to  the  colonies,  we  believe  the  time  has 
arrived  when  turbines  would  sell  as  well  as  gold-washing  machines  or 
corrugated  iron  houses,  and  we  commend  the  subject  to  the  attention  of 
some  of  our  enterprising  export  firms. 

The  peculiar  advantages  of  the  turbine  are  the  high  speed  im- 
parted to  the  shaft,  and  its  power  of  working  in  back  water.  The 
first  of  these  properties  admits  of  the  shaft  of  the  horizontal  turbine 
being  applied  directly  to  mill-stones,  whilst  for  saw  mills  or  blowing 
engines,  the  vertical  form  represented  in  the  accompanying  engraving 
is  peculiarly  convenient.  These  are  in  use  in  the  United  States,  and 
Mr.  Overman  (in  his  Mechanics  for  Millwrights,  fyc.)  says — "  This 
wheel  will  work  in  back  water  as  well  as  when  free  from  it,  and  uses  the 
water  to  better  advantage  than  the  common  wheel.  If  a  vertical  re- 
action wheel  is  to  be  used,  this  form  of  wheel  has  a  decided  advantage 
over  any  other  description." 


FiS-  1-  Fig.  2. 

Its  construction  will  be  readily  understood  from  the  sketch.  Fig.  1  is 
a  side  view,  and  fig.  2,  an  end  view  of  the  turbine,  as  applied  to  drive  a 
saw ;  a  is  the  wheel  furnished  with  curved  arms,  and  receiving  a  supply 
of  water  from  the  penstock  above;  b  is  the  sluice  for  adjusting  the 
supply  to  the  wheel ;  c  is  the  saw,  the  frame  of  which  is  connected  by  a 
wooden  connecting-rod  to  the  pin  of  the  crank,  d,  on  the  shaft  of  the 
wheel.  In  this  manner  a  high  speed  is  communicated  at  once  to  the 
saw  without  any  gearing,  the  whole  forming  the  cheapest  saw  mill  that 
we  are  acquainted  with.  Another  variety  of  wheel  may  be  also  con- 
structed, by  enclosing  it  in  a  box,  and  allowing  the  water  to  enter  at  the 
periphery  and  escape  at  the  centre. 

We  have  often  been  surprised  that  none  of  our  Cornish  engineers 
have  turned  their  attention  to  this  class  of  motors,  as  many  of  the  water- 
wheels  have  cost  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  there  is  a  large  quantity  of 
sawing  to  be  done  for  the  supply  of  the  mines. 


COTTON  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURING  MECHANISM, 
By  Robert  Scott  Burn,  M.E.,  M.S.A. 

Illustrated  by  Plate  16. 
(Continued  from  page  214). 

Having  described  the  operation  of  the  "  drawing-frame,"  we  have 
now  to  proceed  to  that  of  the  "roving,  or  slubbing-frame."  This 
machine  is  designed  to  give  to  the  attenuated  slivers,  or  drawings,  a 
certain  degree  of  cohesion,  to  enable  them  to  be  wound  upon  a  bobbin. 
This  is  effected  by  giving  them  a  slight  twist ;  but  as,  in  the  after  pro- 
cess of  making  the  cotton  into  a  hard  spun  thread,  this  twist  has  to  be 
taken  out,  to  allow  of  the  still  further  attenuation  of  the  cotton  sliver 
by  passing  between  the  rollers  in  the  "  throstle,"  the  degree  of  twist 
given  in  the  roving-frame  must  only  be  sufficient  to  keep  the  sliver 
together,  and  admit  of  its  being  regularly  unwound  from  the  bobbin. 
The  twisting  of  the  sliver,  and  the  winding  of  it  on  the  bobbin,  is  gene- 
rally effected  by  what  is  termed  the  "  bobbin  and  fly."  For  an  expla- 
nation of  the  principle  of  this  contrivance,  we  beg  to  refer  our  readers 
to  the  article  on  "  Flax  and  its  Manufacturing  Mechanism,"  in  the 
number  for  October,  1851,  page  220.  We  propose,  in  our  next,  to 
give  ample  descriptions,  illustrated  by  detail  drawings  of  the  various 
movements,  and  the  mechanism  by  which  they  are  carried  out.  In  the 
meantime,  we  content  ourselves  with  describing  very  briefly  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  machine  in  working  order,  two  views  of  which  are  repre- 
sented in  plate  xvi.,  consisting  of  front  and  end  elevations.  The  gene- 
ral framing  is  shown  at  b  b,  motion  being  given  to  the  various  parts 
through  the  fast-and-loose  pulleys,  e  c.  Bobbins,  a  a,  are  inserted  in 
the  framing,  so  as  to  allow  of  their  easily  revolving.  The  bobbins  and 
flys,  //,  revolving  at  a  great  speed,  withdraw  from  the  surface  of  the 
bobbins,  a  a,  the  requisite  quantity  of  roving.  Previously  to  being 
wound  upon  the  bobbin,  ff,  the  roving  is  made  to  pass  between  the 
sets  of  drawing-rollers,  d  d,  by  which  it  is  still  more  attenuated.  It  is 
necessary  to  note,  that  the  manner  in  which  the  bobbins,  a  a,  are  pro- 
duced is  by  a  machine  used  previously  to  the  one  now  shown ;  but  the 
slivers  from  the  drawing-frames  are  withdrawn  from  the  cans,  placed 
at  one  side  of  the  machine,  passed  through  the  dra wing-rollers,  and 
wound  upon  large  bobbins,  at  a  a,  which  are  taken  off  the  machine  (in 
plate  xvi.),  and  finally  wound  upon  bobbins  of  a  smaller  size. 

ON  THE  COMPARATIVE  ECONOMY  OF  CONDENSING 
AND  NON-CONDENSING  ENGINES. 

(Concluded  from  p.  240.) 

It  is  a  known  law  that  gases  expand  about  ^3  part  for  every  degree 
of  increase  in  their  temperature ;  and  if  confined,  instead  of  expanding 
^5  part,  the  pressure  in  the  vessel  by  which  it  is  contained  will  be  in- 
creased ,g5  part. 

Now,  returning  to  the  foregoing  supposition,  the  55-4  degrees  of 
heat,  added  to  increase  the  pressure  to  40  lbs.,  acts  in  two  ways :  first, 
by  an  increase  in  the  density  of  the  steam  by  the  evaporation  of  more 
water;  secondly,  by  increasing  the  temperature  of  the  steam. 

According  to  this  law  of  the  expansion  of  gases  \>y  heat,  increasing 
the  temperature  of  the  steam  must  increase  the  pressure  that  is  already 
produced  by  the  increase  of  its  density  ^  part  for  every  degree  that  the 
temperature  is  increased.  Let  us  now  see  what  will  be  the  result  of 
this  mode  of  reasoning  at  three  different  pressures — say  at  40  lbs.,  60 
lbs.,  and  100  lbs. 

As  stated  before,  the  pressure  at  a  temperature  of  268"4  degrees  is 

40  lbs.;  but  if  the  pressure  were  only  in  proportion  to  its  density,  it 

would  be  but  36"9  lbs. ;  and  to  increase  the  pressure  from  15  lbs.  to 

40  lbs.,  there  has  been  an  addition  to  the  temperature  of  55-4  degrees ; 

36-9  X  55-4 

therefore, =z4-261bs.  increase  in  the  pressure;  and  36-9 

480 
4-  4-26  =  41  "16  lbs.  instead  of  40  lbs.,  or  a  difference  of  1-16  lbs. 


1852.]  On  the  Comparative  Economy  of  Condensing  and  Non- Condensing  Engines. 


2G1 


At  the  temperature  producing  a  total  pressure  of  60  lbs.,  the  pres- 
sure would  be  only  53-5  lbs.,  if  it  were  in  proportion  to  the  density,  and 
the  addition  to  the  temperature  above  that  of  15  lbs.,  or  the  pressure 

53-5  x  81-1 

of  the  atmosphere,  is  294-1-213  =  81*1  degrees;  therefore, 

480 
=  9'04  lbs.  increase  of  pressure;  and  53'5+9-04  =  62'54  lbs.  pressure, 
instead  of  60  lbs.,  the  real  pressure,  or  a  difference  of  2-54  lbs. 

At  the  temperature  producing  a  total  pressure  of  100  lbs.,  were  the 
pressure  in  proportion  to  the  density,  it  would  be  but  85-3  lbs.,  and  the 
addition  to  the  temperature  above  that  of  15  lbs.,  is  329-6-213  =  116-6; 
85-3x116-6 

thence, =  207  lbs.  increase  of  pressure,  and  85-3+20-7 

480 

=106  lbs.  or  a  difference  of  6  lbs. 

We  are  of  opinion  that  the  discrepancies  existing  between  these 
results  and  the  actual  pressures  may  be  fairly  attributed  to  an  incorrect- 
ness in  the  elements  of,  and  not  to  the  principles  embodied  in,  the  cal- 
culations, as  a  very  slight  difference  between  the  given  temperature,  or 
volumes  for  any  pressure,  and  the  actual  temperature  or  volumes,  would 
be  sufficient  to  correct  those  discrepancies ;  or  the  fraction  given  as  the 
expansion  of  gases  for  each  degree  the  temperature  is  increased,  viz., 
^  part,  may  not  be  the  exact  expansion  ;  and  where  the  temperature  is 
increased  so  many  degrees,  as  in  the  foregoing  cases,  it  would  sensibly 
affect  the  result. 

We  conceive,  however,  that  these  results  approximate  sufficiently 
near  the  actual  pressure  to  show  the  principles  to  be  correct  upon  which 
the  calculations  are  founded. 

We  now  come  to  the  second  reason  assigned  for  the  economy  of 
high-pressure  engines,  viz.,  "  the  superior  economy  in  the  consumption 
of  steam  by  the  engine  when  used  at  a  high-pressure  instead  of  a  lower 
one." 

This  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  total  amount  of  losses  from  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  friction,  or  other  causes,  does  not  increase 
in  the  same  ratio  as  the  effective  pressure  of  the  steam  acting  upon  the 
piston,  but  is  nearly  a  constant  quantity  ;  consequently,  the  greater  the 
pressure  of  the  steam  upon  the  piston,  the  smaller  will  be  the  ratio 
between  the  sum  of  the  losses  and  the  whole  force  exerted. 

In  order  to  show  this  clearly,  we  will  compare  the  results  produced 
by  a  non-condensing  engine,  working  under  two  different  pressures,  say 
with  pressures  above  the  atmosphere  of  20  lbs.  and  of  80  lbs.,  or  total 
pressures  of  35  lbs.  and  of  96  lbs.,  per  square  inch  upon  the  piston,  and 
thus  exhibit  the  ratio  between  the  losses  and  the  whole  force  exerted 
by  the  different  pressures.  But,  to  be  able  to  accomplish  this,  we  must 
first  determine  the  amount  of  the  losses  in  each  case. 

The  items  of  loss,  when  working  under  a  pressure  of  20  lbs.  per 
square  inch  above  the  atmosphere,  we  will  suppose  to  be — 

Press  of  atmosphere,  per  square  inch . .  . .  15'00  lbs. 

Power  required  for  working  valves     . .  . .  0-50    „ 

pumps     ..  ..  0-50    „ 

Friction  of  piston         ..  ..  ..  ■•  TOO    „ 

Friction  of  journals  and  other  working  parts. .  3'50    „ 


Total  amount  of  losses 20-50  lbs. 

Now,  20  lbs.-j-15  pressure  of  atmosphere  =  35  lbs. ;  and  35-00 — 20'50 
lbs.=14-50  lbs.  pressure,  the  whole  effective  force  exerted  per  square 
inch  upon  the  piston  by  the  engine,  and  being  41 -4  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  power  upon  the  piston. 

The  total  amount  of  losses,  when  working  under  a  pressure  of  80  lbs. 
per  square  inch  above  the  atmosphere,  is  but  little  greater  than  when 
the  pressure  is  but  20  lbs.  above  the  atmosphere ;  for  it  is  evident  that 
the  principal  item  of  loss,  which  is  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  is 


the  same  in  both  cases;  and  the  increase  of  friction  of  the  piston, 
journals,  &c,  is  but  trifling.     The  items  of  loss  will  then  be— 

Pressure  of  atmosphere  per  square  inch  . .  15-00  lbs. 

Power  required  for  working  valves       . .  . .  2-00   „ 

>>  »  „         pumps      . .  . .  2-00   „ 

Friction  of  piston  . .  . .  . .  . .  1-50   „ 

Friction  of  journals  and  other  working  parts  ..  4-50    „ 


Total  amount  of  losses 25-00  lbs. 

Thence,  80  lbs. +  15  lbs.  pressure  of  atmosphere  =  95-00  lbs.;  and  95-00 
—  25-00  =  7000  lbs.  pressure  per  square  inch,  the  whole  force  exerted 
upon  the  piston,  by  which  a  useful  effect  is  produced,  being  73"  7  per 
cent,  nearly  of  the  whole  force  upon  the  piston. 

Thus,  theoretically,  there  is  323  per  cent,  more  power  usefully  applied, 
when  working  at  the  higher  than  at  the  lower  pressure,  but  practically 
the  difference  is  not  so  great  as  here  represented,  as  there  is  almost 
necessarily  a  greater  loss  from  leakages,  and  greater  radiation  of  heat 
from  pipes,  cylinders,  &c,  when  working  at  the  former  than  at  the 
latter  pressure. 

Having  thus,  as  we  think,  satisfactorily  shown  not  only  that  it  is, 
more  economical  to  generate  steam  of  a  high  pressure  than  a  lower  one, 
and  also  to  use  it  at  a  high  pressure  in  working  nou-condensing  engines, 
but  that  there  is  some  given  pressure  at  which,  if  used  in  non-condens- 
ing engines,  it  will  render  them  equally  economical  with  the  ordinary 
condensing  engine  used  in  the  English  practice,  we  will  endeavour  to 
ascertain  what  that  pressure  should  be,  supposing  the  steam  to  be 
worked  at  its  full  pressure  during  the  whole  length  of  the  stroke  of  the 
engine.  For  the  condensing  engine  we  will  assume  as  the  working 
pressure  5  lbs.  per  square  inch  above  the  atmosphere,  or  a  total  pressure 
of  20  lbs.  per  square  inch.     The  items  of  loss  in  this  engine  will  be — 

Imperfect  vacuum,  per  square  inch        . .  . .  2  25  lbs. 

Power  required  for  working  valves        ..  ..  050   „ 

„  „  „         pumps        ..  ..         0-75    „ 

Friction  of  piston  . .  . .  . .  . .         040    ,, 

Friction  of  journals  and  other  working  parts     ..         2-25   „ 


Total  amount  of  resistances  in  condensing  engine       6'15  lbs. 
By  reference  to  the  fourth  column  of  the  table  given  in  the  first  part  of 
this  article,  it  will  he  observed  that,  by  assuming  the  fuel  required  to 
maintain  the  steam  at  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  at  LOO  parts,  the 
amount  required  to  maintain  the  steam  at  20  lbs.  will  be  130  parts. 

Now,  the  total  pressure  upon  the  piston  is  20  lbs.,  and  the  total 
amount  of  resistance  is  6-15  lbs.;  thence,  20  lbs.  —  6-15  lbs.=13'85  lbs. 
pressure  per  square  inch  as  the  available  power:  this  is  obtained  at  an 

130 

expense  of  130  parts  of  fuel ;  thence, =  9-38  parts  of  fuel,  to  ob- 

13-85 
tain  1  lb.  pressure  per  square  inch  available  power  upon  the  piston. 

Our  object  now  is  to  find  at  what  pressure  per  square  inch  it  is 
necessary  to  maintain  the  steam  for  a  non-condensing  engine,  so  that 
each  9-38  parts  of  fuel  will  produce  1  lb.  pressure  per  Bquare  inch  upon 
the  piston  available  power.  This  will  be  found  to  be  60  lbs.  total  pres- 
sure, or  45  lbs.  pressure  above  the  atmosphere,  as  the  following  calcu- 
lation will  show.     The  items  of  loss  may  he  estimated  thus  :— 

Pressure  of  atmosphere  per  square  inch  . .  1500  lbs. 

Power  required  for  working  valves      ..  ..  0'90    „ 

pumps    ..         ..  0-90    ., 

Friction  of  piston  ..  ••  ••  ••  l'-'O    „ 

Friction  of  journals  and  other  working  pails..  4.00    .. 

Total  amount  of  resistances 22'00  lbs. 

The  whole  pressure  upon  the  piston  is  60  lbs.  per  square  inch,  and  the 


262 


RusselVs  Patent  Method  of  Loioering  Ships'  Boats, 


[December, 


whole  amount  of  resistances  is  22  lbs.  per  square  inch;  thence,  60  lbs. 
—  22  lbs.  =  38  lbs.  pressure  per  square  inch  available  power,  which  is 
obtained,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  fourth  column  of  the  table, 

35/ 

by  an  expenditure  of  357  parts  of  fuel;  then =  9*39  parts  of  fuel 

38 
for  each  pound  available  pressure  per  square  inch  upon  the  piston. 

It  would  thus  appear,  that  by  working  a  non-condensing  engine  with 
steam  of  a  pressure  equal  to  45  lbs.  per  square  inch  above  the  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere,  the  expenditure  of  fuel  in  proportion  to  the  avail- 
able power  is  nearly  the  same  as  in  working  a  condensing  engine  with 
a  pressure  of  steam  equal  to  5  lbs.  per  square  inch  above  the  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere. 

But  this  pressure  is  only  theoretically  equal  in  economy  of  fuel  to 
the  condensing  engine ;  practically,  a  pressure  would  be  required  some- 
what greater,  from  the  loss  by  leakages,  radiation  of  heat,  &c,  being 
greater  in  the  non-condensing  than  in  the  condensing  engine. 

We  believe  that  every  engineer  who  has  had  experience  in  workino- 
both  classes  of  engines  is  fully  satisfied  of  the  truth  of  the  proposition 
set  forth  in  the  commencement  of  this  paper,  viz.,  "  that  a  non-con- 
densing engine  may  be  worked  with  steam  of  some  given  pressure  per 
square  inch  that  shall  equal  in  economy  the  ordinary  condensing  engine 
used  in  the  English  practice." 

Our  object  has  been  to  give  some  satisfactory  explanation  why  this 


is  the  case ;  and  in  attempting  to  do  this  we  will  not  pretend  that  the 
items  of  resistance  given  for  each  description  of  engine  are  precisely 
correct,  as  we  have  stated  them  according  to  our  judgment,  having 
no  experiments  to  refer  to  from  which  to  arrive  at  their  precise  amount ; 
neither  do  we  pretend  that  the  calculations  are  made  with  mathematical 
accuracy,  as  our  purpose  did  not  require  it;  but  if  any  of  the  principles 
and  reasonings  here  advanced,  upon  which  these  calculations  are  based, 
are  incorrect,  or  founded  upon  incorrect  premises,  we  should  be  as  much 
gratified  to  see  them  disproved  as  any  one ;  our  only  object  being  to 
arrive  at  a  correct  exposition  of  the  fact. 

New  York,  Oct.  29th,  1840.  C. 


RUSSELL'S  PATENT  METHOD  OF  LOWERING  SHIPS' 
BOATS. 

The  numerous  fatal  accidents  which  have  occurred  from  the  in- 
efficient manner  in  which  the  lowering  and  raising  of  ships'  boats  is 
usually  provided  for,  have  been  the  means  of  drawing  so  much  public 
attention  to  the  subject,  that  we  are  not  surprised  that  several  candi- 
dates have  appeared  for  the  reward  which  would  inevitably  follow  any 
perfectly  satisfactory  plan.  The  plan  of  Mr.  Russell,  delineated  in  the 
accompaning  engravings,  appears  to  us  well  calculated  to  fulfil  the  end 
in  view. 

The  boat  is  hung  on  two  derrick  cranes,  which  have  supporting 


Es.l 


m\\w\-a  B 


I  L 


1852.] 


Effect  of  Size  of  Vessels  on  their  Speed. 


263 


stancheons  on  the  bulwarks.  Fig.  1  is  a  transverse  section  of  part  of 
the  ship's  side,  showing  the  boat  resting  on  the  cranes,  a,  and  fig.  2 
shows  the  boat  swung  off  and  partially  lowered.  From  the  radial 
action  of  the  derricks,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  boat  clears  itself  the 
moment  it  is  begun  to  be  lowered,  without  hoisting  it  up  at  all.  The 
most  inexperienced  person  can  imagine  that,  when  a  ship  is  on  fire, 
and  everything  in  confusion,  it  is  vain  to  expect  that  the  few  men  who 
retain  their  presence  of  mind  can  hoist  a  heavy  boat  out  with  the  same 
coolness  that  they  should  possess  if  their  power  is  to  be  united.  The 
removal  of  the  necessity  for  hoisting  the  boats  at  all  is,  therefore,  an 
important  feature  in  this  plan. 

Fig.  3  is  a  longitudinal  elevation  of  the  inside  of  the  bulwarks,  show- 
ing the  method  of  leading  the  ropes  by  which  the  boat  is  raised  and 
lowered.  A  winch,  a,  fig.  3,  serves  to  give  power  to  raise  the  boat,  and 
is  provided  with  a  break,  b,  fig.  3,  by  which  the  lowering  is  safely 
effected.    A  rope  may  be  attached  to  the  brake-handle,  so  that  not  a 


EFFECT  OF  SIZE  OF  VESSELS  ON  THEIR  SPEED. 

To  the  Editor  of  the  Artizan. 

Sir, — Allow  me  to  correct  an  error  in  your  number  of  September 
last  (p.  208),  regarding  the  "  Effect  of  the  Size  on  the  Speed  of  Vessels" 
from  Mr.  Bourne's  Treatise  on  the  Screw  Propeller.  Mr.  Bourne  grounds 
his  calculations  on  "  What  would  be  the  speed  that  would  be  attained 
by  a  vessel  of  the  same  form  as  the  Fairy,  aud  the  same  proportion  of 
power  to  tonnage,  but  three  times  the  length,  and,  consequently,  of  nine 
times  the  area  of  immersed  section,  twenty-seven  times  the  capacity, 
and  nine  times  the  power?"  and  he  concludes,  "  that  with  1,080  horse 
power,  the  speed  of  the  large  vessel  would  be  increased  in  proportion 
to  the  square  root  of  one  to  the  square  root  of  three,  or  that  the  speed 
of  the  large  vessel  would  be  1'73  times  that  of  the  small  vessel ;  and  if. 
therefore,  the  speed  of  the  Fairy  be  13  knots,  the  speed  of  the  large 
vessel  would  be  22-49  knots,  although  the  proportion  of  the  power  to 


single  man  need  be  left  on  board  the  ship  to  attend  to  the  brake.  As 
both  ropes  by  which  the  boat  is  hung  lead  to  one  barrel,  the  two  ends 
of  the  boat  must  be  raised  or  lowered  simultaneously. 

In  order  to  effect  a  simultaneous  disengagement  of  the  ends  oftheboat, 
when  she  touches  the  water,  the  blocks  are  made  fast  to  two  bolts  (see 
fig.  4),  which  have  ends  swelled  out,  and  taking  into  pieces  provided  in 
the  boat  for  that  purpose.  These  are  held  in  place  by  two  levers,  which 
are  connected  together  by  a  rod  running  along  the  bottom  of  the  boat, 
and  commanded  by  a  handle  in  the  centre,  by  moving  which  the  blocks 
are  simultaneously  disengaged.  A,  fig.  4,  shows  the  block  attached ; 
c  shows  it  cast  loose,  and  b  is  the  handle  by  which  it  is  effected. 


the  sectional  area  is  in  both  vessels  precisely  the  same."  Now,  tin- 
error  in  the  calculation  that  I  wish  to  point  out  is  this :  that  the  speed 
of  the  large  vessel  with  twenty-seven  times  the  capacity  and  with  oulv 
nine  times  the  power  of  the  small  vessel  would  only  he  13  knots,  or  the 
same  as  that  of  the  small  vessel,  and  not  22'49  knots  as  stated.  As 
the  ratio  of  power  to  the  immersed  section  of  the  vessels  i-.  in  both 
cases,  precisely  the  same,  it  follows,  that  the  speed  of  those  vessels 
would  also  be  the  same,  but  the  relative  advantage  of  the  large  vessel 
would  he  the  gain  of  three  times  the  capacity  over  the  small  vessel, 
with  the  same  ratio  of  power  to  immersed  section,  and  the  sped  in 
both  vessels  would  he  the  same;  but  if  this  ratio  of  power  he  valued  to 
the  capacity  of  the  large  vessel,  it  would  then  only  be  one-third  of  the 


264 


Robinson  and  Green's  Patent  Steering  Apparatus. 


[December, 


relative  power  of  the  small  vessel  for  an  equal  speed.  If,  now,  the 
power  in  the  large  vessel  be  increased  in  the  same  ratio  as  the  power  to 
the  capacity  of  the  small  vessel,  it  would  then  require  twenty-seven 
times  the  power  of  that  vessel,  or  3,240  horse  power,  and  the  speed 
would  be  increased  in  the  ratio  of  the  cube  root  of  one  to  the  cube  root 
of  three;  that  is,  the  speed  of  the  large  vessel  would  be  1"44  times  13 
knots,  or  18'72  knots  instead  of  22*49  knots.  It  should  further  be  ob- 
served that,  in  supplying  the  large  vessel  with  the  same  ratio  of  power 
to  capacity  as  in  the  small  vessel,  there  would  be  nothing  gained  in 
increased  capacity  of  the  large  vessel,  but  the  advantage  would  be  an 
increase  of  1"44  times  the  speed.  Thus,  in  either  case,  the  large  vessel 
would  have  the  advantage  over  the  small  one.  either  in  speed  or  capa- 
city, but  it  could  not  have  both  of  those  advantages  at  the  same  time, 
without  sacrificing  something  of  one  or  the  other  of  them. 

It  would  not  have  been  necessary  for  me  to  point  out  this  error  to 
Mr.  Bourne  — who  knows  too  well  the  resistance  of  a  vessel — but  as 


power  per  square  foot  of  immersed  section  ;  a  fact  of  which  Mr.  Bourne 
could  not  but  be  cognisant.  Now,  the  fact  is,  that  Mr.  Bourne  lays 
down  this  law  as  the  one  generally  accepted  for  determining  the  speed 
of  vessels,  but  at  the  same  time  he  says  that  it  is  erroneous,  and  he 
propounds  another  law,  which  he  says  gives  results  more  conformable 
to  experience.  According  to  this  new  law,  the  size  of  the  vessel — all 
other  things  being  the  same — materially  influences  the  result,  and  that 
this  is  so  is  a  fact  well  known  to  those  conversant  with  yacht  races, 
where  an  allowance  is  always  made  for  size.  Mr.  Holm  computes  ac- 
cording to  the  received  hypothesis,  whereas  Mr.  Bourne  has  shown  that 
hypothesis  to  be  untenable,  and  he  therefore  discards  it  in  favour  of 
another  which  is  more  consistent  with  fact.] 

ROBINSON  AND  GREEX'S  PATENT  STEERING  APPARATUS. 

An  efficient  steering  apparatus,  which  should  combine  the  requisites 
of  strength  and  simplicity,  has  long  been  a  desideratum.   If  ever  it  has 


errors  will  happen  sometimes,  he  will  no  doubt  excuse  me  for  pointing 
them  out,  as  I  have  no  other  motive  than  that  the  thing  should  be 
right ;  and  an  error  of  this  kind  accepted  uncontradicted  might  lead 
some  persons  to  hope  for  advantages  that  could  not  (at  least  by  the 
present  mode  of  fitting  out  vessels)  be  realised. 

Very  respectfully,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

London,  Nov.  1,  1852.  C.  A.  HOLM,  C.E. 

[We  give  insertion  to  the  foregoing  from  a  very  able  and  ingenious 
correspondent,  but  we  are  of  opinion  that,  if  Mr.  Holm  had  formed  his 
judgment  from  Mr.  Bourne's  work  itself,  instead  of, from  the  brief  ex- 
tract we  gave  from  it,  he  would  have  acquiesced  in  Mr.  Bourne's  con- 
clusion. The  difference  we  take  it  to  be  this  :— Mr.  Bourne  computes 
what  the  speed  of  the  Fairy  would  be  if  her  scale  were  enlarged  until 
she  had  nine  times  the  present  immersed  sectional  area,  and  nine  times 
the  power,  and  he  finds  that  the  speed  would  be  very  much  increased; 
Mr.  Holm  replies  that  this  must  be  an  inadvertence,  inasmuch  as  the 
speed  of  a  vessel  of  a  given  form  is  determinable  by  the  proportion  of 


been  arrived  at,  we  believe  it  is  in  the  case  before  us,  for  this  apparatus 
possesses  a  qualification  which  we  have  in  vain  looked  for  in  all  other 
machines — that  is,  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  rudder  does  not  affect  the 
working  of,  or  injure,  the  machine.  The  working  parts  consist,  as  will 
be  seen  from  the  accompanying  perspective  view,  of  a  treble-threaded 
screw ;  the  motion  of  the  nut  of  which  is  conveyed  through  a  lever  to 
the  rudder-head,  and  the  connections  are  made  by  swivels  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  allow  of  motion  in  all  directions,  a  is  the  cap  of  the 
rudder-head,  on  which  a  cast-iron  socket,  b,  is  hung  on  trunnions,  so 
as  to  swivel.  Through  this  socket  slides  the  lever,  c  c,  the  upper  end 
of  which  holds,  on  a  swivel,  the  nut  of  the  screw,  moved  by  a  steering 
wheel  in  the  ordinary  manner.  As  one  end  of  the  lever,  c,  moves  in  a 
straight  line,  whilst  the  socket  describes  a  circle,  it  is  obvious  that  a 
longer  leverage  is  obtained  when  the  helm  is  hard  over,  than  when  it  is 
amid-ships;  and  thus  the  steersman  has  greater  power  over  the  helm 
just  at  the  moment  it  is  most  required. 

This  apparatus  has  been  applied  to  two  vessels  with  perfect  success. 


1852.] 


Dimensions  of  French  Locomotives. 


265 


DIMENSIONS  OF  FRENCH  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Au  Re'dacteur  de  l'Artizan. 

Monsieur,— Croyant  qu'il  peut  etre  interessant  pour  vos  lecteurs  de 
connaitre  quelques  details  sur  les  locomotives  en  France,  je  vous  envoie 
leurs  dimensions  que  j'ai  reduites  en  mesures  Anglaises  de  l'ouvrage 
de  M.  Armengaud,  intitule  Publication  Industrielle,  pensant  que  vous 
n'hesiterez  pas  ales  mettre  dans  votre  estimable  journal,  qui  dans  notre 
contree,  possede  un  si  grand  credit  pour  toutes  les  informations  sur  la 
mecanique  pratique. 

Havre,  1852.  Albert  Nillus. 

Crampton's  patent  locomotives,  as  executed  by  Messrs.  Derosne, 
Cail,  and  Co.,  of  Paris,  are  in  use  on  many  of  the  French  lines,  par- 
ticularly on  the  northern  and  the  Strasburg  Railways  ;  on  the  former  of 
which  they  perform  the  service  at  the  rate  of  56  miles  per  hour.  The 
dimensions  given  are  those  of  the  various  classes  actually  in  use  on 
the  northern  line. 


Principal  Dimensions  of  the  Locomotive 

Engines  employed  on  the 

Northern  Railway  of  France. 


Diameter  of  cylinder 

Length  of  stroke        

Diameter  of  driving-wheels 
Proportion  of  speed  of  wheels  to  pis- 
tons          

Diameter  of  leading  wheels 
Diameter  of  trailing  do 


Length  inside  fire-box,  upper  part   -j 


Breadth,  lower  part 

Length  outside 

Breadth  outside 

Width  of  spaces,  extreme 


{ 


J  above 
\  below 

Width  of  spaces  at  side 

Total  height  inside  fire-box 

Outside  diameter  of  barrel  of  boiler. . 

Length  of  cylindrical  part  between  the 
plates       

Length  of  tubes         

Number  of  do 

Outside  diameter,  which  is  reduced  \ 
to  1*81  inches  at  fire-box  end       J 

Inside  diameter  of  do 

Distance  from  centre  to  centre 

Outside  length  of  smoke-box 

Breadth  over  the  plates 

Total  length  of  inside  boiler  over  fire- 
box   

Thickness  of  copper  plates  of  fire-box 

Thickness  of  tube  plate  across  tubes 

Thickness  of  plates  in  boiler  barrel . . 

Thickness  of  plates  of  shell  of  fire-box 
Do.  do.  tube  plate  (iron) 

Do.  do.  smoke-box 

Height  from   bottom   of  fire-box  to 
cylindrical  part 

Height  from  do.  to  lower  part  of  dome 

From  top  of  rail  to  bottom  of  fire-box 

From  do.  to  cylindrical  part     , . 

From  top  of  rail  to  top  of  chimney 

Height    of    cylindrical     part    above 
driving-axle 

Outside    diameter   of  the!     ,     \>-§^ 
chimney  ..      ..        |    j     2-17 

Thickness  of  chimney        

Height  of  chimney  above  smoke-box 


Crampton's 

Patent 

En 

gmes. 

ft. 

ins. 

0 

15-98 

1 

10-04 

6  10-67 

6-6  :  1 

4 

5-14 

4 

0 

4 

4-96 

4 

5-94 

3 

396 

3 

5-53 

5 

1-023 

4 

1-02 

0 

4-04 

3-54 
3-94 
5-54 
3-37 


11     776 

11     7-76 

178 

0    1-97 


1-81 
2-56 
1-01 
0-92 

8-80 
0-47 
0-98 
0-39 
0-47 
0-59 
0-39 

8-08 

9-09 

11-81 

7-89 
1-48 


0  9-45 
bottom 

1  4-22 
1  5-72 
0  0-24 
6    4-57 


Passengers 

Train 

Goods 

Engines. 

Engines. 

ft.       ins. 

ft.       ins. 

0  14-96 

0  14-96 

1  10-04 

2    0 

5    8-97 

4    0 

4-71  :  1 
3  3-37 
3     337 


0-42 


}2 

3 
3 


3-74 
6-34 
2-19 

1-08 
1-08 
125 

0    1-93 


3-14  : 
4  0 
4    0 


3     0-42 


1-98 

2  11-98 

8-29 

3    8-29 

7-46 

3     7-46 

3-94 

0    3-94 

3-74 
6-34 
2-19 


0 
0 
3 
2 

19 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

1 

7 
l 

4 
13 


1-77 
2-44 
9-96 
6-31 

0-35 

0-43 

0-9 

0-39 

0-47 

0-59 

0-31 

10-15 

8-20 
7-80 
0-03 
1-48 


1    2-96 


•  1     1-39 


0-24 
7-32 


12     1-08 

12     1-08 

125 

0    1-93 


1-77 
2-44 
9-96 
9-98 


18  7'35 

0  0-43 

0  0-9 

0  0-39 

0  0-47 

0  0-59 

0  0-31 

1  10-15 


8-20 
3-75 

772 
1-48 


1    7-' 


1-39 

0-24 
11-06 


Principal  Dimensions  of  the  Locomotive 

Engines  employed  on  the 

Northern  Railway  of  France. 


Direct  heating  surface  in  fire-box,  in 
square  feet      ; 

Heating  surface  in  tubes 

Total  heating  surface         

Space  available  for  steam,  in  cubic 
feet 


DIMENSIONS  OF  FRAMING. 

Length  from  end  of  foot-plate  to  fire- 
box   

Total  length  on  exterior  of  boiler    . . 
Length  from  smoke-box  to  end 


Total  length 


Crampton's 

Patent 

Engines. 


103-65 
1010-5 
1114-15 

35-31 


3-74 
3-68 
9-84 


20     5-26 


Depth  of  framing      0 

Thickness  of  framing         0 

Height  of  upper  part  of  do.  above  rails  3 
Height  of  do.  above  driving  axle  . .  2 
Distance  between  centre  of  frames  . .  4 
Distance  between  fire-box   and  hind 

axle . .      ° 

Distance  between  hind  axle  and  dri- 
ving axle 

Distance  between  driving  and  leading 

axles        

Distance    between  leading   axle   and 

smoke-box      

Total  equal  to  the  length  of  the  boiler 

barrel       

Breadth  of  tires 

Thickness  of  do.  at  middle 

No.  of  arms  in  driving  wheel 

Diameter  of  seat                  of  the  dri- 
ving wheels     

Thickness  of  boss  of  driving  wheels. . 
Diameter  of  journals  of  driving  axle 

Length  of  journals  of  do.         

Diameter  of  body  of  shaft 

No.  of  arms  in  leading  and  trailing  ) 

wheels ) 

Diameter  of  seat  of  do 

Thickness  of  boss  of  do 

Diameter  of  journals  of  do 

Length  of  journals  of  do 

Diameter  of  body  of  axle 

CYLINDER,  CONNECTING  ROD,  &C. 

Thickness  of  piston 

Do.  at  edges 

Length  of  the  cylinder  between  the 

covers      

Diameter  of  piston  rod 
Length  of  guides  (steel) 
Thickness  of  guides  at  extremities 
Thickness  of  guides  at  middle  . . 
Length  of  connecting-rod. . 
Diameter  of  crank-pin  journal . . 

Length  of  do 

Distance  from  centre  of  cylinder  to 

centre  of  frame       

Distance  between  centres  of  cylinders 

Do.      backing  eccentrics 

Do.      forward  eccentrics 

Do.      centres  of  slide-rods  . . 

Travel  of  eccentrics 

Inside  diameter  of  do 

Outside  do 

Angle  of  fixing  do 

Width  of  eccentric  bands 

Thickness  of  do.  

Eccentric-rod,  length  between  centres 


9'84 
0-98 
8-88 
11-43 
2-0 


0  9-05 
8  4-39 
6  .4-77 

1  2-96 

11     7-76 

0    5-51 

0     1-96 

20 

o    7-87 

0    771 

0    6-49 

0  10-23 

0     7-28 

14 

12 

9-05 

7-48 

6-10 

11-81 

7-08 


4-33 
0-78 

3-17 
2-36 
4-33 

1-57 
1-96 
0-65 

4-52 
4-48 


Passengers 

Train 

Engines. 


0  55-11 
715-8 

770-91 
33-93 


1     3-74 

18     6-83 

0    9-84 


20    8-41 


0  11-96 
6  1-93 
1-35 
5-76 
3-32 
4-72 
8'81 
9-76 
35° 
1-98 
1-57 
7-12 


7S7 
1-18 
1-8 
4-73 
0  26 


Goods 
Engines. 


ft.       ins. 

0  55-11 

715-8 
770-91 

33-93 


4    6-92 

18     8-80 
0    4-92 


23     8-64 


0  5-11 

4  11-25 

5  2-99 

1  9-26 

12     L07 

0    5-51 

0     1'96 

16 

0  7-08 

0  7-48 

0  6-30 

0  5-9 

0  6-10 

10 

6-30 

6-89 
5-51 
6-30 
5-31 


0    4-25 
0    0-98 


3-28 

2-16 

3-15 

1-3 

1-89 

6-13 

4-25 

3-54 


0  13-03 
6    2-33 

2  10-29 

3  285 

3  0-57 
0  4-56 
0  12-20 
0  12-59 

30" 
0    2-26 
0     1-61 

4  673 


7-87 
1-18 
5-73 
5-71 
0-26 


0  4-72 

4  0-32 

5  3-97 

2  1-69 

12  1-07 

0  5-51 

0  1-96 

12 


7-08 

7-08 

6-30 

5-9 

6-10 

12 


7-os 
7-08 
7-08 

5-90 
5-70 


4-52 
0-98 

2-52 

2-16 

3-15 

1-3 

1-89 

9-87 

3-15 

3-54 


0  16-74 
6     9-73 

2  10-29 

3  2-85 
3  0-57 
0  4-56 
0  12-20 
0  12-59 

30° 
0    2-26 
0    1-61 
3     7-93 

35 


266 


The  New  North  Western  Locomotives. 


[December, 


Principal  Dimensions  of  the  Locomotive 

Engines  employed  on  the 

Northern  Railway  of  France. 


SLIDES  VALVES. 

Length  of  openings 

Inside  distance  apart 

Length  outside 

Depth  inside       

Cylinder  face,  exhaust-port 

Distance  between  the  insides  of  the 

steam-ports 

Distance    between    the    outsides    of 

ports       

Width  of  steam-ports 

Inside  cover  of  slides 

Outside  cover  of  slides 

Diameter  of  slide-rods 

Distance  of  rod  from  cylinder-face 

From  centre  of  cylinder  to  face 

Diameter  of  steam-pipe 

Do.  exhaust-pipe 


GENERAL    DIMENSIONS. 

Height  of  buffer-spindle  above  rail 
Between  centres  of  buffers 
Between  centres  of  safety-chains 
Height  of  centre  of  draw-bar    . . 
Height  of  buffer  of  tender        . . 


Crampton's 
Patent 
Engines. 


ft. 


0  11-41 

0  5'23 

0  10-82 

0  2-36 

0  3-74 


0    5-31 


8-85 
177 
0-39 
0-98 
1-26 
2-06 
12-6 
4-33 
5-51 


1-59 
8-38 
3-56 
3-37 
3.37 


Passengers 

Train 
Engines. 


ft.  ins. 

0  9-84 

0  4-48 

0  9-68 

0  2-36 

0  2-99 

0  4-56 

0  771 

0  1-57 

0  0-39 

0  0-98 

0  1-26 

0  2-32 

0  16-59 

0  3-93 

0  4-72 


1-59 
7-99 
10-85 
1-59 
6-91 


Goods 
Engines. 


9-84 
4-48 
9-68 
2-36 
2-99 


0    4-56 


7-71 
1-57 
0-39 
0-98 
1-26 
4-01 
19-09 
3-93 
4-72 


1-59 
7-99 
10-85 
1-59 
1-59 


THE  NEW  NORTH  WESTERN  LOCOMOTIVES. 

The  London  and  North  Western  Railway  Company  are  offering  some 
of  their  passenger  locomotives  for  sale,  to  make  room  for  the  new 
express  engines  making  by  Messrs.  Fairbairn  &  Son,  of  Manchester, 
and  Messrs.  E.  B.  Wilson  &  Co.,  of  Leeds,  and  which  are  to  do  the 
distance  from  London  to  Birmingham  (113  miles)  in  two  hours.  To  do 
this,  it  is  said,  they  must  be  able  to  evaporate  260  cubic  feet  of  water 
per  hour.  Their  leading  dimensions  are  as  follows  : — Cylinders  18 
inches  diameter  and  2  feet  stroke.  Six  wheels.  The  driving-wheels 
7  feet  6  inches  diameter ;  boiler-barrel  4  feet  diameter,  containing  300 
tubes,  1  i  inch  (inside)  diameter  and  7  feet  long.  The  cylinders  are  inside ; 
and,  in  order  to  reduce  the  height  of  the  engine,  the  underside  of  the  barrel 
is  curved  in  where  it  meets  the  fire-box,  to  make  room  for  the  cranks. 
The  fire-box  is  of  unusual  size,  and  divided  by  a  vertical  water  space  the 
whole  depth,  thus  forming  two  furnaces,  which  meet  before  they  reach 
the  tubes.  This  fire-box  contains  260  feet  of  heating  surface,  and 
about  1,400  stays !  The  tubes,  it  will  be  observed,  are  short,  but  nume- 
rous. The  total  heating  surface  is  1,700  square  feet.  Some  of  the  stays 
in  the  fire-box  are  made  hollow,  and  open  at  the  ends,  so  that  they 
will  admit  jets  of  atmospheric  air,  to  assist  the  combustion.  The 
springs  are  of  India-rubber.  The  axles  are  hollow,  and,  to  form  the 
journals,  are  made  hot,  and  creased  in,  so  as  not  to  diminish  the  thick- 
ness of  metal  at  that  part.  The  tender  is  to  carry  3,000  gallons  of 
water,  and  two  tons  of  coke,  so  that  it  can  run  to  Birmingham  without 
stopping. 

With  reference  to  the  speed  proposed  to  be  attained,  we  may  say  that 
there  is  no  difficulty,  because  it  has  been  often  done  before ;  but  there 
is  another  difficulty,  or  rather  two  difficulties,  viz.,  the  maintenance  of 
the  permanent  way,  and  of  the  dividend. 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING. 

(Continued  from  p.  238.) 

Boyd's  Self-adjusting  Scythe. — A  scythe  is  proverbially  a  very 
awkward  instrument  to  handle,  and  it  appears  extraordinary  that  no 
inventor  has  ever  taken  it  in  hand  before.  Mr.  Boyd  has  not  only 
rendered  it  adjustable,  but  also  "  packable,"  by  very  simple  and  effectual 


means.  The  former  property  enables  the  mower  to  adjust  the  scythe  to 
his  own  height,  and  to  that  of  the  crop,  and  thus  renders  it  unnecessary 
to  have  two  or  more  scythes.     Fig.  1  is  a  view  of  the  scythe  folded 


Kg.  I- 

together,  and  figs.  2  and  3  are  enlarged  views  of  the  joint,  in  which  the 
novelty  consists ;  a  is  the  blade,  and  b  the  handle,  both  being  broken 
off  in  the  larger  scale  drawing.      The  blade,  a,  has  an  eye  at  the  end, 

Fig.  2. 


,-'     /u< 


Fig.  3. 

and  there  is  a  corresponding  eye  on  the  swivel  piece,  d,  the  set  screw, 
c,  going  through  both,  and  serving  to  secure  them  together.  The  other 
end  of  the  swivel  piece  is  made  with  a  series  of  radial  teeth  on  the  face 
of  the  eye,  and  similar  teeth  are  made  on  the  holder,  e,  so  that  they 
can  be  adjusted  to  any  angle,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  the  inter- 
locking of  the  teeth,  when  compressed  by  the  bolt,  holding  them  securely 
together,  without  the  possibility  of  their  slipping.  The  ease  with  which 
this  instrument  can  be  taken  asunder,  adjusted,  and  put  together, 
renders  it  deserving  of  every  commendation. 

This  scythe  is  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Dray  and  Co.,  of  London, 
and  was  exhibited  by  them  at  the  Lewes  Show  of  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural Society,  where  it  attracted  our  attention. 

Lomax's  Patent  Chaff-cutter. — The  neatest  and  most  me- 
chanical-looking chaff-cutter  which  we  have  seen  is  Lomax's,  made  by 


Mr.  Smith  of  Uxbridge.      The  perspective  view  attached  shows  the 
general  plan  on  which  it  is  constructed.  Only  two  knives  are  employed, 


1852.] 


Notes  by  a  Practical  Chemist. 


267 


but  they  are  placed  at  such  an  angle,  that  they  have  a  large  amount  of 

"  draw,"  and  in  consequence  cut  with  less  power.    A  guard  is  placed  in 

front  of  the  knife,  which  supports  the  straw  on  both  sides, 

whilst  it  is  being  cut,  and  it  therefore  cannot  drag  the 

straw,   as   is   frequently   the   case.      At  the  moment  of 

cutting,    the  top  of  the  mouth-piece  is  depressed,  and 

holds  the  straw  firmly,  rising  when  the  straw  has  to  be 

advanced    for   a  fresh  cut.      The  feed  is   also  stopped 

whilst  the  cut  is  taking  place.     By  a  simple  adjustment 

they  are  made  to  cut  three  lengths  of  chaff. 

Use  of  LiauiD  Manure  distributed  by  Steam 
Power. — At  page  190  we  described  our  impressions  of 
Mr.  Mechi's  farm,  and  the  effects  of  the  liquid-manure 
system.  Since  then  he  has  taken  up  a  portion  of  his 
crop,  of  which  the  following  is  his  account : — 

"  To  remove  all  doubt  as  to  the  quantity  of  mangel  wurzel  on  my 
six-acred  field,  I  annex  the  details  : — One  good  square  rod  contained  89 
roots  j  average  weight,  8  lbs.  2  ozs.  each,  or  52  tons  per  acre.     One  bad 
square  rod,  89  roots  ;  average  weight,  5^  lbs.  each,  or  35  tons  per  acre. 
Average  of  the  whole  field,  taken  at  the  most  moderate  computation,  43 
tons  per  acre.      Average  of  another  ten-acre  field,  not  so  highly  liqui- 
fied, 87  roots  per  rod,  30  tons  per  acre.      Many  of  the  roots  weigh  23 
lbs.  to  25  lbs.  each,  without  tops,  and  measure  33  to  42  inches  in  cir- 
cumference.     There  were  gaps  in  each  rod   measured,   but  still   the 
number  of  roots  was  great,  as  they  almost  touched  one  another.      I 
attribute  this  large  production  to  deep  cultivation  by  forking,  but  more 
particularly  to  the  use  of  liquified  manure.      Superphosphate  of  lime, 
at  the  rate  of  2  cwt.  per  acre,  was  drilled  under  the  roots.     I  have  also 
a  very  heavy  crop  of  Swedes,  the  best  I  have  seen,  manured  with  2  cwt. 
of  superphosphate  of  lime  and  liquified  manure;  soil,  a  strong  yellow 
plastic  clay,  once  very  deeply  ploughed  before  winter,  and  scarified  in 
the  spring.    I  have  also  had  a  very  heavy  crop  of  cabbages.  In  fact,  I  see 
clearly  that  the  liquified  manure  will  enable  me  to  produce  my  root 
crops  at  5s.  per  ton,  and  will  very  largely  increase  my  other  productions. 
We  frequently  make  the  drains  run,  although  they  are  at  five  feet  deep, 
with  our  liquid  manure.     The  liquor  is  coloured,  but  has  only  an  earthy 
smell  after  filtration.      One  load  of  bullock  or  cow  dung  liquified  will 
manure  more  land  than  four  loads  dry ;  it  acts  immediately,  and  gives  a 
quick  return.     I  have  not  the  least  doubt,  that  within  forty  years  our 
rivers   and  brooks  will  be  used  for  irrigation  and  for  drainage,  our  mil- 
lers will  use  steam.    We  shall  then  be  spared  the  painful  records  of  per- 
plexed discussions  and  threatened  actions,  and  shall  read,  in  lieu  thereof, 
'  Tenders  for  the  sewage  of  such  and  such  towns,  lunatic  asylums,  and 
parochial  unions,  for  the  term  of  twenty-one  years,  will  be  received  by 
the  committee  on  such  and  such  a  day.'      The  essence  of  bread  and 
beef  will  thus  ebb  back  to  its  original  parent — mother  earth ;  the  farmer 
will  no  longer  fret  and  stew  about  Lobos  Islands,  Peruvian  monopoly, 
or  peculative  deception  ;   ingenious  compounders  of  '  genuine  '  guanos 
will  be  spared  the  trouble  of  a  frequent  visit  to  the  sandy  loam  of  Wan- 
stead  Flats.      I  fancy  that  I  see  '  practical '  men  stamping  their  feet, 
raising  their  spectacles,  or  scratching  their  heads  at  these  my  'visionary' 
prognostics;  but,  like  many  other  'impossibilities,'    they  will  certainly 
be  fulfilled.     It  is  a  mere  question  of  time  and  belief.     We  may  as  well, 
therefore,  begin  to  talk  about  economising  our  manures." 

Improved  Manure  Distributor.— Mr.  E.  Fogden,  of  East  Dean, 
near  Chichester,  agricultural  engineer,  has  registered  an  improved  dry 
manure  distributor,  of  which  fig.  1  is  a  transverse  section,  and  fig.  2  a 
longitudinal  section,  a  A  is  a  long  box  or  hopper,  in  which  the  ma- 
nure is  put,  after  being  powdered  and  sifted,  b  is  a  fluted  roller,  which 
occupies  a  position  parallel  to  a  long  slot  in  the  bottom  of  the  box.  c 
and  d  are  two  brushes,  the  bristles  of  which  press  against  the  roller,  b. 
The  front  brush,  c,  is  fixed  to  the  side  of  the  hopper;  the  other,  d,  is 


capable  of  being  slid  further  up  from  or  closer  down  upon  the  roller,  by 
screws,  a  a  a,  according  to  the  quantities  of  manure  which  it  may  be 


thought  fit  to  allow  to  escape ;  e  is  a  spur,  which  is  fixed  to  the  nave 
of  one  of  the  bearing-wheels,  f  f,  and  which  gears  into  a  wheel,  g, 
affixed  to  the  end  of  the  roller,  b  ; — motion  is  thus  communicated  from 
the  bearing-wheels  to  the  roller,  to  cause  the  dispersion  of  the  manure. 
H  is  a  bar,  which  runs  along  the  centre  of  the  hopper,  a,  in  which  it  is 
supported  by  cross-bars  1 1.  This  bar  is  furnished  with  a  set  of  project- 
ing arms,  and  is  acted  upon  by  a  lever,  k,  so  that  the  attendant  may,  by 
moving  the  lever,  prevent  the  manure  from  getting  clogged  or  arched 
in  the  hopper.  The  shafts  are  attached  to  the  machine  at  m  m  :  n  is 
a  guard-board,  to  prevent  the  wind  from  scattering  the  manure. 

Clayton's  Patent  Brick-making  Machine.— We  have  had  the 
pleasure  of  seeing  this  new  machine  in  operation,  but  too  late  in  the 
month  to  admit  of  our  doing  more  than  briefly  noticing  it.  It  is  con- 
structed so  as  to  serve,  first,  as  a  pug-mill  to  prepare  the  clay,  and, 
secondly,  as  a  brick-making  machine.  It  consists  of  a  strong  east-iron 
cylinder  set  vertically,  and  having  a  shaft  in  the  centre  furnished  with  a 
series  of  screws,  which  bring  the  clay  down  and  cause  it  to  ex  ude  from 
two  dies,  placed  at  the  back  and  front  of  the  cylinder.  These  dies  give 
the  required  shape  to  the  brick,  and  the  clay,  after  passing  along  an 
endless  band,  is  cut  into  the  proper  thicknesses  by  a  series  of  wires, 
just  as  in  Mr.  Clayton's  well-known  pipe-making  machine.  The  clay, 
after  being  dug  from  the  field,  watered,  and  turned  over  in  the  usual 
manner,  is  cleared  from  stones,  and  thrown  into  the  machine,  which 
renders  any  previous  pugging  unnecessary.  One  horse  is  sufficient  to 
work  it,  although  steam  or  water  power  may  obviously  be  applied  to  it. 
With  one  man  to  fill,  and  two  boys  to  take  away  the  bricks,  it  is  calcu- 
lated to  produce  7,000  to  10,000  bricks  per  day,  of  a  superior  quality 
to  those  made  by  hand  labour,  and  at  a  lower  cost,  inasmuch  as  no 
skilled  labour  is  required. 

NOTES  BY  A  PRACTICAL  CHEMIST. 


Process  for  imparting  greater  Brightness  to  Indigo 
Blues  in  Stuffs. — It  is  well  known  that  the  blue  colouring  matter  of 
indigo  is  insoluble,  and,  in  order  to  fix  it  upon  the  stuffs,  it  is  necessary 
to  deoxidise  it  by  means  of  proto-sulphate  of  iron  and  lime.  By  dip- 
ping the  stuffs  into  a  solution  of  deoxidized  indigo,  a  darker  or  lighter 
colour  is  obtained,  according  to  the  duration  of  the  immersion.  Indigo 
is  also  of  a  volatile  nature,  and  this  is  one  of  its  characteristic  properties. 
It  occurred  to  the  author  (M.  Guillouet)  to  turn  this  property  to  ac- 
count, by  exposing  the  stuffs  coloured  with  indigo  to  the  action  of  a 
high  temperature,  under  constant  pressure,  in  air-tight  metallic  vessels, 
strong  enough  to  resist  an  internal  pressure  sufficient  to  act  upon  the 
particles  of  indigo  and  to  incorporate  them  with  the  fibres  of  the  stuff, 
and  thus  produce  a  change  in  tie  physical  constitution  of  the  indigo. 
The  form  of  the  vessels  employed  is  immaterial,  but  they  must  be  fitted 
with  a  safety  valve,  and  also  with  a  tap,  through  which  the  atmospheric 
air  escapes,  on  introduction  of  the  steam. 


268 


Notes  by  a  Practical  Chemist, 


[December. 


The  stuffs  died  with  indigo  are  laid  one  upon  another  in  the  vessel  in 
a  wooden  pan,  and  enclosed  in  a  cloth,  which  serves  to  prevent  their 
coming  in  contact  with  the  sides  of  the  vessel,  and  to  absorb  the  mois- 
ture produced  at  the  first  admission  of  the  steam.  Steam  is  then  in- 
troduced at  a  pressure  of  from  2  to  6  atmospheres.  After  about  half 
an  hour,  the  cover  of  the  apparatus  is  removed,  and  the  stuffs  taken 
out,  and  left  to  cool,  when  they  may  be  folded  and  packed.  This  opera- 
tion communicates  a  violet  tinge  to  the  colour  of  the  indigo,  without 
injuring  the  other  true  colours  fixed  on  the  stuff,  which,  on  the 
contrary,  become  fuller  and  brighter.  The  web  loses  considerably  in 
length  in  the  operation,  but  the  loss  in  breadth  is  scarcely  perceptible ; 
at  the  same  time  a  thicker  and  finer  texture  and  more  body  and  softness 
are  produced. 

Improvement  in  the  Production  op  "Bleu  de  France"  on  Wool. 
— The  method  now  employed  for  producing  "  bleu  de  France,"  con- 
sists in  boiling  the  wool  in  a  bath  containing  ferridcyanide  of  potassium, 
an  acid,  and  chloride  of  tin,  until  a  pure  blue  is  produced.     During  this 
process,  a  large  amount  of  cyanogen  is  lost  as  hydrocyanic  acid.     To 
obviate  this  loss,  the  process  has  been  so  modified  as  to  precipitate  the 
whole,  or  the  greater  part,  of  the  cyanogen  upon  the  fibres  of  the  wool, 
in  combination  with  iron.     This  object  may  be  accomplished  by  adding 
a  salt  of  iron  to  the  bath,  by  preference  the  sesquichloride.     The  dye- 
ing is  performed  as  follows : — The  ferridcyanide  of  potassium  is  first 
dissolved  in  the  bath,  then  a  small  portion  of  the  acid  to  be  used,  and 
lastly  the  chlorides  of  tin  and  iron.     The  liquid  is  now  clear,  and  has 
a  brownish  colour.     The  wool,  well  washed,  is  put  in  while  warm,  and 
the  bath  heated  to  boiling.     The  wool  at  once  takes  a  dark  green 
colour,  and,  after  adding  the  remainder  of  the  acid,  becomes,  on  further 
boiling,  a  beautiful  blue.     In  this  manner  a  given  shade  of  colour  was 
produced  with  25  per  cent,  less  ferridcyanide  than  in  the  usual  process. 
Experiments  undertaken  to  ascertain  the  best  proportions  for  adding 
chloride  of  iron,  proved  that  the  maximum  effect  was  given  by  employ- 
ing chloride  equal  to  half  or  three-fourths  the  weight  of  the  ferrocyanide. 
A  larger  amount  gave  a  fainter  colour.     The  chloride  was  solution  of 
iron  in  muriatic  acid,  through  which  chlorine  has  been  passed.     Less 
acid  is  here  required  than  in  the  common  process,  and  the  tartaric 
proved  most  satisfactory.     The  ferridcyanide  used  must  be  perfectly 
free  from  ferrocyanide,  otherwise  the  addition  of  sesquichloride  of  iron 
would  determine  a  precipitate  of  Prussian  blue. 
M.  Weishaupt's  Lithographic  Ink. — 
40  parts  yellow  wax 
10    „     mastic 
28     „      gum-lac 
22    ,,     Marseilles  soap 
9     „     lamp-black. 
The  wax  is  heated  until  its  vapour  can  be  ignited  with  a  burning  match, 
then  withdrawn  from  the  fire,  and  the  soap,  gum-lac  and  mastic  added 
by  small  portions.     The  flame  is  then  put  out,  and  the  lamp-black  well 
worked  in.     Heat  is  again  applied  till  the  vapour  can  be  kindled,  when 
it  is  removed  from  the  fire,  and,  after  the  flame  is  quenched,  poured 
upon  a  stone  and  cut  into  small  pieces. 

Remarks  on  Electro-plating,  by  Dellisse. — It  has  been 
ascertained  by  experiment  that  all  salts  of  silver  do  not  form  a  con- 
tinuous metallic  layer  upon  the  object  to  be  plated.  The  conditions 
found  needful  are  : — 

1.  A  proper  power  of  conduction  in  the  liquid. 

2.  That  no  other  metal  should  be  deposited  during  the  action  of  the 
galvanic  current. 

3.  That  the  object  to  be  silvered  should  not  be  corroded  by  the  bath. 

4.  The  liquid  should  have  an  alkaline  reaction. 

Another  condition  has  lately  been  detected  by  Bouilhet;  the  bath, 
namely,  must  contain  a  double  salt  of  silver  and  a  fixed  alkali.     Only 


two  classes  of  salts,  the  cyanides  and  hyposulphites,  answer  these  con- 
ditions. The  double  compounds  of  ammonia  and  silver  have  been 
pronounced  valueless  for  plating.  The  author  finds  that  a  bath  of 
double  sulphite  and  acid  hyposulphite  of  ammonia  of  8°,  in  which  oxide 
of  silver,  or  an  insoluble  salt,  such  as  chloride  of  silver,  has  been  intro- 
duced, proves  best. 

Report  on  various  Methods  of  detecting  Iodine. — 
MM.  Chatin  and  de  Claubry  have  given  in  the  following  report  to  the 
Societe  de  Pharmacie : — The  formation  of  blue  iodide  of  starch,  as  a 
test  for  iodine,  was  noticed  in  1814,  and  subsequently  examined  by 
Stromeyer  and  Lassaigne.  The  delicacy  of  this  process  has  made  it 
very  useful  in  searching  for  iodine.  The  use  of  chloride  of  palladium 
for  the  same  purpose  was  declared  by  Lassaigne  preferable  to  starch, 
but,  in  operating  on  coloured  fluids,  the  results  cease  to  be  accurate. 
Sulphuret  of  carbon  and  chloroform,  suggested  for  the  same  object,  as 
solvents  of  iodine,  maybe  used  in  certain  cases,  but  are  still  much  in- 
ferior to  starch  properly  applied.  Casasica  thought  that  sulphuric  ether 
might  be  used  in  investigations  of  this  kind;  but  he  was  led  into  error 
from  the  presence  of  acetic  ether  in  the  specimen  he  employed.  Every 
one  has,  therefore,  returned  to  the  formation  of  iodide  of  starch,  in  con- 
ditions which  render  its  employment  more  or  less  sensitive.  If  a  paste 
of  starch  is  introduced  into  a  liquid  containing  even  traces  of  soluble 
iodide,  and  chlorinated  steam  is  passed  over  the  mixture,  the  character- 
istic colour  of  iodide  of  starch  becomes  gradually  diffused  ;  but  if  the 
chlorine  is  in  excess,  all  traces  of  iodine  will  disappear.  Sulphuric  acid 
is  preferable  for  this  purpose,  and  enables  us  to  detect  very  small  quan- 
tities of  this  body.  But  the  sensibility  of  starch  under  the  influence 
of  nitric  acid,  or  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric,  is  much  greater  than 
with  sulphuric  acid  alone.  When  the  proportion  of  iodide  is  below 
one-millionth,  nitric  acid  still  produces  a  very  characteristic  blue 
colouration. 

Purification  of  Naphtha  and  Preparation  of  Naph- 
thaline.— A  correspondent,  Mr.  Isaac  Whitesmith,  of  Glasgow  (in  re- 
ference to  our  remark  at  p.  24.7.  to  Tyro),  suggests  the  following  method 
of  purifying  coal-naphtba,  so  as  to  fit  it  for  preserving  potassium  : — Take 
a  considerable  quantity  of  the  best  rectified  coal-naphtha,  and  add  about 
10  percent,  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  Keep  them  in  contact,  with 
frequent  agitation,  for  three  or  four  days.  Decant  the  naphtha,  and  add 
fresh  acid,  repeating  the  same  process  several  times.  The  naphtha, 
which  is  now  of  a  deep  red  colour,  with  an  acid  reaction,  and  most 
pungent  odour,  is  distilled  veiy  gradually,  and  neutralised  by  a  current 
of  dry  ammoniacal  gas  passed  through  it.  It  is  then  repeatedly  distilled, 
rejecting  the  last  portions.  Thus,  it  finally  appears  as  an  exceedingly 
mobile,  limpid  fluid,  of  a  pleasant  odour,  and  is  perfectly  adapted  for 
preserving  potassium.  To  obtain  naphthaline,  mix  common  bituminous 
coal  in  fine  powder  with  an  equal  quantity  of  quick-lime,  put  the 
mixture  in  a  small  tin-plate  still,  and  heat  over  the  gas  furnace  for 
about  an  hour.  On  afterwards  opening  the  still,  naphthaline  will  be 
found  deposited  inside  the  head. 

answers  to  correspondents. 
"  J.  H." — 1.  The  principal  acid  found  in  bran,  as  such,  is  the  phos- 
phoric, combined  with  earths  and  alkalies.  When  mixed  with  water  and 
allowed  to  stand  (we  do  not  speak  here  from  personal  observation), 
there  is  a  development  of  acetic  and  lactic  acids.  Its  action  in  clearing 
dyed  goods  seems  to  be  to  a  great  extent  mechanical.  "  The  feebly 
combined  colouring  principle,"  says  Parnell,  "  dissolved  by  the  hot 
water  and  mucilaginous  matters  present,  instead  of  being  retained  in 
solution,  is  precipitated  on  the  husky  surface,  and  prevented  from  again 
attaching  itself  to  the  cloth.  Coarse  bran  is  better  adapted  for  this 
purpose  than  fine,  and  flour  is  altogether  useless." 

2.  "  What  is  the  best  antidote  after  inhaling  prussic  acid  gas  to  a 
state  of  vomiting?" — Cold  water  should  be  dashed  upon  the  spine 
until  the  symptoms  abate.  Diffusible  stimulants,  such  as  brandy,  ether, 
and  dilute  ammonia  may  be  given  internally. 

3.  "  Bancroft's  Philosophy  of  Permanent  Colours." — We  are  not 
aware  of  any  work  of  the  kind  in  the  English  language.  If  our  corre- 
spondent reads  German  we  would  recommend  Range's  "  Farbenchemie" 
a  translation  of  which  is,  we  believe,  in  course  of  preparation. 


1852.] 


Bristol  and  its  Docks. 


269 


I  DEATH  OF  MR.  BARNES. 

At  La  Ciotat,  in  France,  on  the  24th  of  September  last,  died  Mr.  John 
Barnes,  the  eminent  engineer,  in  the  fifty-fourth  j'ear  of  his  age. 

Rich  as  this  country  is  in  eminent  engineers,  we  believe  we  can  with 
confidence  assert  that  it  has  never  produced  one  of  greater  ability  than 
Mr.  Barnes,  excepting  only  his  great  master  James  Watt,  whose  steps 
he  followed,  and  whose  exalted  position  he  more  nearly  than  any  other 
living  man  approached.  Lately  the  engineering  world  sustained  a 
severe  loss  in  the  death  of  Mr.  Farey,  and  now  it  has  to  mourn  the  loss 
of  Mr.  Barnes,  who,  whether  as  an  engineer  of  profound  attainments, 
or  as  a  man  of  lar^e  heart  and  genial  disposition,  leaves,  perhaps,  but 
few  equals  behiud  him.  The  death  of  such  a  man,  still  in  the  vigorous 
exercise  of  his  faculties,  is  a  loss  to  the  human  kind.  To  his  friends  it  is 
an  afflicting  bereavement,  which  lessens  their  ties  to  this  lower  world. 
Never  more  shall  we  be  instructed  by  his  wisdom,  melted  by  his  be- 
nevolence, or  exalted  by  the  intercourse  of  his  master  mind ;  and  the 
recollection  of  the  moments  spent  in  his  society  is  like  the  sunny  me- 
mories of  some  superior  state  of  being,  in  which  we  were  for  a  time 
lifted  above  the  ignorance  and  sordidness  of  the  world.  Whatever  other 
engineers  knew  Mr.  Barnes  also  knew,  and  in  mere  engineering  attain- 
ments he  was  probably  superior  to  every  contemporary.  The  narrow 
domain  of  engineering  science,  however,  was  not  sufficient  to  satisfy  his 
aspirations,  but  his  vision  extended  over  almost  every  department  of 
human  knowledge.  The  main  secret,  indeed,  of  his  eminence,  as  an 
engineer,  was  that  he  was  not  an  engineer  merely  :  his  intellect  was  too 
colossal  to  be  cooped  up  in  that  narrow  field  which  smaller  minds  think 
it  the  achievement  of  a  life  to  explore  ;  and  his  mind  was,  consequently, 
enabled  to  retain  its  just  proportions,  and  to  grow  up  without  deformity 
to  that  loftiness  of  stature  which  only  greatness  attains.  We  have  on 
many  occasions  endeavoured  to  impress  upon  young  engineers  the 
necessity  of  cultivating  all  their  capacities,  if  they  would  desire  to  rise 
above  the  crowd — to  be  something  more  than  the  mere  hewers  of  wood 
and  drawers  of  water  of  engineering  science — and  to  have  an  intelligence 
superior  to  that  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  tools  with  which  they  work.  By 
many  this  language  will  never  be  understood.  It  is  the  tendency  of  all 
young  minds,  and  especially  of  minds  of  no  great  force  or  elevation,  to 
value  technicality  too  much ;  to  conclude  that  an  acquaintance  with 
certain  modes  and  processes  is  the  summit  of  human  proficiency,  and 
thereby  to  mistake  the  means  for  the  end.  Technical  knowledge  is,  of 
course,  necessary  to  the  engineer,  but  it  is  not  all  sufficing ;  and  a 
man  may  be  cognisant  of  all  known  facts  in  that  department  of  know- 
ledge, and  yet  be  nothing  better  than  a  mere  walking  portfolio.  Facts 
are  the  materials  merely  with  which  the  imagination  has  to  work,  not 
the  finished  fabric ;  and  if  the  imagination  be  frozen,  either  by  the 
precepts  of  authority,  or  by  the  want  of  miscellaneous  exertion,  there 
never  can  be  any  approach  to  that  engineering  excellence  which  it 
should  be  the  ambition  of  every  engineering  student  to  attain.  All  ex- 
perience shows  us,  that  it  is  not  by  those  persons  who  content  them- 
selves with  recipes  of  excellence  that  excellence  is  really  reached.     To  \ 


arrive  at  that  goal,  there  must  be  an  exercise,  not  merely  of  memory,  but 
of  mind.  The  imagination  and  judgment  must  both  be  called  into  play. 
But  how  is  this  possible,  if  the  imagination  is  quenched  and  the  judg- 
ment unexercised  ?  The  want  of  mere  technical  knowledge  is  a  trivial 
deficiency,  because  it  is  one  easily  supplied.  But  how  shall  we  supply 
the  want  of  soul?  Those,  therefore,  who  would  desire  to  become  skilful 
engineers,  we  would  counsel  to  follow  Mr.  Barnes'  example,  in  extend- 
ing their  survey  to  other  departments  of  knowledge,  for  it  is  thus  that 
the  distorting  influence  of  technical  acquisition  upon  their  minds  may  be 
most  readily  corrected.  Technical  knowledge  is  the  mere  alphabet  of 
their  art,  and  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  their  progress;  but  it  will  totally 
fail  them,  and  pervert  their  other  faculties,  if  they  make  it  the  end  of 
knowledge  instead  of  the  key. 

Such,  then,  are  a  few  of  the  reflections  which  naturally  occur  to  us 
in  contemplating  the  character  of  Mr.  Barnes.  The  main  incidents  of 
his  career  may  be  more  briefly  recounted.  Up  to  the  age  of  fifteen  he 
spent  his  time,  like  most  boys,  at  a  classical  and  mathematical  school. 
At  seventeen  he  went  to  Soho,  where,  under  the  instruction  of  James 
Watt,  he  had  unusual  facilities  for  the  acquisition  of  engineering  know- 
ledge ;  and,  what  was  more  important,  he  had  the  benefit  of  the  conver- 
sation and  example  of  his  great  master  in  moulding  his  character  at 
that  ductile  age.  At  nineteen  he  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  was  placed  as  a  pupil  with  the 
late  Mr.  Giles,  an  eminent  engineer  of  that  day.  After  this  time,  and 
up  to  the  year  1835,  Mr.  Barnes  was  in  partnership  with  Mr.  Miller, 
and  with  them  originated  the  engineering  firm  of  Barnes  and  Miller, 
now  Miller  and  Ravenhill,  so  well  known  in  the  engineering  world. 
Finally,  Mr.  Barnes  settled  in  France,  where  he  resided  at  the  time  of 
his  decease.  His  malady  lasted  for  five  weeks,  but  it  was  only  about 
a  week  before  his  death  that  a  fatal  termination  was  apprehended.  The 
ladies  Mr.  Barnes  and  Mr.  Miller  married  were  sisters.  Mrs.  Miller 
died  some  years  ago ;  Mrs.  Barnes  survives,  but  we  are  not  aware  that 
there  are  any  surviving  children. 

After  the  termination  of  his  connection  with  Mr.  Miller,  Mr.  Barnes 
continued  to  supply  engines  for  steam  vessels  and  for  other  purposes. 
He  constructed  for  the  French  government  the  machinery  of  the  screw 
steam  frigate  Napoleon,  one  of  the  first  vessels  in  which  the  screw 
propeller  was  successfully  introduced.  The  machinery  of  the  French 
vessels  Courier,  Calvados,  Hercules,  Phoznix,  Alcides,  Rotterdam, 
Amsterdam,  Morlaisien,  Etoile,  and  a  great  number  of  other  vessels,  was 
constructed  by  him.  His  works  at  La  Ciotat  were  very  numerous  and 
important,  his  last  performance  being  the  engines  of  the  Charlemagne. 

The  world  rolls  on  in  its  inexorable  course,  and  we,  the  insects  on 
its  surface,  drop  one  by  one  away  !  Nothing  survives  except  the  me- 
mory of  worth  and  of  achievement — of  things  done  and  of  things  loved. 
All  else  is  vanity,  and  as  such  will  melt  like  the  airy  frostwork  of  a 
vision,  leaving  no  trace  of  where  it  stood.  Even  such  names  as  that  of 
Mr.  Barnes  will  become  fainter  in  the  course  of  years.  What,  then, 
will  be  the  fate  of  those  who  are  without  aspiration  and  without  love? 


BRISTOL  AND  ITS  DOCKS. 

An  inspection  of  the  existing  docks  and  railway  accommodation  at  the 
city  of  Bristol  can  hardly  fail  to  induce  the  reflection  that  a  large  sum 
of  money  has  been  expended  with  a  very  inadequate  result.  In  1850, 
after  an  inspection  of  the  docks,  with  an  important  commercial  object 
in  view,  we  recorded  the  result  at  p.  250,  vol.  1850,  the  pith  of  which, 
from  its  appropriateness,  we  may  here  quote : — 

"  The  (London)  Blackwall  Railway  has  never  answered  the  purpose 
for  which  it  was  originally  intended,  because,  to  bring  a  few  casks  of 
sugar  three  or  four  miles,  it  is  not  worth  while  practically  to  put  them 
into  a  railway  truck,  and  then  again  into  a  cart  at  the  Minories,  to  get 


them  to  their  destination.  At  Southampton  the  principle  is  partly 
carried  out  with  evident  good  effects.  A  branch  line  runs  through  the 
warehouses  and  along  the  river,  so  that  each  of  the  numerous  manu- 
facturing establishments  on  its  banks  have  the  railway  at  the  gate  of 
their  premises.  Bristol  is  very  deficient  in  railway  accommodation  of 
this  land,  although,  from  the  large  area  of  ground  over  which  the  docks 
and  river  frontage  extend,  it  seems  peculiarly  to  want  it,  to  foster  the 
rising  trade  of  the  port." 

Since  this  was  written,  the  opening  of  the  North  Western  and  Dock 
Junction  Railway  has  had  a  material  effect  on  the  Blackwall  Railway, 
and  we  may  mention,  as  an  example,  that  we  saw  a  short  time  since, 


270 


The  Building  and  Freehold  Land  Societies'  Question. 


[December, 


in  the  new  portion  of  the  East  and  West  India  Docks,  the  screw  of  the 
Mauritius,  which  had  been  sent  in  a  truck  direct  from  Messrs.  J.  Watt 
and  Co.'s  works  at  Soho,  to  the  ship. 

A  very  extensive  project  is  on  foot,  which,  if  carried  out  according 
to  the  published  prospectus  of  the  promoters,  cannot  fail  to  have  a  very- 
important  influence  on  the  trade  of  Bristol,  as  well  as  of  that  portion  of 
the  West  of  England  generally  of  which  it  is  the  commercial  centre. 
A  company  has  been  incorporated,  under  the  title  of  the  Kingroad 
Harbour  Docks  and  Railway  (Port  of  Bristol)  Company,  whose  object 
it  is  to  make  another  "  Great  Grimsby"  at  Kingroad.  The  works  are 
to  consist  of  extensive  docks,  dry  docks,  quays,  ship-building  and  re- 
pairing yards,  and  (we  presume)  engineeriug  establishments.  The 
whole  to  form  a  packet  station  for  ocean  steam-ships  of  the  first  mag- 
nitude, and  to  be  connected  with  the  Great  Western  Railway  by  branch 
lines,  which  will  also  accommodate  the  existing  docks  and  bonded 
warehouses  in  the  city.  A  report  has  been  made  to  the  promoters  of 
the  company  by  Mr.  Rendel,  C.E.,  assisted  by  Mr.  Blackwell,  in  which 
the  cost  is  estimated  at  one  million  and  a  half.  This  estimate  includes 
the  purchase  of  fifty  acres  of  land  on  the  Somersetshire  side,  and  450 
acres  on  the  Gloucestershire,  which,  with  1 25  acres  of  unreclaimed  land 
on  the  former  shore,  and  160  acres  on  the  latter,  will  make  a  total  of 
785  acres. 

The  proximity  of  the  Welsh  coal  field  is  urged  as  an  important  ad- 
vantage to  the  large  steam-packet  companies,  in  the  event  of  their 
choosing  Kingroad  Harbour  as  their  port  of  departure.  We  understand 
that  the  necessary  parliamentary  notices  have  been  given,  and  it  is  very 
likely  that  we  shall  soon  be  in  possession  of  the  other  details  connected 
with  the  project. 

THE   BUILDING  AND    FREEHOLD   LAND    SOCIETIES' 
QUESTION. 

(Concluded  from  page  246.) 

The  great  error  which  has  been  usually  committed  in  the  formation 
of  building  societies,  has  been  the  establishing  them  on  the  "  terminating 
system  ;"  that  is  to  say,  it  is  estimated  that  all  the  members  will  be  paid 
out  in  a  certain  time,  say  from  ten  to  fifteen  years,  and  the  society 
wound  up.  This  system,  which  appears  plausible  enough  on  the  face 
of  it,  has  this  serious  defect : — A  member,  A,  borrowing,  say  £\b0  at 
the  commencement  of  the  fifteen  years,  would  only  have  to  pay  £\0  a 
year  (with  interest,  &c.)  to  clear  off  his  liability,  whereas  B,  who  joins 
the  society  when  it  has  only  ten  years  to  run,  has  to  pay  i-15  a  year, 
and  C,  who  joins  when  it  has  only  five  years  to  run,  has  to  pay  ^?30  a 
year  ;  thus,  the  primary  object  of  these  societies  being  to  give  facilities 
for  the  payment  of  small  sums,  new  members  do  not  join  after  the  first 
few  years,  and  as  the  borrowers  do  not  come  forward  in  regular  gra- 
dation, the  funds  lie  idle  for  a  portion  of  the  time,  and  a  loss  of  interest 
takes  place,  the  interest  allowed  by  a  banker  being  very  much  less  than 
that  payable  by  borrowers,  and  it  is  on  this  last  that  the  profits  of  the 
societies  are  calculated. 

The  permanent  plan  devised  by  Mr.  Scratchley  has  the  following 
advantages : — 

1st.  The  difficulty  of  finding  borrowers  at  any  time  in  the  course 
of  the  existence  of  a  society  is  removed. 

2ndly.  New  members  may  enter  in  any  month  without  having  to  pay 
up  any  arrears,  or  an  increased  entrance  fee.  Hence,  the  scope  of  the 
society's  action  is  extended,  and  the  power  resulting  from  mutual 
association  of  doing  good  is  greatly  augmented,  as  the  number  of 
shareholders  increases  year  by  year,  and  even  month  by  month,  instead 
of  diminishing. 

3rdly.  The  initial  and  annual  expenses  can  be  more  equitably  divided, 
and  spread  over  a  larger  number  of  members. 


4thly.  A  member  may,  under  reasonable  restrictions,  withdraw  his 
subscriptions,  or  effect  the  redemption  of  a  mortgage,  without  the  delay 
or  expense  that  he  would  experience  in  a  terminating  society. 

5thly.  The  duration  of  members'  subscriptions  can  be  fixed  with 
greater  certainty.  A  difficulty  which  may  arise  from  the  decease  of  a 
borrower  should  also  be  taken  into  account : — his  widow  or  family  may 
be  unable  to  continue  the  payments,  and  the  society  will  thus  be  com- 
pelled to  foreclose  the  mortgage,  and  sell  the  house,  in  order  to  secure 
itself  from  loss.  In  such  case,  a  sacrifice  must  inevitably  be  made,  and 
the  expectations  of  the  invester  entirely  frustrated. 

This  difficulty  may  be  met  by  a  "terminable  life  insurance ;  "  that  is 
to  say,  the  borrower  shall  pay  a  sum  of  money,  in  addition  to  the  ordi- 
nary periodical  payment,  which,  in  the  event  of  his  death,  shall  satisfy 
any  further  claim  which  the  society  might  have  had  upon  his  property. 
This  life  insurance  need  not  necessarily  terminate  with  the  expiration 
of  the  mortgage  on  his  house ;  if  he  can  afford  to  pay  an  increased 
rate,  it  may  be  kept  up  until  his  death,  when  his  family  will  reap  the 
benefit  of  his  investment.  Again,  this  insurance  may  be  turned  to 
another  account ;  it  may  constitute  a  guarantee  fund,  so  as  to  serve 
as  security  for  the  invester,  in  the  event  of  his  taking  a  place  of 
trust,  and  the  difficulty  of  finding  solvent  sureties  thus  obviated.  A 
natural  objection  to  guarantee  associations,  simply  as  such,  is  that  the 
honest  subscriber  feels  that  he  is  paying  his  share  for  other  people's 
dishonesty,  and  that,  when  he  dies,  all  the  money  which  he  has  paid  is 
lost  to  him  and  his  family. 

BUILDING    COMPANIES    AND    SUBURBAN    VILLAGE    ASSOCIATIONS. 

The  principle  of  the  freehold  land  society  may  be  still  further  carried 
out,  and  with  great  advantage,  both  in  a  sanitary  and  commercial  point 
of  view,  in  the  following  manner  : — 

A  fund  is  to  be  raised  by  shares,  payable  in  a  short  time  by  a  few 
instalments,  which  is  to  be  expended  in  purchasing  a  tract  of  land, 
and  building  on  it  houses  of  a  suitable  character,  combining  all  the 
advantages  which  modern  science  and  skill  can  afford.  These  houses 
are  then  to  be  let  to  tenants,  who  may,  or  may  not,  be  shareholders 
in  the  building  company,  and  who  will  pay  such  a  rent  as  will  cover  the 
cost  of  the  house  in  a  certain  number  of  years.  This  system  has 
numerous  advantages.  A  company  starting  with  cash  in  hand  can 
deal  more  advantageously  than  most  builders  ;  the  tenant  can  be  con- 
sulted in  the  fitting  and  decorating  of  his  house ;  and  the  time  of 
payment  can  be  made  to  suit  his  convenience. 

It  is  obvious  that,  if  it  is  to  the  convenience  of  a  purchaser  of  land 
in  this  country  to  pay  for  it  by  instalments,  the  case  applies  equally  to 
the  emigrant,  who  may  have  sufficient  capital  to  convey  himself  and  his 
family  to  the  colony,  and  a  small  surplus  against  contingencies.  A  com- 
pany properly  organised  should  receive  this  family  on  landing;  put 
them  in  possession  of  a  log  hut,  and  a  farm  ready  cleared,  and  give  them 
two  years  to  settle  down  in,  before  asking  any  payment.  The  advantage 
of  a  "  fair  start  "  is  nowhere  felt  more  than  in  an  emigrant's  venture, 
and  this  would  be  secured  to  him  in  the  best  possible  shape.  The  same 
system  of  life  insurance  which  is  proposed  to  be  applied  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  building  society  is  here  available  to  meet  the  contingency 
of  the  death  of  the  emigrant,  which,  whenever  it  might  occur,  would 
leave  his  family  in  undisturbed  possession  of  their  inheritance. 

It  is  suggested  that  the  employment  of  capital  in  this  manner  would 
be  an  excellent  field  for  our  numerous  benefit  societies,  who  might  thus 
not  only  receive  a  higher  rate  of  interest  than  they  are  now  doing  for 
their  funds,  but,  at  the  same  time,  effect  a  great  public  good,  by  placing 
colonisation  on  a  sound  basis.  Our  space  will  not  allow  us  to  do  more 
than  glance  at  the  various  subjects;  but  the  inquirer  will  find  in 
Mr.  Scratchley's  work  much  interesting  and  valuable  information  on 
this  truly  national  subject. 


1852.]  Dimensions  of  New  Steamers. 

DIMENSIONS  OF  NEW  STEAMERS.  "andes"  and  "alps." 


271 


1  AUSTRALIAN       AND   "  SYDNEY." 


Built  by  Messrs.  William  Denny  and  Brothers.     Engines  by 
Messrs.  Tulloch  and  Denny,  of  300  Cnominal)  horse  power. 


Dimensions. 
Length  on  deck 
Breadth  of  beam 
Depth  of  hold,  do. 
Length  of  engine-space 

Tonnage. 
Engine-room 
Register,  KM. 


ft.  tenths 

236 

0 

34 

1 

24 

0 

76 

2 

tons. 

667 

734 

Fitted  with  a  pair  of  geared  beam-engines  and  tu 
bular  boilers;  diameter  of  cylinders,  5  feet  6  inches; 
length  of  stroke,  4  feet  6  inches;  diameter  of  screw, 
14  feet;  pitch  of  do.,  18  feet;  number  of  blades  of 
do.,  2;  number  of  boilers,  2;  length  of  do.,  15  feet 
6  inches;  breadth  of  do.,  9  feet  6  inches;  height  of 
do.,  exclusive  of  steam-chests,  14  feet;  cubic  feet 
in  steam-chests,  1,486  ;  number  of  furnaces,  12  ; 
breadth  of  8  side  furnaces,  2  feet  3  inches;  breadth 
of  4  centre  do.,  3  feet;  length  of  fire-bars,  6  feet  9 
inches;  number  of  tubes,  832 ;  internal  diameter  of 
do.,  3}  inch;  length  of  do.,  6  feet  6  inches;  diame- 
ter of  chimney,  5  feet  11  inches;  height  of  do.,  40 
feet;  load  on  safety-valve,  in  lbs.,  per  square  inch, 
11  lbs.  ;  gross  indicated  power,  576  ;  contents  of 
bunkers,  in  tons,  400  ;  consumption  of  coals  per 
hour,  18  cwt.;  draft  forward,  15  feet  6  inches;  do. 
aft,  16  feet  6  inches  ;  average  revolutions,  60; 
speed,  in  knots  (still  water),  11  ;  weight  of  engines, 
150  tons;  do.  boilers  with  water,  150  tons;  frames, 
5  inches  X  3  inches  X  jf  inch,  and  15  inches  apart, 
centre  to  centre;  number  of  strakes  of  plates  from 
keel  to  gunwale,  15 ;  thickness  of  plates,  §  to  £  inch ; 
number  of  bulkheads,  8;  3  masts;  barque-rigged. 

Intended  service,  Australian  mail.      Classed  at 
Lloyd's  A  1. 

The  Australian  and  Sydney  are  alike  in  all  re- 
spects. 


Built  by  Messrs.  Denny  and  Brothers,  Dumbarton.  Engines 
by  Messrs.  Tulloch  and  Denny,  of  300  (nominal)  horse- 
power. 


Dimensions. 
Length  on  deck 
Breadth  of  beam 
Depth  of  hold,  do. 
Length  of  engine-space 

Tonnage. 

Hull 

Engine-room 
Register,  N.M. 


"  CLEOPATRA." 


ft.  tenths 

236 

6 

34 

1 

24 

0 

76 

0 

tons. 

1,140 

667 

772 

Do.,  O.M 1,300 

Fitted  with  a  pair  of  geared  beam-engines  and 
tubular  boilers;  diameter  of  cylinders,  5  feet  6 
inches;  length  of  stroke,  4  feet  6  inches  ;  diameter 
of  screw,  14  feet;  pitch  of  do.,  18  feet;  number  of 
blades  of  screw,  2;  number  of  boilers,  2;  length  of 
do.,  15  feet  6  inches;  breadth  of  do.,  9  feet  6  inches; 
height  of  do.,  exclusive  of  steam-chests,  14  feet; 
cubic  feet  in  steam-chests,  1,486;  number  of  fur- 
naces, 12  ;  breadth  of  8  side  furnaces,  2  feet  3 
inches  ;  breadth  of  4  centre  do.,  3  feet;  length  of 
fire-bars,  6  feet  9  inches ;  number  of  tubes,  832 ; 
internal  diameter  of  do.,  Z\  inches;  length  of  do., 
6  feet  6  inches;  diameter  of  chimney,  5  feet  11 
inches;  height  of  do.,  40  feet ;  load  on  safety-valve, 
in  lbs.,  per  square  inch,  11  lbs.;  gross  indicated 
power,  576;  contents  of  bunkers,  in  tons,  400;  con- 
sumption of  coals  per  hour,  18  cwt.;  draft  forward, 
15  feet  6  inches;  do.  aft,  16  feet  6  inches ;  average 
revolutions,  60  ;  speed,  in  knots  (still  water),  11; 
weight  of  engines,  150  tons;  do.  boilers  with  water, 
150  tons  ;  frames,  5  inches  X  3  inches  X  finch, 
and  15  inches  centre  to  centre;  number  of  strakes 
of  plates  from  keel  to  gunwale,  15  ;  thickness  of 
plates,  f  to  i-  inch;  number  of  bulkeads,  8;  3  masts; 
barque-rigged. 

Intended  service,  Liverpool,  New  York,  and 
Chagres.     Classed  at  Lloyd's  A  1. 

The  Andes  and  Alps  are  alike  in  all  respects. 


Built  by  Messrs.  Alexander  Denny  and  Brother.    Engines  by 
Messrs.  Tulloch  and  Denny,  of  250  (nominal)  horse-power. 


ft.  tenths. 
228     0 
32     0 
25     2 
63     0 

tons. 


Dimensions. 
Length  on  deck 
Breadth  of  beam 
Depth  of  hold,  do. 
Length  of  engine-space 

Tonnage. 

Engine-room 558^ 

Register,  N.M.            893^ 

Do.,  OM 1,138 

Fitted  with  a  pair  of  geared  beam-engines  and 
tubular  boilers;  diameter  of  cylinders,  62  inches; 
length  of  stroke,  4  feet  6  inches ;  diameter  of  screw, 
14  feet;  pitch  of  do.,  18  feet;  number  of  blades  of 
do.,  2 ;  number  of  boilers,  2 ;  length  of  do.,  9  feet  ; 
breadth  of  do.,  12  feet  9  inches;  height  of  do.,  ex- 
clusive of  steam-chests,  14  feet  4  inches;  cubic  feet 
in  steam-chests,  ;  number  of  furnaces,  8 ; 

breadth  of  do.,  2  feet  8  inches;  length  of  fire-bars, 
6  feet  6  inches ;  number  of  tubes,  580 ;  internal  dia- 
meter of  do.,  Z\  inches;  length  of  do.,  6  feet;  dia- 
meter of  chimney,  5  feet  1 1  inches  ;  height  of  do., 
40  feet;  load  on  safety-valve,  in  lbs.,  per  square 
inch,  10  lbs.  ;  gross  indicated  power,  ;    area 

of  immersed  section,  ;  contents  of  bunkers,  in 

tons,  ;  consumption  of  coals  per  hour,  cwt.; 
date  of  trial,  ;  draft  forward, 

;  do.  aft,  ; 

average  revolutions,  ;     speed,  in  knots  (still 

water),  10;  weight  of  engines,  150  tons;  do.  boilers 
with  water,  130  tons;  frames,  5  inches  X  3  inches 
X  js  inch,  and  18  inches  apart;  number  of  strakes 
of  plates  from  keel  to  gunwale,  21  ;  thickness  of 
plates,  f,  ji,  f,  -^  and  J  inch;  number  of  bulkheads, 
6;  3  masts;  full-rigged  ship.  Classed  at  Lloyd's  Al. 


H.M.S.  AGAMEMNON. 
The  accompanying  particulars  (from  the  Nautical  Standard)  may  be 
useful  to  many  of  our  readers. 

The  screw  line-of-battle  ship  Agamemnon,  90,  Captain  Sir  Thomas  Maitland,  is  reported 
to  be  under  the  shipwright's  hands.  When  under  full  sail  she  will  spread  10,859  yards  of 
canvas;  her  entire  sail  comprising  24,681  yards,  and  not  37,200  yards,  as  we  erroneously 
stated  in  our  last  publication.  The  following  are  the  dimensions  of  her  spars,  rigging,  &c.  :— 


FORETOP-GALLANTMAST. 

Length  from  lower  side  of  fid-hole  ft.  ins. 

to'hounds      29    6 

Length  of  pole 19    6 

Diameter 10 


Mainmast. 

ft. 
Length  of  housing  from  the  heel  to 

the  deck        23 

Length  from  deck  to  lower  side  of 

trussel-trees        67 

Length  of  head        20 

Greatest  diameter 3 


Maintopmast. 

Whole  length,  head  included     . 

Length  of  head       

Diameter 

Maintop-gallantmast. 
Length  from  the  low  side  of  fid- 
hole  to  hound      

Length  of  pole         

Diameter 


ft.    ins. 

73    6 

10    0 

1  10 


33     0 

22    0 

1     1 


Mainyaed. 

Whole  length,  yardarm  included  111  0 

Length  of  yardarms,  each   ...    ...  4  7 

Diameter 2  2£ 

Weight,  7  tons  3  cwt.  1  qr. 

Maintop-saily  aed. 

Whole  length,  yardarms  included  78  0 

Length  of  yardarms,  each    6  6 

Diameter 1  4J 

Foeemas't. 

Length  from  deck  to  lower  side  of 

trussel-trees         61  11 

Length  of  head ...  19  0 

Diameter 3  l 

FOEETOPMAST. 

Whole  length,  head  included       ...  65  0 

Length  of  head        8  9 

Diameter 1  10 


Maintop-gall  antyaed. 

Whole  length,  yardarm  included  49    0 

Length  of  yardarms,  each    2    0 

Diameter 0  11J 

Maineoyalyard. 

Whole  length,  yardarm  included  34    0 

Length  of  yardarms,  each       ....  15 

Diameter 0    7 

Foeeyaed. 

Whole  length,  yardarms  included  96    0 

Length  of  yardarms,  each    4    0 

Diameter in 


FORETOP-SAILYARD. 

Whole  length,  yardarm  included  68  0 

Length  of  yardarms,  each    5  8 

Diameter 1  3 


FORETOP-GALLANTYARD.  ft.  ins. 

Whole  length,  yardarm  included  43    0 

Length  of  yardarms,  each     1  10 

Diameter          0  10 

FOREROYALYAED. 

Whole  length,  yardarm  included  30    0 

Length  of  yardarms,  each     1     3 

Diameter 0    6 


Mizenmast. 
Length  from  deck  to  lower  side  of 

trussel-trees •SI     6 

Length  of  head       13    0 

Diameter 2    2 

Mizentopmast. 

Whole  length,  head  included       ...  52  6 

Length  of  head       7  1 

Diameter 1  5 

Mizentop-gallantmast. 
Length  from  lower  side  of  fid-hole 

to  hounds      24    0 

Length  of  pole        16    6 

Diameter 0    9i 


MlZENTOP-SAILYARD. 

Whole  length,  yardarm  included...  54  0 

Length  of  yardarms,  each    4  6 

Diameter 1  0 

MlZENTOP-  GALL  ANTYAED. 

Whole  length,  yardarm  included...  36  0 

Length  of  jardarms,  each    1  6 

Diameter 0  8j 

MlZEN-EOYALYARD. 

Whole  length,   yardarm  included  36  0 


Length  of  yardarms,  each 
Diameter... 


Length 
Diameter 


Length 
Diameter 


Gaff. 


Spanker  Boom. 


47    0 
0  11 


Bowspeit. 
Length,  exclusive  of  housing 

Length  of  housing 

Diameter 

JlBBOOM. 

Whole  length,  housing  included . 


1     6 
0     8f 


52  6 
25  8 
3     4 


53     0 
66     6 


Rigging. 


The  bowsprit  to  have  two  chain  gammons,  each  equal  to  8£-inch  rope. 
The  lower  rigging  to  have  nine  pairs  of  shrouds  of  12-inch  rope. 
The  main  rigging  to  be  of  wire  of  5J  inches,  which  is  equivalent  to  12-inch  rope. 
The  mizen  rigging  to  have  six  pairs  of  shrouds  of  8-inch  rope. 
The  fore-stays  double  of  14-inch  rope. 

The  main-stay  to  be  of  6^-inch  wire,  equivalent  to  13J-inch  rope. 
The  mizen-stay  to  be  of  4^-inch  wire,  equivalent  to  10-inch  rope. 
The  rigging  is  to  be  turned  in  with  a  thimble,  then  hooked  to  rigmaiden's  plate,  and  set 
up  with  a  lever. 


272 


Silicious  Stone  Filter. 


[December, 


SILICIOUS  STONE  FILTEK. 
Messes.  Ransomes  and  Parson's  Patent  Silicious  (or  artificial)  Stone,  has 
been  some  time  before  the  public,  and  has  been  gradually  making  way,  under 
various  forms.  One  of  the  most  recent  is  its  use  as  a  filtering  medium,  to 
which  it  seems  well  adapted.  A  very  neat  form  of  filter  is  shown  in  the 
accompanying  engravings.  It  is  intended  to  be  fixed  against  a  wall,  in  any 
convenient  position,  and  consists  of  a  cast-iron  box,  having  an  inlet  pipe,  a, 
attached  to  the  supply  pipe  ;  b  is  a  chamber  containing  a  chemical  disin- 


FRONT 


chanical  difficulties  which  he  had  to  contend  with  were  nothing  to  the 
moral  ones.  The  architects  come  very  badly  off,  since,  as  we  are  in- 
formed, they  build  all  the  chimney  flues  much  too  small.  Judgin» 
from  the  cases  mentioned,  it  would  appear  that  this  is  the  most  fre- 
quent cause  of  smoky  chimneys.  The  remedy  appears  to  be,  to  enlarge 
the  flue,  in  order  to  give  it  more  power,  or  to  make  a  communication 
with  some  other  flue  which  is  perhaps  seldom  used,  and  thus  obtain  the 
power  of  both.     Mr.  Eckstein  lays  great  stress  upon  the  cooling  effect 


ELEVATION. 


Section  J) 


fecta'nt  (say  peat  charcoal)  ;  c  is  a  diaphragm  of  the  patent  stone,  through 
which  the  water  percolates,  and  passes  into  the  space  at  the  back  of  the 
filter,  and  is  drawn  off  at  t>  ;  b  is  a  cast-iron  cover,  secured  with  screws, 
which  can  be  taken  off  when  it  is  desired  to  renew  the  disinfecting  medium. 
Another  cheaper  form  consists  of  a  hollow  globe  of  the  stone,  to  which  is 
attached  a  gutta-percha  syphon  pipe.  The  globe  is  hung  in  the  cistern,  and 
the  pipe  hung  over  the  side,  so  that  the  end  is  below  the  water  level. 

KEVIEWS. 

On  the  Propulsion  of  Vessels  by  the  Screw.        By  It.  Bodmer,  C.E. 

London  :  John  Weale. 
We  have  read  this  brief  treatise  through,  but  we  are  unable  to  discover 
any  practical  utility  to  be  derived  from  its  contents.  Doctrines  are 
assumed  to  be  incontestible  which  are,  to  say  the  least,  very  doubtful, 
and  on  these  are  raised  a  superstructure  of  algebra,  the  doctrines  de- 
duced from  which  no  practical  man  could  follow  with  the  least  confi- 
dence. What  we  want,  in  connection  with  the  screw  propeller,  is  not  a 
labyrinth  of  algebra,  but  a  collection  of  reliable  facts.  Such  contri- 
butions, even  although  they  may  be  of  small  amount,  are  of  real  and 
enduring  value. 

si  Practical  Treatise  on  Chimneys  •  with  a  few  Remark's  on  Stoves,  the 
Consumption  of  Smoke  and  Coal,  Ventilation,  £fc.  By  G.  F.  Eckstein. 
London :  John  Weale. 
Mr.  Eckstein  is  a  veteran  smoke  doctor,  and  he  has  here  given  us 
the  benefit  of  his  extended  experience,  as  exemplified,  Abernethy-like, 
in  a  number  of  "  cases."  There  is  a  naivete  about  the  author's  descrip- 
tions of  his  difficulties  with  obstinate  "  scientific  men,"  and  still  more 
obstinate  cooks,  which  gives  the  reader  a  very  clear  idea  that  the  nie- 


1",  End  Elevation. 


of  the  wind  upon  exposed  chimneys,  which  are  often  made  only  hall- 
brick  thick.  In  such  a  case,  the  chimney  must  be  protected  with  an 
additional  thickness  of  brickwork,  to  keep  in  the  heat.  YtTe  are  glad  to 
find  that  we  have  followed,  at  a  humble  distauce,  the  footsteps  of  such 
an  eminent  professor,  in  the  setting  of  grates.  Mr.  Eckstein  says,  "  I 
never  found  a  chimney  to  smoke  from  the  grate  being  set  forward, 
though  it  is  generally  the  first  thing  noticed  and  complained  of."  We 
have  had  more  than  one  severe  encounter  of  argument  with  a  bricklayer, 
to  induce  him  to  put  a  grate  forward  in  the  room,  so  that  some  of  the 
heat  at  least  might  be  saved ;  and  we  hope  that  Mr.  Eckstein's  work 
will  have  greater  weight  with  the  fraternity  than  our  lectures  had. 
The  contraction  of  the  lower  part  of  the  flue  appears  to  be  a  very  suc- 
cessful means  of  treating  smoky  chimneys ;  and  we  may  mention  here 
another  expedient,  adopted  in  some  parts  of  the  west  of  England,  where 
the  houses  are  in  exposed  situations,  and  which  is  said  to  be  a  radical 
cure.  It  consists  in  inserting  a  piece  of  iron,  slate,  or  any  other  conve- 
nient material  a  short  distance  below  the  chimney-top,  in  such  a  way  as 
to  stop  up  about  one-third  of  the  area  of  the  flue  on  one  side.  It  is  es- 
sential that  this  position  should  be  relative  to  the  direction  of  the  pre- 
vailing wind;  but  what  that  position  should  be  our  informant  could  not 
say.  At  any  rate,  it  is  easily  tried,  and  the  plate  adjusted  accordingly. 
From  the  practical  and  useful  tone  of  Mr.  Ecksteip's  work,  we  hope  to 
see  him  again  in  print.  A  good  treatise  on  cooking-stoves  is  much 
wanted. 

An  Outline  of  Shipbuilding.  By  John  Fineham,  Master  Shipwright  of 
H.M.  Dockyard,  Portsmouth.  3rd  edition.  With  folio  plates. 
London  :  Whitaker  and  Co. 

We  have  already  reviewed  Mr.  Finchani's  Hi'sion/  of  Naval  Architecture, 


1852.] 


Details  of  the  Arctic. 


273 


which  forms  an  appropriate  accompaniment  to  the  volume  before  us> 
The  words  "3rd  edition,"  render  it  unnecessary  to  say  much  in  its 
favour,  and  we  need  only  indicate  its  leading  contents. 

The  work  is  divided  into  four  parts.  The  first  contains  an  elucida- 
tion of  the  principles  which  govern  the  form  of  vessels,  their  displace- 
ment and  stability;  the  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity  ;  Bossut's  and 
Beaufoy's  experiments  on  the  resistances  of  floating  bodies ;  compari- 
sons of  the  forms  of  sailing  and  steam  vessels ;  the  effects  of  the  winds 
on  the  sails,  &c.  The  second  part  contains  a  detailed  account  of  all  the 
parts  of  which  the  hull  of  a  vessel  is  composed,  and  the  methods  of  com- 
bining them ;  the  use  of  iron  in  conjunction  with  timber ;  and,  in  short, 
all  the  information  required  by  the  practical  shipwright.  These  expla- 
nations are  illustrated  by  copious  details  on  a  larger  scale,  in  the  folio 
plates  which  accompany  the  work.  Part  the  third  will  be  read  with 
great  interest  by  the  engineer  as  well  as  the  shipbuilder,  since  it  contains 
an  immense  amount  of  valuable  information  on  the  structure  of  various 
kinds  of  timber — their  virtues  and  defects,  the  means  of  preserving  them 
from  decay,  and  the  results  of  experiments  on  their  comparative 
strengths.  The  manufacture  of  iron  and  copper,  the  methods  of  working 
them  and  testing  their  qualities,  is  also  treated  of  in  a  very  practical 
mamier.  Indeed,  we  think  the  author  would  be  doing  a  service  to  the 
profession,  if  he  would  reprint  this  part,  and  publish  it  in  a  separate 
form,  which  we  are  convinced  would  be  purchased  by  many  persons 
who  would  never  imagine  that  an  Outline  of  Shipbuilding  could  interest 
them.  Part  the  fourth  consists  of  a  vocabulary  of  words  and  phrases 
used  in  shipbuilding,  with  their  equivalents  in  Swedish,  Danish,  Dutch, 
German,  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  Russian. 
The  work  is  dedicated  to  his  Grace  the  Duke  of  Northumberland. 

Performance  of  the  U.S.  Mail  Steamer  Arctic,  on  her  Eighth 
Voyage  from  New  York  to  Liverpool.  By  B.  F.  Isherwoob 
Chief  Eng.  U.S.  Navy. 


Day 

Date. 
1852. 

Average 

steam 

pressure 

in  boiler. 

Pounds 

persq.  in. 

Average 
revolu- 
tions per 
minute. 

Total 
revolu- 
tions 
made  per 
day. 

Time, 
h.     m. 

Anthra- 
cite coal. 
Tons 
burned 
per  day. 

Geogra- 
phical 
miles  ran 
per  day. 

1st 

Feb.  8th. 

17-0 

14-5 

20,550 

23  45 

85 

300 

2d 

„     9  th. 

167 

14-3 

20,167 

23  30 

75 

310 

3d 

„  10th. 

17-5 

15-3 

21,704 

23  34 

80 

325 

4th 

„  11th. 

17-5 

15-8 

22,419 

23  30 

88 

331 

5th 

„   12th. 

17-0 

15-7 

22,254 

23  25 

89 

336 

6th 

„  13th. 

16-1 

15-3 

21,497 

23  31 

89 

234 

7th 

„  14th. 

17-0 

16-4 

23,104 

23  25 

92 

316 

8th 

„  15th. 

17-0 

16-7 

23,440 

23  23 

90 

307 

9th 

„  16  th. 

16-7 

16-5 

23,237 

23  22 

91 

301 

10th 

„  17  th. 

16-5 

17-5 

22,594 

21  25 

87 

295 

d.  h.  m. 

Totals, 

220,966 

9  16  41 

866 

3055 

Means, 

16-9 

15-827 

8337-3 
lbs- pr.hr. 

13-13  per 

hour 

The  Indicator  Diagram  shows  15lbs.  maximum  in  cylinder,  cut  off  at  -^; 
vacuum,  10'5  lbs.  When  taken,  steam  pressure  in  boiler  above  atmosphere  per 
square  inch,  17  pounds  ;  double  strokes  of  piston  per  minute,  16;  mean  effec- 
tive pressure  on  piston  throughout  the  stroke,  16-9  pounds  ;  throttle  partly 
closed  ;  calculating  the  horse  power  developed  by  the  engine  for  this  pres- 
sure, and  for  15-827  double  strokes  of  piston  per  minute,  we  have,  area  of 
both  pistons,  14,176-46  square  inches  ;  stroke  of  piston,  10  feet  ;  mean 
effective  pressure  per  square  inch  of  pistons,  16'9  pounds  ;  speed  of  piston 
per  minute,  316-54  feet. 

14,176-46  x  16-9  x  316-54  feet. 

■  =  2,298'1  horse  power. 

33,000 


Evaporation  by  the  Boilers. — The  mean  initial  steam  pressure  in  the  boilers 
may  be  taken  at  14-3  pounds  per  square  inch  above  atmosphere,  cut  off  at 
4i  feet  from  commencement  of  stroke  of  piston.  Space  displacement  of 
both  pistons  filled  per  stroke  with  steam,  443-016  cubic  feet,  to  which  add 
space  comprised  between  cut-off  valve  and  piston  at  one  end  of  cylinder 
(for  both  cylinders),  25  cubic  feet,  making  a  total  bulk  of  468'016  cubic  fee  t 
of  steam  of  the  total  pressure  of  29  pounds  per  square  inch,  used  per  stroke 
of  piston,  which  per  hour  would  become  (468-016  *  15-827  x  2  x  60) 
888,874-708. 

The  loss  by  blowing  off  at  39j,  will  be  as  follows.  Neglecting  small  correc- 
tions, total  heat  of  steam,  1,202°  Fah. ;  temperature  of  feed  water,  100°  Fah.  ; 
temperature  of  steam  29  pounds,  total  pressure,  249-6°  ;  then,  1,202° — 100° 
=  1,102°;  and  249"6° — 100  =  149-6°.  Sum  of  the  caloric  utilised  in  steam 
and  lost  in  blowing  off  (1,102°  x  149-6°),  1,251-6°,  of  which  1,102°  is 
888,874-708  x  100 

88  per  cent,  and =  1,010,084-9  total  cubic  feet  of  steam 

88 
of  29  pounds  total  pressure  generated  per  hour.     The  relative  volumes 
of  this  steam  and  the  water  from  which  it  is  generated,  is  911-0  and  1 
1,010,084-9 

and ■=:  1108-765   cubic   feet  of   sea-water  evaporated  per  hour, 

911 
which  at  64-3  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  which  amount  to  71,293-59  pounds  of 
water  evaporated  per  hour  by  8,337-3  pounds  of  anthracite,  or  8-55  pounds 
of  water  per  pound  of  coal. 

This  is  perhaps  a  higher  result  than  lias  over  before  been  attained  by  a 
marine  boiler  making  a  long  trip,  and  fired  and  cleaned  in  the  ordinary 
manner  by  ordinary  firemen.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  results  obtained, 
under  the  above  practical  conditions,  are  very  different  from  what  would  be 
given  by  a  more  experimental  trial  of  a  few  hours  on  shore,  with  a  small 
quantity  of  fuel  skilfully  burned,  and  all  avenues  of  losses  carefully  guarded. 
It  must  also  be  considered  that  these  boilers  have  been  in  use  for  some  time , 
and  are  probably  considerably  incrusted  with  scale. 

The  features  of  these  boilers  are,  1st.  The  heating  surface  is  nearly  all 
vertical  surface,  consisting  of  water  tubes. 

2nd.  The  proportion  of  calorimeter  or  draft  area  to  the  grate  surface  is 
very  large  at  first,  and  diminishes  to  nearly  one-half  in  the  chimney,  being 
at  front  of  tubes  1-000  to  5-205;  at  back  of  tubes,  1-000  to  7 '840;  in  chimney, 
1-000  to  10-000. 

3rd.  The  proportion  of  heating  to  grate  surface  is  very  large,  being 
33^  to  1. 

4th.  The  hot  gases  are  kept  by  means  of  a  hanging-bridge  in  contact  with 
the  heating  surface,  until  their  temperature  is  properly  reduced. 

5th.  A  very  great  height  of  chimney,  being  75  feet  above  grates,  giving 
a  good  draft  even  with  the  greatly  diminished  chimney  calorimeters  ;  the 
rapidity  of  the  combustion  is  not  remarkable  as  either  fast  or  slow,  being  as 
the  rate  of  13-13  pounds  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour. 

6th.  A  double  tier  of  furnaces,  one  furnace  in  the  upper  and  one  in  the 
lower  tier,  mingle  their  hot  gases  at  the  same  bridge.  By  alternate  firing 
below  and  above,  the  temperature  of  the  mingled  gases  is  always  kept  suffi- 
ciently high  for  combustion,  while,  practically,  no  inconvenience  is  found  in 
firing  furnaces  so  arranged. 

Slip  of  the  Paddle-  Wheel— The  circumference  of  the  centre  of  effort  of 
the  paddles  is  107-3  feet.     The  mean  slip  was,  therefore, 
107-3X15-827X60=101,894-226  ft.  =  sp.  of  cen.  effort  of  paddles  per  hour. 
13-13X6140         r=  80,618-200  ft.  =  speed  of  vessel  per  hour. 


21,276-026  ft.  =  slip  per  hour,  or  20-88  per  cent. 
The  following  details  of  the  Arctic,  from  Mr.  Bartol's  works,  may  be  found 
useful,  in  conjunction  with  the  preceding  : — 

Merchant  steamer,  running  between  New  York  and  Liverpool ;  engines 
designed  and  constructed  by  Stillman,  Allen,  and  Co.,  New  York  ;  boilers 
by  John  Faron,  Esq.,  chief  engineer  of  the  line  (since  deceased). 

ft.    in 
Length  on  deck ...  ...  •■•  ■••  •■•       286     ° 

Breadth  of  beam  ...  ■••  •••  •••         45     8 

Depth  of  hold     ...  ...  ...  ■••  •••         32     ° 

Tonnage  ...  ...  ■••  •■•     tons,  2,772 

36 


274 


Notes  from  Our  American*  Contemporaries. 


[December, 


ft. 

in 

19 

0 

7 

11 

10 

0 

35 

6 

12 

2 

2 

2 

Average  draft  of  water      ... 

Two  side-lever  engines 

Diameter  of  cylinders 

Length  of  stroke 

Diameter  of  paddle-wheels 

Length  of  paddles 

Depth  of  do. 

Number  of  paddles  in  each  wheel    ...  ...  ...  36 

Average  dip  of  wheel        ...             ...  ...  ...           7     5 

Average  number  of  revolutions        ...  ...  ...  13f 

Average  pressure  of  steam                ...  ...  ...  14  lbs. 

Cutting  off  at      ...             ...             ...  ...  ...           4     6 

Four  iron  boilers  (back  to  back)  ;  tubes,  2  inches  diameter  outside. 

Whole  amount  of  fire  surface           ...  ...  21,160  sq.  ft. 

„            „            tube    „                ...  ...  15,066      „ 

„            ,)            grate  „                ...  ...  635      „ 

Ratio  of  fire  surface  to  cubic  foot  of  cylinder  ...  ...    21^tol 

,,                    „            grate  surface  ...  ...    33:}tol 

Area  of  space  between  tubes  in  front  ...  ...  122  sq.  ft. 

,,                        „                  at  back  ...  ...    81      „ 

„        chimney                ...             ...  ...  ...    63J    „ 

Height  of  chimney  above  grate        ...  ...  ...    75  feet 

Consumption  of  bituminous  coal  per  hour      ...  6,615    lbs. 

Water  evaporated  by  1  lb.  of  coal   ...  ...  ...      7J-    „ 

Coal  per  hour  to  a  square  foot  of  grate  ...  ...    10fg  „ 

NOTES   FROM  OUR    AMERICAN   CONTEMPORARIES. 

Switzer's  Screw  Driver.—  The  following  account  is  taken  from  the 
Scientific  American  : — The  screw  driver  appears  to  us  too  expensive  for 
ordinary  use  ;  but  it  appears  to  us  that  some  simple  modification  might  be 
scheme  which  would  be  useful  for  fixing  metal  screws,  which,  from  the 
power  required  to  turn,  are  sometimes  disfigured  from  the  screw  driver 
slipping. 

Kg.  1  is  an  outside  view,  and  fig.  2  is  a  longitudinal  section.  This  screw- 
driver is  operated  like  the  stock-brace,  only  it  has  spring-jaws  for  holding 
the  head  of  the  screw-nail,  while  the  driver  is  inserted  into  the  groove  or 
notch  in  the  head  of  the  nail.    The  handle  of  the  stock  is  broken  off. 


Fig.  2. 

A  is  part  of  the  handle,  and  b  is  the  stock  ;  they  are  made  in  the  usual 
manner  ;  d  is  the  shank  of  the  driver,  e.  f  f  are  spring-jaws  for  embracing 
the  head  of  the  screw-nail,  c  is  a  barrel  or  tube  surrounding  the  shank  of 
the  driver,  and  legs  of  the  spring-jaws,  f  f.  The  spring-jaws  are  fastened  to 
the  shank  of  the  driver  by  a  pin,  c,  which  passes  though  a  slot,  g,  in  said 
shank.  This  slot  allows  the  driver  to  be  thrust  further  out  beyond  the  face 
of  the  jaws,  or  to  be  drawn  within  them.  This  operation  is  performed  by 
having  a  right-handed  thread  cut  on  the  shank,  r>,  and  a  left-handed  thread, 
a,  cut  on  the  inside  of  the  barrel,  c,  as  shown  in  fig.  2. 

To  drive  in  a  screw-nail,  the  jaws  are  made  to  embrace  the  head  of  the 
nail,  and  are  compressed  on  to  them  by  turning  the  barrel,  c,  to  the  right, 
the  driver  then  being,  as  represented,  inserted  into  the  crease  of  the  nail-head. 
By  turning  the  stock,  the  barrel,  c,  and  driver,  revolving  to  the  right,  the 


crew  is  driven  in  rapidly  and  with  great  ease  ;    no  hole  is  required  to  be 
made  with  a  gimlet,  previous  to  driving  in  the  screw. 

To  release  the  jaws  from  the  head  of  the  screw,  all  that  is  necessary  to  be 
done  is  simply  to  grasp  the  barrel,  c,  firmly  with  the  left  hand  and  keep 
turning  in  the  same  direction.  The  slot,  g,  allows  the  driver  to  be  forced 
beyond  the  jaws,  when  the  barrel  is  grasped,  and  this  relieves  them. 

To  draw  a  screw  from  a  counter-sink,  the  driver,  e,  is  worked  to  project 
beyond  the  jaws  (which  is  done  by  holding  on  to  the  barrel  with  the  left  hand 
and  turning  with  the  right),  and  then  it  is  inserted  into  the  crease  of  the  head 
of  the  screw,  and  the  stock  is  turned  to  the  left,  the  barrel  turning  round  with 
the  driver.  After  the  head  is  drawn  out  a  short  distance,  the  barrel,  c,  is 
held  firm  with  the  left  hand,  and  the  jaws  are  then  left  free,  and  allowed  to 
grasp  the  head  of  the  nail  ;  when  this  is  done,  the  barrel,  c,  is  turned  round 
with  the  left  hand  to  bring  it  down  firm  on  the  jaws,  after  which  the  driver, 
jaws,  and  barrel  are  turned  to  the  left,  and  the  screw  is  drawn  out  rapidly. 

Bridges  versus  Steamboats. — A  great  excitement  has  prevailed  on  the 
Wheeling  Bridge  case,  the  height  of  it  being  insufficient  to  allow  the  steam- 
boat chimneys  to  pass.  The  Supreme  Court  ordered  it  to  be  taken  down, 
but  the  Super-Supreme  Senate  have  passed  an  act  to  legalise  it,  and  so  have 
quashed  the  decision.     Are  lowering  chimneys  unknown  to  the  U.  S.  ? 

Steam  Grain  Elevator. — Messrs.  Godard  and  Hovey,  of  Albany,  have 
constructed  a  grain  elevator,  which  appears  to  consist  of  a  chain  of 
buckets,  &c,  fixed  in  a  boat.  It  will  lift  the  grain  out  of  one  boat  into 
another  or  into  a  granary,  winnow  it,  clean  it,  and  measure  it  at  the  rate  of 
15,000  bushels  per  hour. 

Saw  Frames. — The  Scientific  American,  in  quoting  our  account  of  Messrs. 
Worssams'  timber-frame,  notices  our  query  as  to  the  indicated  power  required, 
and  says,  "  In  America,  five-horse  power  is  allotted  for  driving  a  large  rip- 
saw and  a  large  circular  saw.  Gang-saws  are  now  common  in  American 
saw-mills,  but  the  common  mode  of  working  the  reciprocating  saw  is  nearly 
the  same  as  Messrs.  Worssams'  frame.  An  engine  of  three-horse  power 
will  drive  one  of  these  saws,  but  it  is  best  to  leave  a  good  margin  of  power 
as  a  surplus."  We  should  allow  considerably  more  than  even  three-horse 
(nominal)  powerto  one  of  these  heavy  timber-frames — say  ten-horse  (indicated) 
power.  We  will  repeat  our  question  in  a  more  definite  shape  : — With  an 
average  quality  of  saw,  and  a  certain  sort  of  timber,  how  many  indicated 
horse  power  are  required  to  saw  a  given  number  of  superficial  feet  in  a  given 
time  ? 

Centrifugal  Shot-making  Machine. — Mr.  Bonnet, 
of  New  York,  has  patented  a  shot-making  machine,  which 
consists  of  a  circular  revolving  trough  of  iron,  the  peri- 
phery of  which  is  perforated  with  holes.  A  pipe  in  the 
centre  supplies  the  molten  lead,  which  flies  out  at  the 
holes,  and  is  intercepted  by  a  curtain  hung  round  at  a 
suitable  distance.  The  machine  makes  350  revolutions 
per  minute,  and  is  said  to  answer  very  well. 

Eotary  Engine. — Mr.  E.  Barrows  has  fitted  his  patent 
engine  into  a  boat  70  feet  long.  The  cylinder  is  30 
inches  diameter  and  12  inches  long.  With  45  lbs.  of 
steam,  she  is  said  to  run  nine  miles  an  hour  against  wind 
and  tide. 

Leather  Paper  is  being  made  in  the  United  States  by 
Messrs.  Forbes,  straw  and  rags  being  added.  Straw  has 
been  used  in  England  for  some  time;  but  we  believe  there  were  difficulties 
in  oroducin"'  good  qualities  of  paper,  so  that  its  use  has  been  confined  to  the 
inside  of  cards,  railway  tickets,  &c.  The  strength  of  the  American  paper  to 
which  we  have  alluded  is,  we  are  told  by  an  English  paper-maker,  due  to 
the  absence  of  that  severe  bleaching  to  which  all  paper  must  be  subjected  to 
suit  it  to  the  English  market. 

STEAM-ENGINES   IN  PROGRESS   OF   CONSTRUCTION  IN   THE   MORGAN  WORKS. 

One  engine,  83-inch  cylinder  and  12  feet  stroke,  for  ship  building,  by 
W.  H.  Brown  and  Son,  to  run  on  the  Pacific. 

One  engine,  80-inch  cylinder  and  12  feet  stroke,  for  boat  building,  by 
Bidwell,  Banti,  and  Co.,  Buffalo,  for  M.  O.  Roberts,  Esq. 

One  engine,  60-inch  cylinder  and  11   feet  stroke,  for  ship,  built  by  Wes- 


1852.] 


Channels  for  Investment. 


275 


tervclt  and  Son,  for  Charles  Morgan,  Esq.,  to  run  on  Harris  and  Morgan's 
line,  between  New  Orleans  and  Galveston. 

One  engine,  42-inch  cylinder  and  11  feet  stroke,  same  builders,  and  for 
same  parties  as  above,  to  run  from  New  Orleans  to  Matagorda  Bay. 

One  engine,  52-inch  cylinder  and  12  feet  stroke,  for  boat  building,  by 
Mr.  Samuel  Sncidcn,  for  New  Haven  line. 

One  engine,  44-inch  cylinder  and  11  feet  stroke,  for  Eiver  Danube,  to  run 
from  Vienna  to  Pesth.  The  boat  is  built  of  iron,  and  is  owned  by  the 
Danube  Steamboat  Company,  who  have  some  sixty  boats  running  to  various 
points,  and  have  extensive  works  of  their  own,  employing  about  1,200  hands. 

One  engine,  44-inch  cylinder  and  9  feet  stroke,  for  Chicago  Water-works, 
intended  to  force  the  lake-water  to  supply  the  city. 

One  engine,  40-inch  cylinder  and  14  feet  stroke,  for  boat  building,  by 
Mr.  Lawrence,  for  Mr.  George  Law. 

Composition  of  Mortar. — It  has  been  well  ascertained  that  the  mortar 
used  by  the  ancients  contained  a  much  smaller  quantity  of  lime  than  that  now 
in  use,  but  its  admixture  with  the  silex  or  sand  is  much  more  perfect  or 
intimate.  From  the  best  accounts  of  their  processes  of  making  mortar,  it 
appears  that  it  was  formed  many  months  before  being  used;  and  placed 
in  a  pit  dug  in  the  ground,  until  wanted.  After  a  few  months  it  was  taken 
up  in  a  state  nearly  or  quite  untenacious,  and  beaten  until  it  became  per- 
fectly soft  or  pliant,  which,  without  the  addition  of  water,  will  take  place 
if  sufficient  labour  be  given  in  its  manipulation.  By  this  means  every 
particle  of  silex  or  sand  berame  coated  evenly  with  the  lime,  and  conse- 
quently it  had  a  fair  opportunity  of  bringing  the  particles  within  chemical 
distance  of  each  other,  which  cannot  be  the  case  in  the  modern  mode,  of 
imply  hoeing  the  mortar. 

Bricks  are  usually  covered  with  a  slight  coating  of  moulding  sand,  which 
is  unattached ;  this  should  first  be  removed,  or  the  mortar  will  attach  itself  to  it, 
instead  of  the  brick,  and  the  want  of  this  process  will  fully  account  for  the  clean 
condition  of  bricks  when  removed  from,  walls  built  within  the  last  fifty  years. 
They  should  also  be  well  washed  and  wetted  before  being  used;  by  this 
means  the  excess  of  lime  is  partially  taken  up  by  the  water,  and  on  parting 
with  the  excess  of  water  by  evaporation,  the  lime  forms  a  sort  of  dove-tail  be- 
tween the  mortar  and  the  capillary  openings  in  the  bricks.  When  we  recollect 
the  fact  that  seven  hundred  pounds  of  water  are  required  to  dissolve  one 
pound  of  lime,  it  must  be  evident  that  the  larger  the  quantity  of  water  used, 
in  the  first  instance,  the  more  intimate  must  be  the  connection  after  its  eva- 
poration. When  the  bricks  are  dry,  the  mortar  is  robbed  of  its  water  before 
its  parts  are  sufficiently  connected  with  each  other. 

It  is  a  common  fault  to  require  the  use  of  a  larger  quantity  of  limethan  is 
necessary,  and,  as  labour  is  more  expensive  than  lime,  the  master  mason  is 
very  willing  to  accede  to  such  a  request;  as,  by  a  large  addition  of  lime,  the 
mortar  becomes  for  the  moment  so  malleable  or  soft,  that  a  workman  can  lay 
fifty  per  cent,  more  bricks  in  the  same  space  of  time.  Such  excess,  for  want 
of  intimate  admixture,  soon  changes  to  carbonate  of  lime  (isomeric  with 
chalk),  and  being  without  a  due  proportion  of  silex,  has  no  tenacity. 

Sea  sand  should  never  be  used ;  first,  because  it  contains  a  quantity  of 
chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt)  upon  the  surface  of  the  particles,  which 
attracts  moisture,  and  prevents  its  drying ;  and  secondly,  because  from  long 
attrition  the  particles  become  spherical  (round)  and  thereby  have  less  tenacity 
than  in  any  other  form.  In  the  choice  of  sand  for  making  mortar  that  which 
contains  much  loam  should  be  particularly  avoided,  its  particles  being  too 
minute  for  adhesion.  Broken  marble  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  sand,  the 
shape  of  its  particles  being  extremely  irregular,  and  its  surfaces  so  fresh  and 
clean  as  to  offer  no  opposition  to  adhesion. 

EAILWAY  SUSPENSION  BEIDGE  OVER  THE  NIAGARA  EIVER. 

The  bridge  will  form  a  single  span  of  800  feet  in  iength.  It  is  to  serve  as 
a  connecting  link  between  the  railroads  of  Canada  and  the  State  of  New 
York,  and  to  accommodate  the  common  travel  of  the  two  countries.  It  is 
established  by  ample  experience,  that  good  iron  wire,  if  properly  united  into 
cables  or  ropes,  is  the  best  material  for  the  support  of  loads  and  concussions,  in 
virtue  of  its  great  absolute  cohesion,  which  amounts  to  from  90,000  to  130,000 
lbs.  per  square  inch,  according  to  quality.  The  bridge  will  form  a  straight  hol- 
low beam  of  20  feet  wide  and  18  deep,  composed  of  top,  bottom,  and  sides. 
The  upper  floor,  which  supports  the  railroad,  is  24  feet  wide  between  the 
railings,  and  suspended  to  two  wire  cables  assisted  by  stays.  The  lower  floor 
is  19  feet  wide,  and  15  feet  high  in  the  clear,  connected  with  the  upper  one 
by  vertical  trusses,  forming  its  sides,  and  suspended  on  two  other  cables, 


which  have  10  feet  more  deflection  than  the  upper  ones.  The  anchorage  will 
be  formed  by  sinking  8  shafts  into  the  rock,  25  feet  deep.  The  bottom  of 
each  shaft  will  be  enlarged  for  the  reception  of  cast-iron  anchor  plates  of  6 
feet  square.  These  chambers  will  have  a  prismatical  section,  which,  when 
filled  with  solid  masonry,  cannot  be  drawn  up  without  lifting  the  whole  rock 
to  a  considerable  extent.  Saddles  of  cast  iron  will  support  the  cables  on  the 
top  of  the  towers.  They  will  consist  of  two  parts  ;  the  lower  one  stationary, 
and  the  upper  one  moveable,  resting  upon  wrought-iron  rollers.  The  saddles 
will  have  to  support  a  pressure  of  600  tons  whenever  the  bridge  is  loaded 
with  a  train  of  maximum  weight.  The  towers  are  to  be  60  feet  high,  15  feet 
square  at  the  base,  and  8  at  the  top.  The  compact,  hard  limestone  used  in 
the  masonry  of  the  towers  will  bear  a  pressure  of  500  tons  upon  every  foot 
square. 

Weight  of  Bridge. 

Weight  of  timber      910,130  lbs. 

Wrought  iron  and  suspenders         ...         ...         ...       113,120    „ 

Castings         44,332    „ 

Rails 66,740    „ 

Cables  between  towers         534,400    „ 


25  tons. 


405 


1,678,722  lbs. 

Weight  of  Railroad  Trains. 
One  locomotive    ...         ...         ...         ...         

27  double-freight  cars,  each  25  feet  long,  and  of  15  tons 
gross  weight 

Making  a  total  gross  weight  of  430  tons,  which  will  fall 
upon  the  cables  when  the  whole  bridge  is  covered 
by  a  train  of  cars  from  end  to  end  ;  add  to  this  1 5 
per  cent,  weight  of  pressure,  as  the  result  of  a 
speed  of  five  miles  per  hour,  which  is  a  very  large 
allowance 

Add  weight  of  superstructure    ... 


61 

782 


Total  aggregate  maximum  weight        ...         ...         ...  1,273  tons. 

The  tension  of  cables,  which  result  from  a  weight  of  1,373  tons  and  an 
average  deflection  of  59  feet,  is  2,340  tons.  Since  the  assumed  maximum 
tension  can  but  rarely  occur,  it  is  considered  ample  to  allow  four  times  the 
strength  to  meet  this  tension — that  is,  8,960  tons.  But  assuming  2,000  tons 
as  a  tension  to  which  the  cables  may  be  subjected,  five  times  the  strength  to 
meet  it  is  allowed,  and  an  ultimate  strength  of  10,000  tons  provided  for. 

For  this  purpose  15,000  wires  of  No.  10  will  be  required.  At  each  end  of 
the  upper  floor  the  upper  cables  will  be  assisted  by  eighteen  wire-rope  stays, 
and  their  strength  will  be  equivalent  to  1,440  wires  ;  these,  deducted,  leave 
the  number  of  wires  in  the  four  superior  cables  13,560,  the  number  of  wires 
in  one  cable  3,390,  diameter  of  cable  9£  inches.  The  railroad  bridge  will  be 
elevated  18  feet  on  the  Canadian,  and  28  on  the  American,  side,  above  the 
present  surface  of  the  bank,  and  above  the  present  structure.  It  will  be  the 
longest  railroad  bridge,  between  the  points  of  support,  in  the  world. —  Cana- 
dian Journal. 


CHANNELS  EOE  INVESTMENT. 

LIST  OE  NEW  COMPANIES  EECENTLY  ESTABLISHED 

OE  PEOPOSED. 


Amount  of 
Shares. 


London,  Liverpool,  and  Ameri- 
can Screw  Steam  Ship  Com- 
pany     

Magdalena  Steam  Navigation 
Company 

Albert  Docks 

Putney  Bridge  and  Pier  Com- 
pany 

Chatham  and  Canterbury  Local 
Eailway 

Eoyal  Swedish  Railway  Company 

North  and  South  Western  and 
and  City  Junction  Railway  . . 

Eorth  and  Clyde  Junction  Rail- 
way Company 

Orleans  and  Epernay  Railway . . 

Londonderry,  Enniskillen,  and 
Sligo  Railway 

Red  Dragon  Silver-lead  Mines 

Poltimore  Copper  and  Gold  Min- 
ing Company 

Vimenburg  Copper  Mines 

Mizen-Head  Copper  Mines 

The  Waller  Gold  Mining  Com- 
pany 

L'Aiglc  D'Or 

Royal  Hibernian  

Tees  Side  (Lead)  Mine 


£20 


No.  of  Shares. 


30,000 


Capital. 


£600,000 


20 
10   . 

10,000 
50,000 

200,000 
500,000 

20   . 

3,250 

65,000 

20 
5 

15,000 
83,3.31 

300,000 
416,670 

20   . 

11,500 

230,000 

10   . 
20 

15,000 
.   130,000 

150,000 
2,600,600 

10 
1 

30,000 
3,000 

300,000 
3,000 

1 
1 

1 

50,000 
75,000 
20,000 

50,000 
75,000 
20,000 

1 
1 
1 

£1  5s.  . 

70,000 

75,000 

.   100,000 

4,800 

70,000 

75,000 

100,000 

6,000 

276 


List  of  Patents. 


[December. 


Amount  of 
Shares. 

North  Britain  Burnt  Burra  Cop- 
per Mine 

Royal   Nassau  Sulphate  of  Ba- 
rytes  Mines     . .         . .  . .  £1  to  be  . . 

iss.  at  10s. 

South   Alfred    Consols    Copper 
Mines £1 

Lake  Fucino  Draining  Company  £17  10s. 

City  of  London  Sewage  Manure 
Company         . .  .  .  . .    £\0 

Australian,     Inland,     Carrying, 
and  Coveyance  Company     . .         1 

The  Great  Paris  Brewery         . .  4       . 


No.  of  Shares. 

Capital. 

5,000 

68,000 

£34,000 

5,000 
15,000 

5,000 
262,500 

5,000 

80,000 
25,000 


50,000 

80,000 
100,000 


NOVELTIES. 

Warming  two  Rooms  with  one  Stove. — A  correspondent  inquires  the 
best  method  of  warming  two  rooms  with  one  fire-place  or  stove.  If  a  close 
stove  is  admissible,  it  may  be  done  by  carrying  the 
smoke-pipe  through  the  adjoining  room;  although, 
in  that  case,  he  must  not  mind  the  trouble  of 
cleaning  it  out  regularly.  A  very  neat  method  of 
effecting  the  object  is  described  in  Bernan's  Warm- 
ing and  Ventilating,  which  has  the  advantage  of 
showing  the  fire  in  either  room.  The  annexed 
sketch,  a  sectional  elevation,  will  explain  it.  a  is 
the  chimney  flue  from  one  room,  and  b  that  of  the 
other.  A  cast-iron  plate,  c,  divides  the  two  rooms, 
and  has  the  fire-place  attached  to  it.  This  plate  is 
mounted  on  a  pivot,  top  and  bottom,  and  can,  there- 
fore, be  turned  round,  so  as  to  present  either  face 
to  the  room.  A  plate,  d,  is  attached  to  the  division 
plate  to  close  up  the  flue  on  the  side  where  the  fire  is  not  desired.  When 
the  fire  is  lighted,  the  division  plate  gets  hot,  and  radiates  a  considerable 
quantity  of  heat  into  the  next  room;  and  whenever  it  is  desired  to  increase 
the  heat,  the  plate  and  fire-place  can  be  turned  round. 

Prevention  or  Incrustation  in  Boilers. — Mr.  Overman  recommends 
to  use  charcoal  to  prevent  incrustations  in  boilers.  That  made  from  hard 
wood  is  preferred,  and  is  to  be  broken  up  into  lumps  from  a  quarter  to  half 
inch  cube,  and  thrown  into  the  boiler,  in  the  proportion  of  two  bushels  to  a 
boiler  of  20  or  30  horsepower.  At  the  end  of  a  month  it  will  require  to  be 
renewed.  It  is  said  not  to  condense  the  salts  of  the  fixed  alkalies,  as  those 
of  potash  and  soda,  but  it  will  effectually  absorb  all  salts  of  lime,  the 
alkaline  earths,  the  salts  of  iron,  and  almost  all  other  heavy  metals. 

NOTES    FROM    CORRESPONDENCE. 

*%*  We  cannot  insert  communications  from  anonymous  correspondents. 

"  Mr.  Isheewood,  and  H.M.S.  Arrogant." — We  have  received  a  letter  from 
Mr.  I.,  in  reference  to  our  remarks  at  p.  234,  in  which  he  explains  that  the 
information  respecting  the  Arrogant  was  given  him  by  the  chief  engineer  of 
the  Saranac,  who  received  it  from  thcengineer  of  the  Arrogant.  We  never 
suspected  Mr.  I.  of  any  design  to  deceive  the  readers  of  his  paper,  but  we 
certainly  attached  a  meaning  to  his  words  which,  it  appears,  they  were  not 
intended  to  convey. 

"  M.  B.,  Newcastle." — A  note  of  the  claims  of  Mr.  Crampton's  patent  will 
be  found  at  p.  109  of  the  Artizan,  1847.  The  claims  of  another,  dated  19th 
June,  1847,  are  given  at  p.  29,  vol.  1848.  Mr.  C.  has  also  a  later  patent, 
which  will  be  found  in  our  patent-list. 

"  Waterproof  Paper." — A  very  excellent  glazed  paper  is  made  in  Prance, 
but  we  are  not  aware  of  the  composition.  Any  of  our  correspondents  who 
can  give  information  on  the  subject  will  oblige  "  F.  C."  by  doing  so. 

"  C.  E." — We  have  never  seen  any  indicator  diagrams  up  to  200  lbs.  on  the 
square  inch  from  the  American  boats,  but  tliere  is  nothing  impossible  in  get- 
ting that  pressure  in  the  cylinder  if  that  in  the  boiler  be  slightly  higher. 
There  is  no  "  easy  way  of  indicating  short-stroked  direct-acting  engines, 


moving    at   a  great   velocity."      It  is  always    a    troublesome   operation. 
M'Naught's  indicators  are  the  best  that  we  know  of. 

"Mechanic,"  should  send  his  invention  to  the  Society  of  Arts  exhibition, 
which  opens  in  December.  We  are  of  opinion  that  air  vessels  should  be 
small  in  diameter,  and  tall,  so  as  to  prevent  the  air  mixing  with  the  water  as 
much  as  possible. 

"  G.  B." — The  subject  has  been  fully  discussed  in  our  early  vols.  They  are 
out  of  print,  but  he  can  perhaps  borrow  them. 

Books  Received. —  Treatise  on  the  Screw  Propeller,  by  J.  Bourne. 
Illustrated  Dratcing  Book  of  Practical  Geometry,  by  R.  S.  Burn.  On 
Jackson's  Pretensions  to  the  Invention  of  the  Telegraph,  by  A.  Kendall, 
U.S. 

LIST  OF  ENGLISH  PATENTS, 

From  23rd  of  October,  to  13th  of  November,  1852. 

Six  months  allowed  for  enrolment,  unless  otltericise  expressed. 

Robert  M'Gavin,  of  Glasgow,  Lanark,  North  Britain,  merchant,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  iron  for  ship-building.     October  23. 

Henry  Keedham  Scrope  Shrapnel,  of  Gosport,  for  improvements  in  extracting  gold  and 
other  metals  from  mineral  and  earthy  substances.     October  23. 

James  Lamb,  of  Kingsland,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  and  Joseph  Menday,  of  the  same  place, 
engineer,  for  improvements  in  the  construction  of  kilns  for  burning  or  calcining  cement, 
chalk,  limestone,  and  other  substances  requiring  such  process,  and  in  the  application  of  the 
heat  arising  therefrom  to  the  generation  of  steam.     October  23. 

Joseph  Walker,  of  Dover,  Kent,  merchant,  for  improvements  in  treating  cotton  seeds,  in 
obtaining  products  therefrom,  and  in  the  processes  and  machinery  employed  thereiD,  parts 
of  which  improvements  are  applicable  to  distillation.     (A  communication.)     November  2. 

Patrick  M'Anaspie,  of  Liverpool,  gentleman,  for  a  new  manufacture  of  Portland  stona 
cement  and  oilier  compositions  for  general  building  purposes  and  hydraulic  works. 
November  2. 

John  Crowther,  of  Huddersfleld,  York,  for  a  self-acting  hydraulic  crane  or  engine  for 
lifting  weights,  such  weights  when  lifted  to  be  used  as  motive  power ;  as  also  for  loading  and 
unloading  vessels  and  vehicles.    November  2. 

Louis  Arnier,  of  Rue  du  Loisir,  Marseille,  France,  engineer,  for  certain  impioveinents  in 
steam  boilers.     November  6. 

Pierre  Armand  Lecomte  de  Fontainemoreau,  of  South-street,  Finsbury,  English  and 
foreign  patent  agent,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  articles  of 
dress.    (Being  a  communication.)    November  6. 

Charles  Liddell,  of  Abingdon-street,  Westminster,  Esquire,  for  improvements  in  electric 
telegraphs.    November  1 1 . 

John  Weems,  of  Johnstone,  Renfrew,  North  Britain,  for  improvements  in  the  manu- 
facture or  production  of  metallic  pipes  and  sheets.     November  11. 

Andrew  Fulton,  of  Glasgow,  Lanark,  North  Britain,  hatter,  for  improvements  in  hats  and 
other  coverings  for  the  head.     November  1 1. 

William  Petrie,  of  Woolwich,  Kent,  civil  engineer,  for  improvements  in  obtaining  and  ap- 
plying electric  currents,  and  in  the  apparatus  employed  therein  ;  part  or  parts  of  which  im- 
provements are  applicable  to  the  refining  of  certain  metals,  and  to  the  production  of  metallic 
solutions,  and  of  certain  acids.     November  13. 


LIST  OF  SCOTCH  PATENTS, 
From  26th  of  August  to  21st  September,  1852. 

Thomas  Richardson,  of  Newcastle  upon  Tyr.e,  for  improvements  in  tiie  manufacture  and 
preparation  of  magnesia  and  some  of  its  salts.    August  26. 

James  Warren,  of  Montague-terrace,  Mile-cnd-road,  gentleman,  for  improvements  appli- 
cable to  railways  and  railway  carriages,  and  improvements  in  paving.    August  26. 

Alexander  Parkes,  of  Birmingham,  for  improvements  in  separating  silver  from  other 
metals.    August  26. 

Frederick  Sang,  of  Pali-Mall,  Middlesex,  artist  in  fresco,  for  improvements  in  floating 
and  moving  vessels,  vehicles,. and  other  bodies  in  and  over  the  water.    August  26. 

Joseph  Denton,  of  Prestwich,  Lancaster,  gentleman,  for  certain  improvements  in 
machinery  or  apparatus  formanufacturing  looped,  terry,  or  other  similar  fabrics.  August  26. 

Joseph  William  Schlesinger,  of  Brixton,  Surrey,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in  lire- 
arms,  in  cartridges,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  powder.  (Partly  communication.)  August  26. 

Alexander  Stewart,  of  Glasgow,  manufacturer,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  or 
production  of  ornamental  fabrics.    August  27. 

Sir  John  Scott  Lillie,  companion  of  the  Honourable  Order  of  the  Bath,  of  Pall-Mail,  for 
certain  improvements  in  the  construction  or  covering  of  walls,  floors,  roads,  footpaths,  and 
other  surfaces.    August  31. 

Pierre  Isidore  David,  of  Paris,  machinist,  for  certain  improvements  in  the  method  of 
bleaching,  and  in  the  apparatus  connected  therewith.     September  1. 

Joshua  Crockford,  of  Southampton-place,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  improvements  in 
brewing  and  in  brewing  apparatus.    September  2. 

Thomas  Wilks  Lord,  of  Leeds,  York,  flax  and  tow  machine-maker,  for  improvements  in 
machinery  for  spinning,  pressing,  and  heckling  flax,  tow,  hemp,  cotton,  and  other  fibrous 
substances,  and  for  the  lubrication  of  the  same,  and  other  machinery.    September  2. 

Edmund  Morewood  and  George  Rogers,  of  Enfield,  gentlemen,  for  improvements  in  the 
manufacture,  shaping,  and  coating  of  metals,  in  applying  that  metal  to  building  purposes, 
and  the  means  of  applying  heat.     September  6. 

George  Wright,  of  Sheffield,  and  also  of  Rotherham,  York,  artist,  for  improvements  in 
stoves,  grates,  or  fire-places.     September  11. 

Thomas  Hunt,  of  Leman-street,  Goodman's-fields,  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  improve- 
ments in  fire-arms.    September  13. 

Alexander  Mills  Dix,  of  Salford,  Lancaster,  brewer,  for  certain  improvements  in  artificial 
illumination,  and  in  the  apparatus  connected  therewith,  which  improvements  are  also 
applicable  to  heating  and  other  similar  purposes.     September  16. 

John  M'Conochie,  of  Liverpool,  Lancaster,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  locomotive 
and  other  steam  engines  and  boilers,  in  railways,  railway  carriages  and  their  appurtenances, 
also  in  machinery  and  apparatus  for  producing  part  or  parts  of  such  improvements.  Sep- 
tember 20. 

Robert  Burn,  of  Edinburgh,  practical  engineer,  for  a  certain  improvement  in  steam 
engines.    October  6. 

Thomas  Ellwood  Horton,  of  Priors  Lee  Hall,  Salop,  iron-master,  and  Elisha  Wylde,  of 
Birmingham,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  apparatus  for  heating  and  evaporating.  Octo- 
ber 12. 

Robert  M'Gavin,  merchant,  for  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  for  ship-build- 
ing.   October  21. 


1852.] 


List  of  Patents. 


277 


LIST  OF  IRISH  PATENTS, 
From  the  28tii  op  September  to  the  13tii  of  Octoeeb,  1852. 

Frederick  Sans,  of  Pall-mall,  Middlesex,  artist  in  fresco,  for  certain  improvements  in 
floating  and  moving  vessels,  vehicles,  and  other  bodies  on  and  over  water.    September  28. 

Thomas  Ellwood  Horton,  of  Priors  Lee  Hall,  Salop,  iron-master,  and  Elisha  Wylde,  of 
Birmingham,  engineer,  for  improvements  in  apparatus  for  heating  and  evaporating. 
October  13. 


PATENTS  APPLIED  FOB  WITH  COMPLETE  SPECIFICATIONS  DEPOSITED. 

Auguste  Chesneau.    The  manufacture  of  an  indestructible  paving.     October  12. 

William  Chisholm.  Improvements  in  the  purification  of  gas,  and  the  obtention  of  certain 
products  during  the  process  of  such  purification.     October  14. 

George  William  Lenox.  Improvements  in  machinery  for  raising  and  lowering  cables 
and  other  chains.     October  18. 

William  Roberts.  Improvements  in  machinery  for  stopping  and  lowering  cables  and 
other  chains.    October  18. 

Halsey  Draper  Walcott.  A  new  and  useful,  or  improved  mechanism  or  contrivance  for 
cutting  button-holes  or  slits  in  cloth,  or  other  material.    October  26. 

Frederick  Richards  Robinson.  An  improvement  in  the  gridiron,  or  instrument  for  cooking 
steak  or  other  articles  by  broiling.     October  20. 

Thomas  Potts,  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  hinges,  and  in  machinery  for  pro- 
ducing the  same.    October  27. 

George  William  Ley,  for  a  method  of  imitating  carvings  in  wood.    November  3. 

Marc  Klotz,  for  an  improved  process  or  apparatus  to  be  employed  in  ornamenting  fabrics, 
leather  and  other  surfaces.     November  4. 

William  Thomas  Henley,  for  certain  improvements  in  electric  telegraphs,  and  in  apparatus 
and  instruments  connected  therewith.     November  9. 


DESIGNS  FOR  ARTICLES  OF  UTILITY, 


Oct. 

Nor. 


From  the  23kd  op  October,  to  the  16th  of  November,  1852. 

476,  Thomas  Allan,  Adelphi-terrace,   "  Battery  plate-frame." 

3380,  W.Caldwell,  Glasgow,  "  Berth  settee." 

3381,  G.  Duncan,  A.  Hutton,  and  C.  Thomas,  Chelsea,  "  Spring-holder  strap." 

3382,  Clark  and  Timmins,  Blooir.sbury-street,  "  Table  fasteners." 

3383,  J.  D.  Everett,  Totteridge,  Protean  puzzle. 

33S4,  Robert  Lambert,  Goree  Piazza,  Liverpool,  and  Thomas  Danby,  Toxteth-park, 
Liverpool,  gold  sifter. 

3385,  William  Taylor,  Birmingham,  inside  shutter-bar. 

3386,  Dobson  and  Barlow,    Bolton-le-Moors,    "  Upper  part  of  a  weight  hook  for 
lapping  machines." 

33S7.  George  Hyde,  Fleet-street,  "  Portable  writing  case." 

3388,  D.  and  E.  Bailey,  High  Holborn,  "  Smoke-guard." 

3389,  B.  Cogswell,  Strand,  "  Six-shot  rifle-pistol." 


PROVISIONAL  PROTECTIONS  UNDER  THE  NEW  LAW. 

Dated  October  1,  1852. 

8.  Richard  Wright.    Improvements  in  constructing  vessels. 
58.  William  Willcocks  Sleigh.    An  invention  for  producing  motive  power,  which  he 
entitles  "  The  Counteracting  Reaction  Motive  Power  Engine." 
G9.  George  Ellins.    An  improved  method  or  apparatus  for  preparing  flax  straw  for  dres- 
sing and  cleaning. 

Dated  October  2,  1852. 

147.  Edwin  Whele.    Improvements  in  apparatus  for  burning  jcandles,  and  in  horological 

apparatus  attached  thereto. 

148.  Edward  William  Kemble  Turner.    Certain  improvements  in  machinery  for  sweep- 

ing or  cleaning  chimneys ;   also  for  more  effectually  extinguishing  them  when 
on  fire. 

1 49.  Edwin  Whele.    An  improved  rotary  engine,  to  be  worked  by  steam,  air,  or  gases. 

150.  Thomas  Boyd.    Improvements  in  the  treatment  or  finishing  of  woven  fabrics. 

151.  David  Wilkinson  Sharp.    Improvements  in  machinery  for  combing  and  drawing  a 

sliver  of  wool,  flax,  silk-waste,  and  other  fibrous  substances,  and  in  apparatus  for 
constructing  screws  to  be  used  in  a  part  or  parts  of  such  machinery. 

152.  Eugene  De  Varroc.    Improvements  in  rendering  glass  reflective. 

153.  David  Stephens  Brown.    An  agricultural  implement  for  tilling  the  soil. 

154.  David  Stephens  Brown.    Obtaining  useful  products  from  sewers. 

155.  David  Stephens  Brown.    An  improved  means  of  navigating  the  water  by  ships. 

156.  Joseph  Brown.   Improvements  in  beds,  sofas,  chairs,  and  other  articles  of  furniture, 

to  render  them  more  suitable  for  travelling  and  other  purposes. 

157.  James  Mayelston.    Improvements  in  the  method  of  applying  heat  to  the  heating  of 

water  for  feeding  or  supplying  the  boiler  or  boilers  of  steam  engines,  or  for  other 
purposes. 

158.  Francis  Prime  Walker.    Improvements  in  machinery  for  communicating  signals 

to  the  drivers  of  railway  engines. 

159.  Benjamin  Fothergill.     improvements  in  certain  machinery  for  preparing  to  be 

spun,  cotton,  wool,  flax,  silk,  and  other  fibrous  substances. 

160.  Joseph  Burch.    Certain  improvements  in  building  and  propelling  ships  and  vessels. 

161.  Richard  Archibald  Brooman.    Improvements  in  purifying  and  disinfecting  fats  and 

fatty  bodies,  and  in  separating  oleine  from  stearine. 

162.  John  Ignatius  Fuchs.    An  electro-magnetic  apparatus. 

163.  Moses  Poole.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  tables,  sofas,  bedsteads,  stands, 

chairs,  and  other  articles  of  furniture,  and  the  frames  and  bodies  of  musical  in- 
struments. 

164.  John  Robert  Johnson.     Improvements  in  fixing  colouring  matter  of  madder  in 

printing  and  dyeing. 

165.  Moses  Poole.     Improvements  in  constructing  bridges,   viaducts,   and  such  like 

structures. 

166.  Samuel  Powell.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  articles  of  wearing 

apparel. 

167.  Joseph  Faulding.    Improvements  in  machinery  for  sawing  and  cutting  wood  and 

other  substances. 

168.  John  Macintosh.    Improvements  in  compositions  to  be  used  as  paints. 

169.  Moses  Poole.    Improvements  in  machinery  for  mowing  and  reaping. 

170.  Edward  AHport.    An  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  buttons,  by  making  them 

with  elastic  shanks. 

171.  William  James  Lewis.    A  slideless  stadia  sight,  applicable  to  rifles  and  other  fire- 

arms. 

172.  John  Jobson.    Improvements  in  manufacturing  moulds  for  casting  metal. 

173.  Theophilus  Redwood.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  gelatine. 

174.  Alexander  Campbell  Duncan,    Improvements  in  the  art  or  process  of  dyeing  cotton 


or  other  textile  fabrics,  or  cotton  or  other  yarns,  when  printed  or  mordanted  with  the 
colouring  matter  of  madder  or  of  dye  woods,  and  in  machinery  or  apparatus  em- 
ployed therein. 

175.  Michael  Cavanagh.    Certain  improvements  in  mortice-lock  spindles. 

176.  Peter  Hyde  Astley,  and  John  Figgins  Stephens.    An  improved  construction   for 

floating  vessels,  having  for  its  object  the  rendering  them  safe  means  of  transit. 

177.  William  Simpson,  and  John  Shelton  Isaac.    An  improved  composition,  to  be  used 

principally  as  a  substitute  for  wood  or  other  materials,  where  strength  and 
lightness  are  required  in  the  manufacture  of  various  articles. 

178.  William  Edward  Newton.    Improvements  in  stoppers  for  bottles  and  other  similar 

vessels. 

179.  Frederic  Newton.    Improvements  in  the  apparatus  to  be  employed  for  producing 

photographic  pictures. 

180.  John  Slack.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics. 

181.  William  Edward  Newton.    Improvements  in  governors  or  regulators  for  regulating 

the  pressure  of  gas  as  it  passes  from  the  main  or  other  pipes  to  the  burners. 

182.  Samuel  George  Archibald.    An  improved  mode  of  extracting  or  rendering  animal 

fats  and  oils. 

183.  Thomas  Green.    Improvements  in  the  construction  of  omnibuses. 

184.  Joseph  Needham.    Improvements  in  breech-loading  fire-arms,  and  in  apparatus 

connected  therewith. 

185 .  James  Edward  MacConnell.    Improvements  in  sheathing  iron  vessels,  and  in  cover- 

ing, lining,  or  coating  sheets  or  other  manufactured  articles  of  iron  or  steel. 
188.  John  Burnie,    Improvements  in  cutting  or  reducing  vegetable  substances. 

187.  Alexander  Miller.    Improvements  in  the  treatment  or  finish  of  textile  fabrics  and 

materials. 

188.  John  Weems.    Improvements  in  obtaining  and  applying  motive  power. 

189.  Alexander  Wilhson.    Improvements  in  thrashing  machinery. 

190.  James  Anderson  Young.    Certain  improvements  in  dental  operations,  and  in  ap- 

paratus or  instruments  to  be  used  therein. 

191.  John  String-fellow.     Improvements   in  galvanic  batteries,  for  medical  and  other 

purposes. 

192.  George  John  Philps.    Improvements  in  hats  and  other  like  coverings  for  the  head. 

193.  Ralph  Errington  Ridley.    Improvements  in  cutting  and  reaping  machines. 

194.  Thomas  Lawrie.    Improvements  in  forming  and  protecting  inscriptions  and  de- 

vices in  exposed  situations. 

195.  George  Stuart.    Improvements  in  heating  the  fleeces  of  natural  coverings  of  sheep 

and  other  animals  when  on  the  animals. 

Dated  October  4,  1852. 
197.  John  Gooch  Marshall.     Improvements  in  rendering  weather-tight  doors,  casements, 
'     and  other  similar  openings. 

199.  Edwin  Bates.  Certain  improvements  for  deriving  motive  power  from  expansive 
fluids,  and  the  better  application  and  economy  thereof  for  propelling  ships  and  other 
vessels  in  sea,  river,  and  canal  navigation,  also  in  the  shape  and  action  of  wind- 
salls,  the  use  of  water  as  a  motive  power  for  driving  machines,  mills,  &c,  the 
construction  of  turbines,  air  and  water  pumps,  marine  pumps  for  emptying  ships 
of  bilge  water,  and  other  useful  purposes. 

200.  Edward  Welch.  Improvements  in  fire-places  and  flues,  aud  in  apparatus  connected 
therewith. 

201.  Martin  Watts.  Certain  improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  roving  or 
preparing  cotton  and  other  fibrous  substances  for  spinning. 

202.  William  Hayward  West.    Improvements  in  wind-guards  and  chimney-tops. 

203.  Robert  Hazard.    A  calorific  bath. 

204.  Beudix  Ising  Jacoby.     Improvements  in  the  means  of  fixing  artificial  teeth. 

205.  Martin  Billing.  Certain  improvements  in  the  combination  of  metals  having  differ- 
ent capacities  of  vibration,  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of  certain  useful  articles. 

206.  John  Moseley.  Certain  improvements  in  machinery  for  cleansing  linen  and  other 
fibrous  materials. 

207.  William  Donald  Napier  and  William  Lund.  Improvements  in  apparatus  for  steer- 
ing vessels. 

208.  Richard  Manwaring  and  Thomas  Hamblin.    Improvements  in  ploughs. 

209.  James  Barrow  Storey.    Improvements  in  mouth-pieces  for  pipes  and  cigars. 

210.  Henry  Webb  and  Joseph  Froysell.  Improvements  in  fastening  knobs  to  door  and 
other  locks. 

211.  Thomas  Scott.  Improvements  in  applying  and  transmitting  motive  power,  and  in 
accelerating  the  progress  of  bodies  in  motion. 

212.  Thomas  Slater  and  Joseph  John  William  Watson.  Improvements  in  the  application 
of  electricity  to  illuminating  purposes. 

213.  Antoine  Francois  D'Henin.  Improvements  in  the  treatment  and  manufacture  of 
tobacco. 

214.  Thomas  Kennedy.  Improvements  in  obtaining  and  applying  motive  power,  which 
improvements,  or  parts  thereof,  are  applicable  to  time-keepers  and  clockwork,  and 
for  measuring  and  registering  the  flow  of  water  and  other  fluids  and  aeriform  bodies. 

215.  John  Erskine.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  felted  and  cemented  fabrics. 

216.  Archibald  Brown.    Improvements  in  the  construction  of  sheaves  for  blocks. 

Dated  October  5,  1852. 

217.  Michael  Angelo  Garvey.  An  invention  for  more  effectually  dissipating  the  shock  of 
collision  in  railway  trains,  reducing  the  surfaces  exposed  to  atmospheric  resistance, 
and  diminishing  oscillation  by  making  portions  of  the  whole  of  each  carriage  elastic 
in  every  direction,  and  increasing  the  power  of  the  carriage  to  resist  severe  pressure 
by  means  of  metallic  tubes  in  its  longitudinal  angles. 

218.  William  Clark.  Improvements  in  the  construction  of  screw  propellers  for  propelliug 
vessels. 

219.  Arthur  Richard  Burr.  Certain  improvements  in  making  gun  and  pistol  barrels, 
applicable  to  the  manufacture  of  other  lands  of  tubes. 

220.  David  Stephens  Brown.  An  improved  apparatus  or  instrument  for  evaporating  or 
distilling  liquids. 

221.  William  Crosskill.  Improvements  in  machines  for  cutting  or  reaping  growing  corn, 
clover,  and  grass.  • 

222.  Aristide  Balthazard  Berard.  Improvements  in  the  construction  of  jetties,  break- 
waters, and  docks,  and  other  hydraulic  constructions. 

223.  John  Houston.  Improvements  in  obtaining  motive  power  when  air  and  steam  are 
used  conjointly. 

224.  John  Houston.    Improvements  in  metallic  spring  packings  for  pistons. 

225.  Joseph  Apsey.    Improvements  in  ship-building  and  in  machinery  for  propelling. 

226.  Diego  Jimenez.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  soap. 

227.  Benjamin  Mitchell.    Improvements  in  the  construction  of  artificial  legs. 

228.  William  Edward  Newton.  Improvements  in  machinery  for  boring  or  cutting  rocks 
or  other  hard  substances,  for  the  purpose  of  tunnelling  through  mountains,  or 
making  other  excavations. 

229.  William  Edward  Newton.  Improvements  in  the  means  of  producing  a  vacuum  for 
various  purposes,  such  as  condensing  steam,  pumping  water,  exhausting  air,  or  other 
purposes  where  a  vacuum  is  required. 

230.  James  Bullough,  David  Whittakor,  and  John  Walniesley.  Improvements  in  sizing 
machines. 

231.  George  Walker  Nicholson.  Improvements  in  screw-bolts,  nuts,  and  washers,  and  in 
the  machinery  or  apparatus  for  making  the  same. 


278 


List  of  Patents. 


[December, 


232.  John  Prestwich,  the  elder,  Samuel  jPrestwicli,  and  John  Prestwich,  the  younger. 
Improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  cleaning  and  finishing  -woven  fabrics. 

233.  William  Crook.    Improvements  in  looms. 

234.  John  Balmforth,  William  Balmforth,  and  Thomas  Balmforth.  Improvements  in 
steam  boilers,  and  in  fixing  the  same. 

235.  Adam  and  John  Booth.  Improvements  in  platting  or  braiding-machines,  which 
machines  are  applicable  to  manufacturing  webs  for  making  door  and  other  mats. 

236.  Robert  Brown.  An  improved  taking-up  motion,  applicable  to  looms  and  other 
similar  purposes! 

237.  Herm  Jiiger.  Improvements  in  the  treatment  of  cotton  and  other  similar  fabrics, 
by  the  introduction  of  chemical  agents  to  supersede  the  use  of  dung  in  the  dunging 
process. 

238.  William  Gilbert  Elliott.  Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  bricks,  pipes,  tiles, 
and  other  articles  capable  of  being  moulded. 

239.  Pierre  Frederic  Gougy.    Improvements  in  paving  streets,  roads,  and  ways. 

240.  Thomas  Turnbull,  Improvements  in  the  preparation  and  treatment  of  flax,  hemp, 
and  other  similar  vegetable  fibres. 

241.  Jesse  Ross.  Certain  improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  combing  wool, 
cotton,  silk,  flax,  and  other  suitable  fibrous  materials. 

242.  William  Mackenzie.  Improvements  in  the  arrangement  and  construction  of  gra- 
duated scales  for  measuring  instruments. 

243.  Samuel  Getley.    Improvements  in  water-closets. 

244.  Joseph  Westby.  Improvements  in  machinery  applicable  to  the  manufacture  of  Jace 
and  other  weavings. 

245.  William  Dray,    improvements  in  machinery  for  reaping  and  mowing. 

246.  George  Hallen  Cottam.    Improvements  in  chairs,  sofas,  and  bedsteads. 

247.  Christopher  Nickels  and  Frederick  Thornton.    Improvements  in  weaving. 

Dated  October  G,  1852. 

248.  James  Bird.    A  new  artificial  manure. 

249.  John  Hughes.  An  improved  method  of  constructing  roofs  and  sides  of  houses, 
buildings,  and  other  structures. 

250.  William  Armand  Gilbee.  An  improved  mode  of  disinfecting  putrified  and  fecal 
matters,  and  converting  fecal  matters  into  manure,  also  applicable  to  the  disinfec- 
tion of  cesspools,  drains,  sewers,  and  other  similar  receptacles. 

251.  Auguste  Edouard  Loradoux  Bellford.    Improvements  in  sewing-machines. 

252.  Jacob  Tilton  Slade.  An  improved  mode  of  driving  certain  machines,  and  an  im- 
proved driving-band  or  chain  to  be  used  therewith. 

253.  Charles  de  Bergue.  Certain  improvements  in  machinery  for  punching  metals,  ami 
for  riveting  together  metallic  plates  or  bars. 

254.  Robert  Shaw.  Pre-arranging,  ascertaining,  and  registering  the  rate  of  travelling  of 
locomotive  engines,  and  of  railway  or  other  carriages. 

255.  John  Crook  and  John  Wilkinson  Wood.  Certain  improvements  in  the  method  of 
preserving  iron  from  oxidation  or  decay. 

256.  John  Cronin  Jeffcott.  An  invention  for  producing  heat  for  generating  steam,  and 
applicable  to  and  for  other  purposes  for  which  this  invention  has  not  been  hitherto 
used,  under  the  name  and  title  of  a  heat-producer  and  steam-generator . 

257.  Alexis  Delemer.  Improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  manufacturing  piled 
fabrics. 

258.  David  Chalmers.  Improvements  in  looms  for  weaving  wire  web  or  cloth  by 
power. 

259.  George  Walker  Nicholson.  Improvements  in  vices,  and  in  the  means  or  method 
used  for  fixing  the  same. 

2C0.  William  Coles  Fuller,  and  George  Morris  Knevitt.  Certain  improvements  in  apply- 
ing India-rubber  or  other  similarly  elastic  substance  as  springs  for  carriages. 

261.  William  Abbott.  An  improved  plough. 

262.  Robert  Mortimer  Glover,  and  John  Cail.     Improvements  in  miners'  or  safety  lamps. 

263.  John  Gaylord  Wells.    An  improved  construction  of  self-inking  stamping  apparatus. 

264.  Alfred  Vincent  Newton.  Improvements  in  apparatus  for  manufacturing  gas  and 
coke. 

265.  David  Collison.    Improvements  in  the  construction  of  shuttle  skewers. 

266.  Henry  Alfred  Jowett,  and  Frederick  William  Jowett.  Improvements  in  apparatus 
for  heating,  which  improvements  are  particularly  applicable  for  generating  steam 
or  evaporating  solutions,  and  may  be  applied  for  heating  purposes  generally. 

267.  Thomas  Barker  Walker  Gale,  and  Jonathan  Fensom.  Improvements  in  the  means 
of  joining  or  coupling  bands  or  straps. 

268.  William  Crosby.  Improvements  in  the  ventilation  of  coal-pits  and  mines,  ships' 
rooms,  and  buildings  generally. 

269.  William  Vaughan  Morgan.  Improvements  in  the  preparation  of  oils  for  the  pur- 
poses of  illumination  and  lubricating  machinery 

270.  John  Grimes.    An  atmospheric  freezing  machine. 

271.  Joseph  Westby.    Improvements  in  twist  lace  machinery. 

272.  Joseph  Hill.    A  machine  for  stamping  metals  and  forging  iron  and  steel. 

273.  John  Frederick  Chatwin.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  brushes. 

274.  John  Frederick  Chatwin.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  buttons. 

275.  Alphonse  Rene  le  Mire  de  Normandy.  Improvements  in  obtaining  fresh  water  from 
salt  water. 

276.  Francis  Warren.    Improvements  in  gas-burners. 

277.  Admiral  the  Earl  of  Dundonald.    Improvements  in  coating  and  insulating  wire. 

278.  William  Adolph.    Improvements  in  apparatus  for  warming  and  ventilating  rooms. 

279.  James  Clark.    Improvements  in  weaving  carpets  and  other  fabrics,  and  in  the  ma- 

chinery or  apparatus  employed  therein. 

Dated  October  7, 1,852. 
2S0.  William  Bissell.    An  improved  cramp,  or  improved  cramps,  for  cramping  floors, 
doors,  and  joiners'  and  ship  work  generally; 

281.  Samuel  Perkes.    Certain  improvements  in  the  mode  of  treating  skins,  hides,  leather, 

and  other  manufactured  and  raw  productions. 

282.  John  Blair.    Certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  waddings,  and  in  the  ma- 

chinery for  making  the  same. 

283.  Thomas  Greaves.    Improvements  in  the  method  or  means  of  obtaining  and  employ- 

ing motive  power. 

284.  George  Simpson.    Certain  improvements  in  machines  or  apparatus  for  weighing. 

285.  Edwin  Pettit,  and  James  Forsyth.    Improvements  in  spinning  and  drawing  cotton 

and  other  fibrous  substances,  and  in  machinery  for  that  purpose. 

286.  Auguste  Edouard  Loradoux  Bellford.    An  improvement  in  smoothing  irons. 

287.  Auguste  Edouard  Loradoux  Bellford.    Improvements  in  steam  boilers. 

288.  Augustus  Waller.    Improvements  in  the  means  of  measuring  or  ascertaining  the 

quantity  of  alcohol  and  other  substances  in  brandy,  wine,  beer,  and  other  liquids, 

289.  John  Tatham,  and  David  Cheetham.    Improvements  in  rollers  or  bosses  used  for 

drawing  or  conveying  textile  materials  and  fabrics. 

290.  William  Horsfield.    Improvements  in  splitting,  crushing,  and  grinding  corn,  seeds, 

grain,  minerals,  or  other  substances. 

291.  Morris  Lyons.    Certain  improvements  in  coating  the  surfaces  of  iron. 

292.  Samuel  Rainbird.    Improvements  in  grappling  and  raising  sunken  vessels  and  other 

submerged  bodies,  and  in  apparatus  for  that  purpose. 

293.  John  Little.    Improvements  in  ashpans  for  fire-grates,  stoves,  and  fire-places. 

294.  Mitchel  Thompson.     Improvements  in  lamps,  and  in  the  production  of  artificial 

light. 


295.  Peter  Ward.     Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  sal-ammoniac  and  obtaining 

salts  of  ammonia. 

296.  Alfred  Trueman.    Improvements  in  obtaining  copper  and  other  metals  from  ores  or 

matters  containing  them. 

297.  Alfred  Kent.    Improvements  in  glazing. 

Dated  October  8,  1852. 

298.  Edward  Joseph  Hughes.    An  improved  method  of  purifying  and  concentrating  the 

colouring  matter  of  madder,  munjeet,  and  spent  madder. 

299.  Thomas  Pascall.    Improvements  in  ridge  tiles  and  roofing. 

301.  Samuel  Smith.    Certain  improvements  in  looms  for  weaving. 

302.  William  Townley.    Improved  machinery  or  apparatus  for  watering  and  flushing 

streets,  squares,  courts,  and  other  localities. 

303.  George  Tillett.    Certain  improvements  in  bedsteads, 

304.  John  Patterson.    Improvements  in  buckles  or  fastenings. 

305.  John  Talbot  Tyler.    Improvements  in  hats,  and  in  the  preparation  of  plush  or  other 

covering  used  in  the  manufacture  of  hats. 

306.  John  Talbot  Tyler.    Improvements  in  velouring  machines,  or  machines  used  by 

hatters  for  causing  the  covering  of  hats  to  adhere  to  the  body,  and  for  polishing 
the  nap  of  hats. 

307.  George  Ennis.    Improvements  in  dredging  machines. 

308.  John  Lewthwaite.  Improvements  in  cards  and  tickets,  and  in  machinery  for  cutting, 

printing,  numbering,  and  marking  cards,  tickets,  and  paper. 

309.  James  Yule.    An  improved  arrangement  of  sawing  machinery. 

310.  William  Edward  Newton.    Improvements  in  the  construction  of  hydraulic  rams. 

Dated  October  9, 1852. 

311.  Auguste  Edouard  Loradoux  Bellford.    Improvements  in  apparatus  for  manufac- 

turing soda-water  and  other  aerated  liquids. 

312.  James  Bird.    A  new  manufacture  of  cement. 

313.  John  Egan.    A  self-acting  flax  scutching  and  hackling  machine  with  horizontal 

blades  or  hackles,  an  incline  plane  on  which  flax-holders  move,  the  application  of 
the  fan  by  a  current  of  air  to  press  flax  against  scutching  blades  or  hackles,  and 
spring  catch  flax-holders,  as  per  drawing. 

314.  Richard  Husband.    Certain  improvements  in  weaving  hat  plush  and  other  textile 

fabrics. 

315.  Alexander  Clark  and  Patrick  Clark.     Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  shutters, 

doors,  and  windows. 

316.  Antoine  Burg.    Certain  instruments,  apparatus,  and  articles  for  the  application  of 

electro-galvanic  and  magnetic  action  for  medical  purposes. 

317.  William  Scolfleld,  and  Joseph  Pritchard.    Improvements  in  steam  boilers. 

318.  William  Maddick.    An  improved  method  of  extracting  and  concentrating  by  evapo- 

ration the  colouring  and  other  principles  from  all  substances  in  which  they  are 
contained,  and  of  thoroughly  exhausting  the  same. 

319.  James  Johnson.    Improvements  in  heating,  ventilating  and  sewering  cottages  or 

dwelling-houses. 

320.  John  and  William  Smith.    Improvements  in  the  method  or  process  of  dyeing  woven 

or  textile  fabrics  certain  colours,  and  in  machinery  or  apparatus  employed 
therein. 

321.  Samuel  Hardacre.    Improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  blowing,  scutch- 

ing, opening,  cleaning,  and  sorting  cotton,  wool,  and  other  fibrous  substances, 
parts  of  which  improvements  are  applicable  to  other  purposes. 

322.  George  Gent.    A  fruit  cleaning  and  dressing  machine. 

323.  Jean  Jemot  Rousseau.    Improvements  in  inlaying  and  ornamenting  metal  plates  to 

be  used  for  door  plates,  sign  plates,  and  other  purposes  to  which  such  inlaid  or 
ornamented  plates  may  be  applicable. 

324.  Thomas  Restell.    Certain  improvements  in  chronometers,  watches,  and  clocks,  part 

of  which  improvements  is  applied  to  roasting  jacks. 

325.  John  Henry  Johnson.    Improvements  in  composing  and  distributing  type. 

326.  Charles  William  Siemens.    Improvements  in  engines  to  be  worked  by  steam  and 

other  fluids. 

327.  Jonas  Lavater.    Improvements  in  the  apparatus  for  measuring  the  inclination  of 

plane  surfaces  and  angles  formed  or  to  be  formed  thereon. 

328.  William  Hine.  Improvements  in  machinery  applicable  to  paddle-wheels,  windmills, 

and  other  useful  purposes. 

Dated  October  U,lSb2. 

329.  Auguste  Edouard  Loradoux  Bellford.  Improvements  hi  the  construction  of  revolving 

or  repeating  fire-arms. 

330.  Henry  Moorhouse.    Improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  cleaning  woollen, 

cotton,  or  linen  rags  and  waste,  which  machinery  or  apparatus  is  applicable  to 
cleaning  and  tempering  clay,  or  other  similar  purposes. 

331.  David  Laidlaw.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  or  production  of  gas  burners. 

333.  George  Searby.    Improvements  in  machinery  for  cutting,  carving,  and  engraving 

wood,  stone,  metal,  and  other  suitable  materials. 

334.  George  Searby.    An  invention  of  the  cure  of  smoky  chimneys,  and  the  prevention 

of  accumulation  of  soot  in  flues. 

335.  Robert  Cochran.    Improvements  in  kilns. 

336.  Charles  Matthew  Barker.    Improvements  in  sawing  wood. 

337.  Henry  McFarlane.    Improvements  in  stoves  or  fire-places. 

338.  Robert  Lambert.    Improvements  in  tents. 

339.  Andrew  Edmund  Brae.    Improvements  in  the  means  of.or  apparatus  for,  exliibiting 

numbers,  letters,  dates,  or  other  devices  for  various  purposes. 

340.  Henry  Dewy.     Improvements  in  disengaging  ships'  boats  from  their  suspending 

chains  or  ropes. 

Dated  October  12, 1852. 

341.  Edward  Simons,    Improvements  in  lamps. 

342.  Francis  Alexander  Victor  Michel.     Stereotyping  in  copper  by  the  galvanoplasty. 

343.  John  AYilliam  Couchman.    The  closing  and  hanging  of  swing  and  other  doors,  by 

means  of  the  spring  and  pivots. 

344.  Samuel  Perkes.    Improvements  in  certain  apparatus  and  machinery  for  the  pro- 

duction and  treatment  of  mineral  and  other  substances,  and  part  of  which  are  appli- 
cable for  other  useful  purposes. 

345.  Samuel  Perkc-s.    Certain  improvements  in  navigable  vessels  and  propellers. 

346.  Samuel  Perkes.    Certain  improvements  in  mines,  buildings,  and  sewerage  for  effect- 

ing sanatory  purposes  and  reating  the  produce  therefrom. 

347.  Auguste  Edouard  Loradoux  Bellford.    Improvements  in  sewing  cloth  and  other 

materials. 

348.  Joseph  Humphreys.    Improvements  in  metallic  and  other  designs  for  exhibition  in 

or  on  shop  and  other  windows  and  places. 

349.  Emanuel  Wharton.    Certain  improvements  in  metallic  bedsteads. 

351.  Louis  Constant  Alexandre  Vittrant.    Improvements  in  the  preservation  of  vegetable 

and  animal  matters. 

352.  Thomas  Dawson.    Improvements  in  the  means  of  cutting  pile  or  terry  fabrics. 

353.  Thomas  Lacey.    Improvements  in  apparatus  for  raising  liquids,  and  in  joints  for 

uniting  India-rubber  and  other  like  flexible  tubing. 

354.  Joseph  Walker.    Improvements  in  machinery  for  cruslung  and  bruising  malt,  grain, 

and  seeds. 


1852.] 


List  of  Patents. 


279 


355.  Peter  Warren.    An  improved  material,  applicable  to  many  purposes  for  which  papier 

machi  and  gutta  percha  have  been  or  may  be  used. 

356.  Joseph  Robinson.    Improvements  in  ventilators. 

357.  Thomas  Barnabas  Daft.    Improvements  in  inland  conveyance. 

358.  "William  H.  Smith.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  lava  ware. 

359.  Leon  Godefroy.    Improvements  in  covering  or  packing  rollers  for  printing  fabrics. 

Dated  October  13,  1S52. 

360.  George  Lloyd.    An  improvement  or  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  paper. 

361.  Joseph  Pimlott  Oates.    An  improved  spring  or  improved  springs,  for  carriages. 

362.  William  Tatham.    An  improved  mode  or  improved  modes,  of  preventing  accidents 

on  railways. 

363.  John  Carter.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  woven  fabrics. 

364.  Matthew  Smith.    Improvements  in  machinery  for  weaving  and  printing. 

365.  Edward  Lloyd.    Certain  improvements  in  steam  engines,  the  whole  or  part  of  which 

improvements  arc  applicable  to  other  motive  engines. 

366.  Joseph  Nash.    An  invention  of  the  treatment  and  refining  of  sugar. 

367.  Peter  Armand  Le  Comte  de  Fontaine  Moreau.    A  certain  chemical  combination  for 

the  silicatisation  of  calcareous  matters. 

368.  William  Walker  Stephens.    The  application  of  retorts  in  gas  ovens,  or  other  ovens, 

to  a  process  of  improving  iron,  and  converting  iron  into  steel. 

369.  Thomas  Suttlc.    Improvements  in  roasting  apparatus. 

470.  Robert  Tinkney.    Improvements  in  cases  for  lidding  marking  materials. 

371.  Walter  McFaiiane.    Improvements  in  water-closets. 

372.  Richard  Williams.    An  improvement  or  improvements  in  pumps  or  pumping. 

373.  Pierre  Josephe  Rousset  Coquerelle.    The  combination  of  certain  chemical  agents 

for  the  replacing  of  indigo  and  other  blues,  which  combination  he  calls  Rousset 
Blue. 

374.  Christopher  Hill.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  lubricating  matters. 

375.  Gerard  Andrew  Arney.    Improvements  in  coating  or  enamelling  pictures,  prints, 

paper,  and  other  surfaces. 

376.  Henry  JIcFarlane.    Improvements  in  constructing  metal  beams  or  girders. 

377.  Martyn  John  Roberts.    Improvements  in  galvanic  batteries,  and  in  obtaining  che- 

mical products  therefrom. 

378.  Preston  Lumb.    Improvements  in  apparatus  for  cleansing  coal. 

379.  John  Henry  Lee.    Improvements  in  sawing. 

Dated  October  14, 1852. 

380.  Alfred  Augustus  de  Reginald  Hely.     An  improved  waiter  or  tray. 

381.  Thomas  Brown  and  John  Cox.    Certain  improvements  in  the  mode  of  heating 

retorts  or  ovens,  for  the  manufacture  of  gas,  and  other  distillatory  products 
of  coal. 

383.  Donald  Grant.    Improvements  in  the  means  of  applying  the  heat  derived  from  the 

combustion  of  gas. 

384.  Joseph  Henry  Tuck.    Improvements  in  stuffing-boxes,  and  in  packing  to  be  used 

in  stuffing-boxes,  bearings,  pistons,  and  valves. 

385.  Louis  Rossi.    An  improved  manufacture  of  muffs,  boars,  tippets,  and  other  like 

articles. 

386.  John   Duncan.     Improvements    in    the    treatment   or  manufacture   of     textil 

materials. 

387.  Joseph  Major.    An  invention  of  removing  spavins,  ringbones,  curbs,  splents,  and 

other  natural  ossifications  and  humours  from  horses,  which  invention  he  names 
Major's  Celebrated  British  Remedy. 

388.  Alsop  Smith.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  firewood. 

389.  James  AVebster.    Improvements  in  the  construction  of  springs. 

390.  John  Swindells  and  William  Nicholson.  Improvements  in  obtaining  oxygen  gas,  and 

applying  it  in  the  manufacture  of  various  acids  and  chlorine,  for  oxidating  metallic 
solutions,  and  for  ageing  and  raising  various  colouring  matters. 

391.  Eugdne  Andre  Boutarol.    Improvements  in  ornamenting  and  applying  colour  to 

fabrics. 

Dated  October  15,  1852. 

392.  Joseph  Burch.    Certain  improvements  in  baths  and  bathing. 

393.  Joseph  Burch.    Certain  improvements  in  building  ships  and  vessels,  and  for  the 

purposes  of  saving  lives  and  property  in  cases  of  shipwreck  or  fire  at  sea. 

394.  Robert  Hawkins  Nicholls.    An  invention  for  horse-hoeing  land. 

395.  John  Gedge.    An  improved  stove  or  heating  apparatus. 

396.  James  Lochheafl  and  Robert  Passenger.    Certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture 

of  glass  and  other  vitrified  substances,  and  in  ornamenting  and  annealing  the 
same. 

397.  Henry  Moseley.    A  machine  to  be  driven  by  the  pressure  of  a  fluid,  or  to  displace  a 

fluid,  or  to  measure  it. 

398.  Hermann  Turck.    Improvements  in  propelling  vessels. 

399.  Joseph  Hopkinson.    Improvements  in  steam  boilers. 

400.  Simon  Pincoffs  and  Henry  Edward  Schunck.    Improvements  in  the  treatment  of 

madder  and  other  plants  of  the  same  species,  and  of  their  products,  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  dyeing  materials. 

401.  William  Edward  Newton.    Improvements  in  washing  and  amalgamating  gold  and 

other  metals. 

402.  John  William  Branford.    Improvements  in  fire-escapes. 

403.  Jeremiah  Driver  and  John  Wells.   Improvements  in  moulding  in  sand  and  loam,  for 

the  casting  of  iron  and  other  metals. 

404.  William  Stevenson.    Improvements  in  weft  forks  for  power  looms. 

405.  Allan  Edwin  Hewson.    Certain  improved  modes  or  processes  for  making  buttons, 

beads,  and  other  ornaments  of  dress. 

406.  Andrew  Blair.    Improvements  in  printing  and  ornamenting  fabrics. 

407.  Charles  Henry  Waring.    Improvements  in  the  cutting  and  working,  or  quarrying  of 

coal,  stone,  shale,  clay,  and  other  similar  substances,  and  in  machinery  for  that 
purpose. 

Dated  October  16, 1852. 

409.  Evan  Leigh.    Certain  improvements  in  machinery  or  anparatus  for  cardin g  cotton 

and  other  fibrous  materials. 

410.  Lot  Faulkner.    Certain  improvements  in  the  method  of  obtaining  motive  power. 

411.  Jerome  Andre  Drieu.     Certain  improvements  in  weaving  cloth,  to  be  employed  in 

the  manufacture  of  stays. 

412.  John  Howard.    Certain  improvements  in  the  construction  of  steam-boilers  or  steam- 

generators. 

413.  Charles  Tiot  Judkins.    Improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  sewing  or 

stitching. 

414.  John  Woods.    Improvements  in  screw  stocks. 

415.  William  Beckett  Johnson.    Improvements  in  stationary  steam  engines. 

416.  Isaac  Atkin.    An  improved  machine  for  the  manufacture  of  looped  fabrics. 

417.  Pierre  Augustin  Puis.    An  improved  chain  or  cable,  and  an  apparatus  employed 

therewith  for  certain  applications. 

418.  John  Henry  Johnson.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar. 

419.  John  Henry  Johnson.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  and  applications  of  hypo- 

sulphite, and  similar  compounds  of  zinc. 


120.  John  Oliver  York.  Improvements  in  connecting  and  in  fixing  rails  in  railway  chairs 

Dated  October  18, 1852. 

421.  Charles  Reeves,  junior.    An  improvement  or  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of 

knives. 

422.  George  Randfield  Tovell,  and  John  Mann,  junior.    Improvements  in  the  construc- 

tion of  ships  and  other  vessels. 

423.  Samuel  Fletcher  Cottam.    Improvements  in  quarrying  slate. 

424.  John  Henry  Johnson.    Improvements  in  drying,  and  in  the  machinery  or  apparatus 

to  be  used  therein. 

427.  Auguste  Edouard  Loradoux  Bellford.  Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  fuel,  part 

of  which  improvements  are  applicable  to  the  manufacture  of  gas  and  soda,  and 
freeing  metals  from  extraneous  substances. 

428.  John  Campbell.    Improvements  in  the  treatment  or  finishing  of  textile  fabrics  and 

materials. 

429.  William  Harcourt,  and  Joseph  Harcourt.    Certain  improvements  in  the  construction 

and  manufacture  of  match-boxes. 

430.  Richard  Archibald  Brooman.    Improvements  in  vices. 

431.  Henry  Hughes,  and  George  Firmin. .  Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  lamp- 

black, and  in  recovering  from  such  manufacture  a  substance  suitable  for  fuel. 

432.  Edwin  Heywood.    Improvements  in  looms. 

433.  John  Lyons  McLeod.    Improvements  in  giving  a  metallic  coating  to  iron  ships' 

bottoms  and  other  surfaces. 

Dated  October  19,  1852. 

434.  Thomas  William  Greathead,  James  Halliard,  and  John  George  Reynolds.    An  im- 

proved means  of  heating,  cooking,  and  warming. 

435.  John  GoodmaD.    An  improved  fountain  pen. 

436.  Robert  Mole  and  Robert  Mole,  junior.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  swords 

and  matchets. 

437.  Arthur  James.    An  improvement  or  improvements  in  needle-cases  or  wrappers. 

438.  Joseph  Harcourt  and  William   Harcourt.     The  application  of  porcelain,  glass,"  or 

earthenware  to  articles  in  which,  or  for  which,  those  materials  have  never  heretofore 
been  used. 

439.  Martin  Walter  O'Byrne  and  John  Dowling.    An  invention  of  a  machine  for  cutting 

paper,  mill-board,  leather,  vellum,  sheet  metals,  and  other  suitable  materials  for 
useful  and  ornamental  purposes. 

440.  Fennell  Herbert  Allman.    Certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture  and  construc- 

tion of brushes. 

441.  John  Kealy.    Improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  cutting  or  slicing  roots. 

442.  William  Newton.    An  improved  machine  for  separating  ores,  metals,  and  other 

heavy  substances,  from  mud,  sand,  gravel,  stones,  and  other  impurities. 

443.  William  Chisholm.    Improvements  in  obtaining  caustic  soda  and  other  substances 

from  the  residues  of  articles  used  in  the  purification  of  gas. 

444.  Gabriel  Bcnda.    Improvements  in  apparatus  for  obtaining  fire  for  smokers. 

445.  George  Gotch.    Certain  improvements  in  transmitting  intelligence  upon  railways. 

446.  Robert  Bird.    Improvements  in  the  straining-webs  of  saddles. 

447.  George  Gadd.  Improvements  in  apparatus  for  roasting  coffee. 

448.  James  Otams.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  manure. 

449.  John  Jones.    Improvements  in  handles  for  knives,  razors,  and  other  like  instru- 

ments. 

Dated  October  20, 1852. 

450.  George  Heyes.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  fancy  woven  or  textile  fabrics, 

and  in  the  machinery  or  apparatus  connected  therewith. 

451.  Robert  Brown.    Certain  improvements  in  the  method  of  ventilating  buildings  or 

apartments,  and  in  the  apparatus  connected  therewith. 

452.  John  Carnaby.    Apparatus  for  turning,  managing,  and  regulating  ths  main  taps  of 

gas  pipes  laid  on  to  houses  or  buildings,  at  a  part  of  the  house  or  building  distant 
from  the  main  tap. 

454.  Charles  Clarke  and  John  Gilbert.     Improvements  in  the  supply  and  distribution  of 

water  and  other  fluids 

455.  Auguste  Edouard  Loradoux  Bellford.    Improvements  in  cocks  or  taps. 

456.  Anthony  Liddell.    Improvements  in  stuffing-boxes  and  pistons. 

457.  Auguste  Edouard  Loradoux  Bellford      A  new  mechanism  to  reverse  the  motion  of 

steam  engines,  particularly  of  locomotives. 

458.  Peter  Evans  Donaldson.    Improvements  in  dams,  locks,  and  lock-gates. 

459.  Charles  Weightman  Harrison  and  Joseph  Harrison.     Improvements  iu  protecting 

insulated  telegraphic  wires. 

460.  Gustave  Paul  de  Lhuynes.    Improvements  in  apparatus  for  public  announcements 

or  advertisements. 

461.  Thomas  Henry  Biddies  and  John  William  Duphrate.    Improvements  in  machinery 

for  the  manufacture  of  textile  and  looped  fabrics. 

462.  Jacob  Tilton  Slade.    An  improved  hoisting  apparatus. 

463.  William  Harrison.    Certain  improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  sizing, 

and  otherwise  preparing  cotton,  wool,  flax,  and  other  warps  for  weaving. 
454.  John  Gilbert  and  Samuel  Nye.    Improvements  in  mincing  meat  and  other  sub- 
stances. 

465.  Joseph  Cundy.    Improvements  in  hot-air  stoves. 

466.  Robert  Burns  and  Richard  Fritchard  Willett.    Certain  improvements  in  machinery 

or  apparatus  for  cutting  bones. 

467.  John  Smith.    A  machine  for  the  cultivation  or  cleaning  of  land,  and  for  digging  pota- 

toes or  other  roots. 

Dated  October  21, 1852. 

468.  Alexander  Thomas.    Certain  improvements  in  the  treatment  and  welding  of  metals 

by  certain  chemical  combinations. 

469.  Robert  Hoppen.    Improvements  in  apparatus  for  mincing  meat. 

470.  William  Lukyn,  the  elder.    A  liquid  draught  detector,  or  self-measuring  tube,  with 

a  union  conveyance  tap  and  its  stock  and  time-table. 

471.  John  Provis.    Improvements  in  the  construction  of  ships  or  vessels. 

472.  Joseph  Rose.    Improvements  !n  locks. 

473.  Julian  Bernard.    Improvements  in  the  production  of  ornamental   surfaces   upon 

leather. 

474.  William  Weild.     Improvements  in  looms  for  weaving  certain  descriptions  of  pile 

fabrics. 

475.  John  Currie.    Improvements  in  grinding  wheat  and  other  substances,  and  in  the 

treatment  and  preparation  of  such  substances,  and  the  products  thereof. 

476.  Samuel  Marsh.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  woven  fabrics  by  means  of 

lace  machinery. 

477.  Henry  Charles  Gover.  Improvements  in  the  apparatus  used  in  printing  with  colours. 

478.  Robert  Chalker.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  manure. 

479.  William  Addison.    Improvements  in  constructing  and  propelling  vessels. 

480.  John  Fowler.    Improvements  in  machinery  for  draining  land. 

481.  John  Fowier.    Improvements,  in  laying  wires  for  electric  telegraphs. 

482.  John  Fowler.     Improvements  in  reaping  machinery. 

483.  John  Fowler.    Improvements  in  machinery  for  sowing  seed  and  depositing  manure. 

Dated  October  22,  1852. 

484.  George  EUins.    An  improved  method  and  apparatus  for  dressing  and  cleaning  flax 

straw. 


280 


List  of  Patents. 


[December,  1852. 


485.  Jean  Marie  Souchon.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  and  purification  of  gas  for 

illumination,  and  certain  products  therefrom,  and  in  apparatus  for  that  purpose. 
48G.  Julien  Boilesve.    An  improved  mode  of  preserving  vegetable  substances  and  animal 

coatings. 
487.  Archibald  Slate.    Certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture  and  construction  of 

cores,  and  core-bars,  used  in  the  production  of  hollow  castings  in  iron  and  other 

metals. 
4S8.  Juliana  Martin,    An  improved  apparatus  for  artificial  hatching. 

489.  Peter  Armand  Le  Comte  de  Fontaine  Moreau.     Improvements  in  apparatus  for 

essaying  silk,  cotton,  and  other  similar  fibrous  substances. 

490.  Stanislaus  Hoga,    Improvements  in  separating  gold  from  the  ore. 

491.  James  Wilson.    Improvements  in  printing  fabrics  of  silk  or  partly  of  silk. 

Dated  October  2Z,  1862. 
John  Holmes.    Improvements  in  lathes. 
George  Price.    A  new  or  improved  gas  stove. 
Philip  Berry.    Certain  improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  manufacturing 

bolts  and  nuts,  and  other  similar  articles  in'  metal. 
David  Crichton.    Arrangements  and  apparatus  for  producing  continuous  circular 

motion,  giving  a  series  of  different  velocities  obtained  from  alternate  motions 

applicable  to  looms  and  other  machines. 
Thomas  Fothergill  and  Alexander  dimming  Harvey.     Certain   improvements  in 

the  treatment  of  cotton  wool,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  coloured  yarns  or  threads 

therefrom. 
Louis  Napoleon  Legras  and  William  Lawrence  Gilpin.      Improvements  in   the 
George  Malcolm.  Certain  improvements  in  the  process  of  carding  or  testing  jute  or 

other  fibrous  substances. 

generation  of  electricity. 
Arnold  James  Cooley.    improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  artificial  leather. 
Louis  Napoleon  Legras  and  William  Lawrence  Gilpin.    Improvements  in  treating 

flax,  hemp,  and  other  fibrous  substances. 
Charles  William  Graham.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  bottles  and  jars. 
Albert  Hiscock.    The  application  of  ornamental  printing  to  certain  fabrics  which 

have  hitherto  not  been  printed  upon. 
George  Kennedy  Geyelin.    An  improved  machine  for  grinding  pigments  or  other 

vegetable  or  mineral  substances. 
William  Macbay.    Improvements  in  extinguishing  fire  in  dwellings,  factories  and 

other  buildings,  and  in  ships. 
Robert  Mudge  Marchant.    Improvements  in  the  construction  of  bridges. 
Felix  Lieven  Bauwens.  Improvements  in  treating  fatty  matters  prior  to  their  being 

manufactured  into  candles  and  mortars,  which  are  also  applicable  to  oils. 
William  White.  An  improved  fabric,  suitable  for  ventilating  hat  bodies. 
Charles  Watson.    Improvements  in  ventilation. 


492. 
493. 
494. 

495. 
496. 


497. 
498. 


500. 
501. 

502. 
503. 

504. 

505. 

506. 
507. 

508. 
509. 

511. 
512. 

514. 

515. 
516. 
517. 
518. 
519. 


521. 
522. 

523. 
624. 
525. 
526. 
527. 

529. 
530. 

531. 
532. 
533. 

534. 
535. 
536. 
537. 
538. 

539. 

541. 

542. 
543. 
544. 

545. 
546. 

547. 


549. 


551 
552. 


Dated  October  25,  1852. 
John  Hunter.     Improvements  in  electric  telegraphs,   and  in  apparatus  connected 

therewith. 
John  James  Stoll.  Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  and  similar 

articles,  and  in  machinery  used  therein,  entitled  metallic-toothed,  and  wedged 

seams,  and  water-proof  elastic  indented  stitches. 
Charles  Leon  Desbordes.    Improvements  in  instruments  for  measuring  the  pressure 

and  temperature  of  air,  steam,  and  other  fluids. 
Robert  William  Mitcheson.    Improvements  in  anchors. 

Arthur  Wall.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  and  other  acids. 
Joseph  Florentin  Anacharsis  Debray.    An  improved  stock  or  neckcloth. 
William  Johnson.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  spikes  or  metal  pins. 
Mathew  Fitzpatrick.     Certain  improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  to  be  applied 

to  locomotive  engines  and  carriages  for  the  prevention  of  accidents,  and  also  in  the 

manufacture  and  application  of  indestructible  and  non-rebounding  cushions,  to  be 

applied  to  the  above  and  for  other  similar  purposes. 

Dated  October  26,  1852. 

Claude  Mamos  Augnstin  Marion.  A  new  kind  of  damper  for  moistening  stamps  and 
paper. 

John  Cass.    Improvements  in  steam  engines. 

William  Smith  and  John  Smith.  Certain  improvements  in  garments  and  articles  of 
dress. 

William  Clarke.    Improvements  in  joints  or  connecting  metals. 

Charles  Rowley.    Certain  improvements  in  nails. 

Myer  Myers  and  Maurice  Myers.    Certain  improvements  in  pens  and  pen -holders. 

James  Nasmyth.    An  improved  mode  of  utilising  running  waters. 

Joseph  Charles  Frederick  Baron  de  Kleinsorgen.  An  improved  apparatus  for  indi- 
cating the  variation  of  the  magnetic  needle. 

Robert  William  Mitcheson.    An  improved  safety  hook. 

Henry  Page.    Improvements  in  paper  staining. 

October  27,  1852. 
George  Evaus.    Improvements  in  treating  peat  aud  other  carbonaceous  matters. 
John  Lee  Stepheus.    Improvements  in  furnaces. 
Anthony  Fothergill  Bainbridge.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  artificial  flies 

and  other  bait  for  fish. 
Samuel  Clarke.     Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  candles . 
James  Conry.     Improvements  in  umbrellas  and  parasols. 
James  Crosby.    Improvements  in  looms. 

William  Robert  Bertolacci.     An  improved  pneumatic  ink  and  penholder. 
Alfred  Charles  Hervier.    An  improvement  in  the  application  of  centrifugal  force  to 

propelling  on  water. 
Louis  Napoleon  Le  Gras  and  William  Lawrence  Gilpin.     A  compound,   having  the 

properties  of  gutta  percha. 
Thomas  Wilks  Lord.     Improvements  in  safety  and  other  lamps. 
Henry  Carr.     Certain  improvements  in  railways. 
John  Norton.     Improvements  in  blasting. 
James  Hadden  Young.    Improvements  in  expressing  juice  or  fluid  from  the  sugar 

cane,  and  from  other  matters. 
Charles  Benjamin  Normand.     Improvements  in  machinery  for  sawing  wood. 
James  Nasmyth.  Improvements  in  the  mode  of  obtaining  and  applying  motive  power. 
James  Henry  Smith.     Improvements  in  corsets.     . 

October  28, 1852. 
William  Thorp.    Certain  improvements  in  steam  boxes,  and  the  mode  of  heating  press 

plates  used  in  hot-pressing  of  silks,  de  laines,  cobourgs,  merinos,  fancy  goods,  and 

other  similar  fabrics. 
Bryan  Donkin,  the  younger,  and  Barnard   William  Farey.     Improvements  in  the 

machinery  for  measuring  or  marking  off  long  lengths  or  continuous  webs  of  paper  or 

other  materials  into  any  required  lengths,  for  this  purpose  of  being  cut  or  otherwise 

disposed  of. 
John  Wcu-mald.   Improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  roving,  sninuing,  and 

doubling  cotton,  wool,  or  other  fibrous  substances. 
Henry  Provost.     An  improved  hat  protector. 
George  Hattersley.    A  radiating  hearth-plate. 


553.  Charles  Frederick  Bielefield.    Improvements  in  billiard  and  bagatelle  tables. 

554.  John  Collis  Browne.    An  invention  for  the  relief  of  individuals  fiuffering  from  pulmo 

nary  affections  or  diseases  of  the  chest. 

555.  Thomas  Parker  Tabberer.    Improvements  in  machinery  for  frame-work  knitting. 

556.  Charles  Arthur  Redd.    Improvements  in  telegraphing  or  communicating  signals  at  sea 

and  otherwise, 

557.  Robert  Mallett.    Improvements  in  fireproof  and  other  buildings  and  structures. 

October  29,  1852. 

558.  Henry  Robert  Ramsbotham  and  William  Brown.     Improvements  in  preparing  and 

combing  wool  and  other  fibrous  substances. 
559    Charles  Auguste  Joubert,   Leon   Jaccmes    Tricas,   and  Julius  Cesar  Kohler.     Im- 
proved busks  for  stays. 

560.  Arthur  Ashpital,  and  John  Whichcord,  the  younger.     Certain  improvements  in  cocks, 

valves,  and  fire-plugs. 

561.  James  Godfrey  Wilson.  Improvements  in  signals  to  be  used  on  railways,  or  for  similar 

purposes,  and  in  the  apparatus  connected  therewith. 

562.  Arnold  James  Cooley.    Improvements  in  woven  and  felted  fabrics,  to  render  the  same 

repellent  to  water  and  damp. 

563.  George  Bower.    Improvements  in  gas  stoves  or  fire-places. 

564.  William  Bates.    Improvements  in  apparatus  for  getting-up^stockings  and  other  hosiery 

goods. 

565.  William  Henry  Fox  Talbot.    Improvements  in  the  art  of  engraving. 

566.  Louis  Napoleon  Le  Gras,  and  William  Lawrence  Gilpin.    Improvements  in  trans- 

mitting electric  currents. 

567.  Richard  Archibald  Brooman.    Improvements  in  violins  and  other  similar  stringed 

musical  instruments. 

568.  Richard  Archibald  Brooman.    Improvements  in  tackle  blocks. 

Dated  October  30, 1852. 

569.  William  Binns.    An  improved  mode  of  constructing  a  draught  breast-plate  or  collar 

for  horses  or  other  draught  animals. 

570.  Martin  Watts.    Certain  improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  roving  or  pre- 

paring cotton  and  other  fibrous  substances  for  spinning. 

573.  Edward  Bird  and  Edward  Welch.    An  improved  cart  or  vehicle. 

574.  John  Gedge.    Improvements  in  printing  presses  or  machines. 

575.  Pierre  Bemardet  de  Lucenay.    The  production  of  photographic  images  by  means  of 

artificial  light. 

576.  Bowman  Fleming  McCallum.     A  yarn  drying  machine. 

577.  John  Crowther  and  William  Teale.    Improvements  in  obtaining  motive  power. 

578.  Edmund  Adolphus  Kirby.    An  improved  adjusting  couch  for  medical,  surgical,  and 

general  purposes. 

579.  Alfred  Vincent  Newton.     Improvements  in  machinery  for  cutting  corn  and  other 

standing  crops. 

580.  Jean  Auguste  Lebrun.    Improvements  in  the  construction  of  buildings  and  pavements, 

and  the  manufacture  of  the  materials  used  therein. 

581.  Julian  Bernard.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  glass. 

582.  James  Sinclair.    Improvements  in  engines  to  be  worked  by  steam,  air,  or  water,  the 

said  improvements  being  also  applicable  to  pumps. 

583.  Richard  Archibald  Brooman.    Improvements  in  revolving  fire-arms. 

584.  George  Thomas  Selby.    Improvements  in  st?am  boilers. 

586.  George  Thomas  Selby.    Improvements  in  machinery  for  the  manufacture  of  tubes 
and  pipes. 

588.  George  Fergusson  Wilson  and  Edward  Partridge.    Improvements  in  the  instrum  cnts 

or  apparatus  used  when  burning  candles. 

589.  William  Dantec.    Improvements  in  preventing  incrustation  in  steam  boilers. 

Dated  November  1, 1852. 

590.  William  Petrie.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid. 

591.  George  Evans.    An  improved  gridiron. 

592.  George  Dixon.     An  improvement  in  bleaching  palm  oil 

593.  Edward  Lawson.   Certain  improvements  in  machinery  for  preparing  to  be  spun,  hemp, 

flax,  tow,  wool,  silk,  cotton,  and  other  fibrous  materials. 

594.  Charles  John  Berkeley.    A  new  or  improved  reflector,  or  new  or  Improved  reflectors, 

for  illuminating  purposes. 

595.  Joseph  John  William  Watson  and  Thomas  Slater.    Improvements  in  galvanic  bat- 

teries, and  in  the  application  of  electric  currents  to  the  production  of  electrical  illu- 
mination and  of  heat,  and  in  the  production  of  chemical  products  by  the  aforesaid 
improvements  in  galvanic  batteries. 

596.  Joseph  Dunning.    Improvements  in  the  construction  of  coke  ovens. 

597.  Henry  Walker.     Improvements  in  machinery  and  apparatus  used  in  cylinder  printing. 

598.  Henry  Brock  Billows.    Improvements  in  the  construction  of  gas  burners  for  illumi- 

nating and  heating  purposes. 

599.  Julius  Smith.     Certain  improvements  in  apparatus  to  be  used  in  ships  and  steamers 

for  ascertaining  and  signalling  depths  at  sea. 

600.  George  Fergusson  Wilson.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  and  treatment  of  oils. 

601.  Julius  Jeffreys.    Improvements  in  obtaining  power  when  steam  or  other  vapour  is 

used. 

602.  John  Chubb.    Improvements  in  locks. 

603.  David  Thompson.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets. 

604.  Paul  Jerrard.     Certain  improvements  in  ornamenting  japanned  and  papier  machfi 

surfaces,  as  also  the  surfaces  of  varnished  and  polished  woods. 

605.  George  Stenson.    Improvements  in  apparatus  for  separating  gold  from  auriferous  sand 

and  earth. 

606.  John  Jacques,  the  younger.     Improvements  in  chess  and  draught  boards. 

607.  Francis  Daniell.    Improvements  in  stamp  heads. 

Dated  November  2, 1852. 

608.  Jerome  Andre  Drieu.     Improvements  in  machinery  for  weaving   and  for  dividing 

double  cloth  to  make  pile  fabrics. 

609.  John  Nicholas  Marion.    A  new  mode  of  rendering  concrete  coleseed  oil. 

610.  William  Edward  Newton.     Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  capsules  or  covers  for 

bottles  and  other  hollow  articles. 

611.  Robert  William  Sievier.    Improvements  applicable  to  the  manufacture  of  hats,  caps, 

and  bonnets,  or  other  coverings  for  the  head. 

612.  James  Dible.     Improvements  in  ventilating  and  heating  ships,  which  improvements 

are  also  applicable  to  extinguishing  fire  on  board  ship. 

613.  Gerge  Hyacinthe  Ozouf.    Certain  improvements  in  working,  forming,  or  shaping  sheet 

metal  and  alloys. 

614.  Charles  Dickson  Archibald.     Improvements  in  machinery  and  apparatus  for  crushing, 

grinding,  and  triturating  refractory  and  other  materials,  and  for  washing  and  sepa- 
rating ores  and  metals  from  earthy  and  other  substances. 

615.  Charles  Dickson  Archibald.  Improvements  in  lighting  and  heating. 

616.  Louis  Auguste  Pouget.    Improvements  in  lamps. 

617.  John  Macintosh.    Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  paper. 

619.  George  Fergusson  Wilson.    Improvements  in  the  preparation  of  metals  for,  and  in  the 

manufacture  of,  candles  and  night  fights. 

620.  George    Fergusson    Wilson.  Improvements  in  treating  wool  in  the  manufacture   of 

woollen  and  other  fabrics. 

621.  Bemhard  Samuelson.     Improvements  in  breaking  up  and  tilling  land. 


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